Electronic Circuits I

SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
UNIT – I – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS I – SECA1302

UNIT 1 BIASING OF BJT AND FET BJT 9 Hrs
– Need for biasing – Various biasing methods of BJT- Bias Circuit Design- DC Load Line - DC
analysis of Transistor circuits-AC Load Line- AC analysis of Transistor Circuits- Quiescent
Point – Thermal stability - Stability factors - Biasing of JFET - Various biasing methods of
JFET - JFET Bias Circuit Design - MOSFET Biasing-Two port network.
BIASING OF BJT AND FET
Introduction
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) consist of
• 3 terminals – E,B,C
• 2 Junctions – JE (BE) and JC (CB)
• 3 region(Stages) of operation
Refer figure 1, 2 and 3
Figure 1. BJT (3 terminals)
Figure 2. BJT (2 junctions) Figure 3. BJT (3region of operations)

The main application of transistor is amplification as shown in figure 4. The signal from the
transducers like microphone, thermocouple etc, are very weak. The process of raising the level
of signal strength (Amplitude increases) is called Amplification as shown in the below figure.
There is No change in the wave shape and frequency.
Input signal Amplified output signal

Figure 4. Amplifier
Essential components of Oscillator are: Amplifier and a positive feedback loop (figure 5)
Figure 5. Oscillator
Different configuration of transistor (Refer table 1)
 Common Emitter (CE)
 Common Base (CB)
 Common Collector (CC)
Table 1: Different configuration of transistor
Figure 6. Configuration of transistor

CE configuration is commonly used because (Refer figure 6 and table 2)
1. It offers high voltage, current and power gain
2. Its input and output impedance are best suited for many applications.
Table 2. Region of operation of BJT(CE) and its Applications
What is Biasing?
Biasing is defined as applying external DC voltage to a device to operate it in the desired
region of operation. Types of Biasing,
• Forward Bias
• Reverse Bias
A transistor is based in order to make the emitter base junction forward biased and collector
base junction reverse biased, so that it maintains in active region, to work as an amplifier shown
in figure 7. The process of forcing the transistor into the active region is called biasing.
Figure 7. Transistor Biasing

The basic function of transistor is amplification. The process of raising the strength of weak
signal without any change in its general shape or frequency is referred as faithful amplification.
• For faithful amplification it is essential that:
-Emitter-Base junction is forward biased
-Collector Base junction is reversed biased
-Proper zero signal collector current
Biasing Definition:
The proper flow of zero signal output current and the maintenance of proper output voltage
during the passage of signal is called transistor biasing.
Need for DC biasing
• To amplify a signal, two conditions have to be met.
1. The input voltage should exceed cut-in voltage for the transistor to be ON.
2. The BJT should be in the active region, to be operated as an amplifier for the entire AC
signal.
For, normal operation of the transistor amplifier circuit, the transistor must be biased so that
it operates in the active region (linear) of the characteristics.
The DC sources supplies the power to the transistor circuit, to get the output signal power
greater than the input signal power.
Q-Point (Static Operation Point)
When a transistor does not have an ac input, it will have specific dc values of IC and VCE. These
values correspond to a specific point on the dc load line. This point is called the Q-point. The
letter Q corresponds to the word (Latent) quiescent, meaning at rest. A quiescent amplifier is
one that has no ac signal applied and therefore has constant dc values of IC and VCE. It is also
called as quiescent point or simply Q-point as shown in figure 8.
• When a line is drawn joining the saturation and cut off points, such a line can be called
as Load line.
• This line, when drawn over the output characteristic curve, makes contact at a point
called as Operating point.
• There can be many such intersecting points, but the Q-point is selected in such a way
that irrespective of AC signal swing, the transistor remains in the active region.
Figure 8. Q- point
• Q-point is the operating point of the transistor (ICQ, VCEQ) at which it is biased. i.e.
it operates in active region of input output characteristics.
Importance of Q-point in transistor
1. Input signal will be of the order millivolts or less.
2. If we directly input these signals to the amplifier they will not get amplified.
3. Only in active region of operation transistor acts as amplifier.
4. So we can establish appropriate DC voltages and currents through BJT by external
sources so that BJT operates in active region and superimpose the AC signals to be
amplified.
The input signal applied is completely amplified and reproduced without any losses. This can
be understood as Faithful Amplification. The operating point is so chosen such that it lies in
the active region and it helps in the reproduction of complete signal without any loss. When the
Q-point is centered, IC and VCE can both make the maximum possible transitions above and
below their initial dc values. With respect to
Figure.9. When the Q-point is above the center on the load line, the input signal may cause the
transistor to saturate. When this happens, a part of the output signal will be clipped off.
Figure.10. When the Q-point is below midpoint on the load line, the input signal may cause the
transistor to cutoff. This can also cause a portion of the output signal to be clipped.
Figure.11. BJT should not be operated in the break over region. It causes damage to the BJT.
Figure 11. Breakover region
Factors that affect the operating point

• The main factor that affect the operating point is the temperature. The operating point
shifts due to change in temperature.
• As temperature increases, the values of ICE, β, VBE gets affected.
• ICBO gets doubled (for every 10o rise)
• VBE decreases by 2.5mv (for every 1o rise)
• So the main problem which affects the operating point is temperature. Hence
operating point should be made independent of the temperature so as to achieve
stability. To achieve this, biasing circuits are introduced.
AC and DC Analysis of BJT
In a transistor amplifier, both dc and ac conditions prevail. The dc sources set up dc

currents and voltages whereas the ac source (i.e. signal) produces fluctuations in the
transistor currents and voltages. Therefore, a simple way to analyze the action of a transistor
is to split the analysis into two parts viz. a dc analysis and an a.c. analysis. In the dc analysis,
we consider all the dc sources at the same time and work out the dc currents and voltages in
the circuit. On the other hand, for ac analysis, we consider all the ac sources at the same time
and work out the ac currents and voltages. By adding the dc and ac currents and voltages,
we get the total currents and voltages in the circuit.
Load Line analysis
The output characteristics are determined experimentally and indicate the relation
between VCE and IC. However, the same information can be obtained in a much simpler
way by representing the mathematical relation between IC and VCE graphically. As
discussed before, the relationship between VCE and IC is linear so that it can be represented
by a straight line on the output characteristics. This is known as a load line. The points lying
on the load line give the possible values of VCE and IC in the output circuit. As in a transistor
circuit both dc and ac conditions exist, therefore, there are two types of load lines, namely:
dc load line and ac load line. The former determines the locus of IC and VCE in the zero
signal conditions and the latter shows these values when the signal is applied.
There are different methods in AC and DC analysis as shown in figure 12.
Figure 12. Methods of BJT analysis
DC analysis:
• Find dc equivalent circuit by replacing all capacitors by open circuits and inductors by
short circuits.
• Find Q-point from dc equivalent circuit by using appropriate large-signal transistor
model.
AC analysis:
• Find ac equivalent circuit by replacing all capacitors by short circuits, inductors by
open circuits, dc voltage sources by ground connections and dc current sources by
open circuits.
• Replace transistor by its small-signal model – Use small-signal ac equivalent to analyze
ac characteristics of amplifier.
DC Load Line (Static Load Line) (refer fig 13 and 14)
• To draw DC load line of a transistor and we need to find the saturation current and
cutoff voltage.
• The saturation current is the maximum possible current through the transistor and
occurs at the point where the voltage across the collector is minimum.
• The cutoff voltage is the maximum possible voltage across the collector and occurs at
zero collector current.
Procedure
Step 1: Input DC operating point-Saturation & Cutoff point
Figure 13.DC load line
Step 3: Output DC operating point
+Vcc - IcRc - VCE = 0

Saturation Point P1= (0,---) and Cutoff point P2= (---,0)
VCE= 0 ; Ic = Vcc /Rc
Ic = 0 ; VCE= Vcc
P1= (0, Vcc /Rc) and P2= (Vcc,0)
Figure 14. Operating point

AC Load Line (Dynamic Load Line)
Whereas the AC load line gives the peak-to-peak voltage (Vpp ), or the maximum
possible output swing for a given amplifier. This maximum Vpp is referred to as the
compliance of the amplifier. The AC load line is a straight line with a slope equal to the
AC impedance , it will vary with frequency, the slope of the AC load line depends on the
frequency of the applied signal. The ratio of AC voltage to current in the device is defined by
this line. The AC -Q point should be constant for both negative and positive half cycles of
input signal.
Figure 15.AC load line analysis
When AC and DC Load lines are represented in a graph, it can be understood that they are not
identical. Both of these lines intersect at the Q-point or quiescent point. The endpoints of AC
load line are saturation and cut off points.
Figure 16. AC load line
Stabilization
The process of making the operating point independent of temperature changes or variations in
transistor parameters is known as Stabilization.
• Once the stabilization is achieved, the values of IC and VCE become independent of
temperature variations or replacement of transistor. A good biasing circuit helps in
the stabilization of operating point.
Need for Stabilization

– Stabilization of the operating point has to be achieved due to the following
reasons.
– Temperature dependence of IC
– Individual variations
– Thermal runaway
Thermal runaway
The expression for collector current Ic is
The flow of collector current and also the collector leakage current causes heat dissipation, If
the operating point is not stabilized, there occurs a cumulative effect which increases this heat
dissipation. The self-destruction of such an unstabilized transistor is known as Thermal
Runaway.
Stability factor
Stability factor used to understand the variation of collector current with the temperature
dependent parameters such as saturation current ICO, Base emitter voltage VBE and β.
• Stable system – low stability factor
• High stability factor- high sensitive to variations.
Stability factor is variation of collector current with respect to ICO , VBE and β become S, S’ , S’’
respectively. It is defined as the degree of change in operating point due to variation in temperature.
Methods of Transistor Biasing

Transistor biasing is the controlled amount of voltage and current that must be given to a
transistor for it to produce the desired amplification or switching effect. Practical circuits
used to fix the Q point. Following are the commonly used methods for biasing the transistors.
 Fixed-bias circuit (OR) Base Bias Circuit
 Collector to Base bias circuit & Modified Collector to Base bias circuit
 Voltage-divider bias (OR) Self Bias Circuit
 Emitter stabilized bias circuit
Fixed Bias Circuit
The transistors base current, IB remains constant for given values of Vcc, and therefore the
transistors operating point must also remain fixed. These two resistors biasing network is used
to establish the initial operating region of the transistor using a fixed current bias. This type of
transistor biasing arrangement is also beta dependent biasing as the steady-state condition of
operation is a function of the transistor’s beta β value. As Temperature increases, collector
current increases and base current decreases. When IC increases - cannot achieve the good
stabilization. Therefore, this type is called fixed bias type of circuit as shown in figure 17.
Figure 17. Fixed bias circuit
Figure 18. Fixed bias circuit Analysis

Stability factor S- Fixed Bias
Stability factor S’- Fixed Bias
Stability factor S’’- Fixed Bias
Merits:
• It is simple to shift the operating point anywhere in the active region by merely
changing the base resistor (RB).
• A very small number of components are required.
Demerits:
• The collector current IC does not remain constant with variation in temperature or
power supply voltage. Therefore, the operating point is unstable.
• When the transistor is replaced with another one, considerable change in the value of β
can be expected. Due to this change the operating point will shift.
• For small-signal transistors (e.g., not power transistors) with relatively high values of β
(i.e., between 100 and 200), this configuration will be prone to thermal runaway
(Uncontrolled feedback).
• To ensure absolute stability of the amplifier, a stability factor of less than 25 is preferred,
and so small-signal transistors have large stability factors.
Collector to base bias circuit (OR) Collector – Feedback Bias (OR)DC Bias with Voltage
Feedback
• To improve the stability of the bias circuit is to add feedback path from collector to
base.
• Q point is slightly depends on transistor gain beta
• It is called DC bias with voltage feedback.
• It is an improvement over the fixed bias
• Biasing resistor is connected between collector and base of the transistor to provide a
feedback path.
• Thus IB flows through RB and (Ic + IB )flows through Rc
Circuit Analysis
As temperature increases, Ic Increases, results drop across the collector resistance VR C
increases, so VCE decreases and drop across RB decreases.
Figure 19. Collector to base bias circuit Analysis

Apply KVL in base circuit,
Figure 20. Collector to base bias circuit
Apply KVL at the output side

Vcc - IcRc- VCE - IERE =0
VCE = Vcc - IcRc - IERE (Approximately [IE ≈ Ic ]
VCE = Vcc – Ic ( Rc + RE )
Ic = (Vcc – VCE) / ( Rc + RE )
RB appears directly across input (base) and output (collector).Output is feedback to the input
and increase in collector current decreases the base current. Negative feedback exists in the
circuit ,so this circuit is called Voltage feedback bias circuit. Collector to bias circuit is having
lesser stability factor than for fixed bias circuit.
Stability factors – Collector to base bias
Stability factor S’
Stability factor S’’

Fixed bias with emitter resistor
Figure 21. Fixed bias with emitter resistor

Step 1: Locate capacitors and replace them with an open circuit
Step 2: Locate 2 main loops
BE loop Analysis
CE loop Analysis
Improved Bias Stability
The addition of the emitter resistor to the dc bias of the BJT provides improved stability, that
is, the dc bias currents and voltages remain closer to where they were set by the circuit when
outside condition, such as temperature, and transistor beta, changes.
If the Ic is independent of beta and VBE, the Q point is not affected appreciably by variation in these
parameters.
Fixed bias with emitter resistor
Advantage of using RE:
i)Temperature increases and Ic increases
[Ic= ẞIB+(1+ ẞ)Icbo]
ii) IERE increase and IB decreases & Ic decrease
IC = ẞ(Vcc-VBE)/[RB+(ẞ+1) RE]
ẞ+1≈ ẞ, therefore IC = ẞ(Vcc-VBE)/[RB+ẞRE]
ẞRE › › RB, therefore IC = ẞ(Vcc-VBE)/[ẞRE]
IC = (Vcc-VBE) / RE independent of ẞ
Voltage divider bias circuit
• Voltage-divider bias is the most widely used type of bias circuit. Only one power
supply is needed and voltage-divider bias is more stable (independent) than other bias
types.
• R1 and R2 are used to provide potential divider
• If the Ic current increases due to change in temperature or change in β, The IE also
increases and voltage drop across RE increases, reducing VBE , thereby IB and Ic also
reduces- Hence negative feedback exists in emitter base circuit.
• A voltage divider in which the base current is small compared to the current in R2 is
said to be a stiff voltage divider because the base voltage is relatively independent of
the different transistor and temperature effects.
• Provides good Q-point stability with a single polarity supply voltage
• This is the biasing circuit wherein, ICQ and VCEQ are almost independent of beta.
• The level of IBQ will change with beta so as to maintain the values of ICQ and VCEQ
almost same, thus maintaining the stability of Q point.
• Two methods of analyzing a voltage divider bias circuit are:
• Approximate method: direct method, saves time and energy.
• Exact method: can be applied to any voltage divider circuit (we use this method)
Step 1: Locate capacitors and replace them with an open circuit
Step 2: Simplified circuit using Thevenin Theorem
Step 3: Locate 2 main loops:
 BE loop
 CE loop
Stability factor of voltage Divider Bias
Figure 22. Stability factor

Stability factor (S):
Stability factor S’:

Stability factor S’’:
Merits:
• Operating point is almost independent of β variation.
• Operating point stabilized against shift in temperature.
Demerits:
• As β-value is fixed for a given transistor, this relation can be satisfied either by keeping RE fairly
large, or making R1||R2 very low
Introduction- FET
Figure 23. Types of FET
Table 3. Comparison of BJT and FET
FET BIASING
• The Parameters of FET is temperature dependent .
• When temperature increases drain resistance also increases, thus reducing the drain
current.
• Unlike BJTs, thermal runaway does not occur with FETs .
Different biasing circuits of FET are
1) Fixed bias circuits
2) Self bias circuits
3) Voltage bias circuits
General Equations:
For all FETs:
IG  0A ID  IS
For JFETs and Depletion-Type MOSFETs:

VGS 2
ID  IDSS(1 )
VP
For Enhancement-Type MOSFETs:
I D  k (VGS VT ) 2
1) Fixed-Bias Configuration
• The configuration includes the ac levels Vi and Vo and the coupling capacitors.
• The resistor is present to ensure that Vi appears at the input to the FET amplifier for
the AC analysis.
Figure 24. Fixed bias circuit

For the DC analysis,
• Capacitors are open circuits
IG  0A VRG  I G RG  (0 A) RG  0V
• and
• The zero-volt drop across RG permits replacing RG by a short-circuit
Figure 25. fixed bias analysis

Investigating the input loop
IG=0A, therefore
VRG=IGRG=0V
Applying KVL for the input loop,
-VGG-VGS=0
VGG= -VGS
• It is called fixed-bias configuration due to VGG is a fixed power supply so VGS is fixed
• The resulting current,
VGS 2
ID  IDSS(1 )
VP
Output loop KVL:
VDS  VDD  I D RD
VS  0V
VDS  VD  VS
VD  VDS  VS
VS  0 VD  VDS
VGS  VG  VS
VG  VGS  VS
VS  0
VG  VGS
• Investigating the graphical approach. Graphical approach will be used to examine the dc
analysis for FET because it is most popularly used rather than mathematical approach
• Using below tables, we can draw the graph
Figure 26. Q point

• The fixed level of VGS has been superimposed as a vertical line at
• The point where the two curves intersect is the common solution to the configuration –
commonly referrers to as the quiescent or operating point.
• The quiescent level of ID determine by drawing a horizontal line from the Q-point to
the vertical ID axis.
2) Self bias
• Self-bias is the most common type of biasing method for JFETs.
• JFET must be operated such that the gate-source junction is always reverse biased.
• The self-bias configuration eliminates the need for two dc supplies. The controlling
VGS is now determined by the voltage across the resistor RS
• To keep the GS-junction reverse biased:
(a) VGS will be -ve for n-channel (b) VGS will be +ve for p-channel.
• It can be achieved using self-bias arrangement as shown.
• The gate resistor, RG : not affect the bias
because it has essentially no volt drop across it.
• Therefore, the gate remains 0V.
• RG only to force the gate to be 0V and isolate an
ac signal from ground in amplifier applications.
• Self-biased JFETs:
ID = IS for all JFET circuits
Figure 27. Self bias FET

KVL for Input Loop:
For n-channel JFET
IS through RS produces a voltage drop, making the Source -ve with respect to ground.
Since, IS = ID and VG = 0, VS = IDRS.
So: VGS = VG – VS = 0 – IDRS
 (n channel) VGS = -IDRS
For p-channel JFET

IS through RS produces a –ve voltage at Source,
making the Gate +ve with respect to ground.
Since, IS = ID, and VG = 0, -VS = –IDRS
VGS = VG – (– VS ) = 0 – (– IDRS)
 (p channel) VGS = IDRS
KVL for Output Loop:
+𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝐷 − 𝑉𝐷𝑆 − 𝑉𝑆 = 0
∴ 𝑉𝑆 = 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝑆
+𝑉𝐷𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝐷 − 𝐼𝐷 𝑅𝑆 = 𝑉𝐷𝑆
Graphical approach
– Draw the device transfer characteristic
– Draw the network load line
• Use V
GS   I D RS to draw straight line.
• First point, I D  0, VGS  0
• Second point, any point from ID = 0 to ID = IDSS.
Choose
I DSS
ID  then
2
I R
VGS   DSS S
2
The quiescent point obtained at the intersection of the straight line plot and the
device characteristic curve.
Figure 28. Q point
3) Voltage-Divider bias
• The arrangement is the same as BJT but the DC analysis is different
• In BJT, IB provide link to input and output circuit, in FET VGS does the same
• The voltage at source, VS of the JFET must be more +ve than the voltage at gate,VG in
order to keep the GS-junction reverse bias.
• Since ID=IS.
Figure 29. N channel JFET
• The source VDD was separated into two equivalent sources to permit a further
separation of the input and output regions of the network.
• IG = 0A ,Kirchoff’s current law requires that IR1= IR2 and the series equivalent circuit
appearing to the left of the figure can be used to find the level of V G.
• VG can be found using the voltage divider rule :
R2VDD
VG 
R1  R2
Using Kirchoff’s Law on the input loop: Rearranging and using
ID =IS:
Using Kirchoff’s Law on the Output loop:
1. Plot the line: By plotting two points:

VGS = VG, ID =0 and VGS = 0, ID = VG/RS
2. Plot the transfer curve by plotting IDSS, VP and calculated values of ID.
3. Where the line intersects the transfer curve is the Q point for the circuit.
Once the quiescent values of IDQ and VGSQ are determined, the remaining network analysis
can be found.
VDD
I R1  I R 2 
R1  R2
Figure 30. Q point Analysis
Advantage
provide the most stable Q-point value of ID.
Disadvantage
circuit complexity makes it undesirable for most applications.
MOSFET BIASING
Design of a MOSFET amplifier circuit is the establishment of an appropriate dc operating
point for the transistor.
• An appropriate dc operating point or bias point is characterized by a stable and predictable
dc drain current ID and by a dc drain-to-source voltage VDS that ensures operation in the
saturation region for all expected input-signal levels.
• The similarities in appearance between the transfer curves of JFETs and depletion-
type N-MOSFETs permit a similar analysis of each in the dc domain.
VGS 2
ID  IDSS(1 )
• For JFETs and Depletion-Type MOSFETs: VP
• For Enhancement-Type MOSFETs: The drain current is zero for levels of gate-to-
source voltage, VGS less than the threshold level VGS(Th). For levels of VGS greater
than VGS(Th), the drain current is defined by
I D  k (VGS VT ) 2
D-Type MOSFET Biasing Circuits
Zero-bias
•Self-Bias
•Voltage-Divider Bias
E-Type MOSFET Biasing Circuits
•Voltage-Divider Bias
• Feedback Bias
D-MOSFET biasing techniques
ZERO BIAS —is a popular biasing technique that can be used only with depletion-type
MOSFETs.
• This form of bias is called zero bias because the potential difference between the gate-
source region is zero.
Since there is no current in the gate circuit, no voltage is developed across RG, and VGS=O
Therefore ID=IDSS, and
VDs=VDD-lDRD.
Figure 31. Zero bias

D-MOSFET SELF BIAS
Self-bias is the most common type of biasing method for JFETs. Notice there is no voltage
applied to the gate. The voltage to ground from here will always be VG = OV.
• However, the voltage from gate to source (VGS) will be negative for n channel and
positive for p channel keeping the junction reverse biased.
• This voltage can be determined by the formulas below. ID = Is
• (n channel) VGS = VG — Vs = -IDRs
• (p channel) VGS = IDRs
Figure 32. Self bias
D-MOSFET voltage divider bias
• Depletion-type MOSFET bias circuits are similar to JFETs.
Figure 33. Voltage divider bias

Figure 34. Q point analysis
E-MOSFET FEEDBACK BIASING
Figure 35. Feedback biasing

The resistor RG brings a suitably large voltage to the gate to drive the MOSFETs “ON”. Since
IG = 0 mA and VRG=0V, we can draw the dc equivalent network.
E- MOSFETS VOLTAGE-DIVIDER BIASING
A second popular biasing arrangement for the enhancement-type MOSFETs. The fact that
IG = 0 mA results in the following equation for VGG as derived from the
Figure 37. Voltage Divider biasing

TWO-PORT NETWORKS
Figure 39. Two port Network

A two-port model is a description of a network that relates voltages and currents at two pairs
of terminals. The network contains NO independent sources. Study the basic types of two-port
models
 Admittance parameters
 Impedance parameters
 Hybrid parameters
 Transmission parameters
TEXT / REFERENCE BOOKS
1. Millman J and Halkias C., “Integrated Electronics”, TMH, 2nd Edition, 2017.
2. S. Salivahanan, N. Suresh Kumar and A. Vallavaraj, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”,
TMH, 2nd Edition, 2017.
3. Donald. A. Neamen, “Electronic Circuits Analysis and Design”, McGraw Hill Education
(India) Private Ltd., 3rd Edition, 2010.
4. Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nasheresky, ”Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”,
Pearson Education, 11th Edition, 2013.
5. Floyd, “Electronic Devices”, Pearson Education, 9th Edition, 2012.
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMMUNICATION
ENGINEERING
UNIT - II
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS-I – SECA1302
1
Unit 2 EQUIVALENT MODEL OF BJT AMPLIFIERS 9 Hrs
Hybrid model- Analysis of CE, CC and CB amplifiers using Hybrid equivalent circuits to obtain
gain, input impedance and output impedance- Approximate Model- Analysis of CE, CC and CB
amplifiers using Approximate model equivalent circuits to obtain gain, input impedance and
output impedance -Small Signal Amplifiers – Analysis of CE, CC and CB amplifiers using small
signal equivalent circuits to obtain gain, input impedance and output impedance.
Hybrid model
Every linear circuit having input and output can be analyzed as two port networks. In these
networks there are four parameters called hybrid or h-parameters. Since
these parameters have mixed dimension, so they are called hybrid parameters.
This equivalent circuit, called Hybrid equivalent circuit or simply h-model, can replace a
Thevenin or a Norton equivalent circuit, which both are shown to be two special cases of
an h-model. The h-model contains both voltage and current sources and is shown to be very
flexible and dynamic.
Benefits of h-parameters.
 h-parameters are Real Numbers up to radio frequency.
 They are easy to measure.
 They can be determined from transistor static characteristic curves.
 They are convenient to use in circuit analysis and design.
 Easily convertible from one configuration to other.
 Readily supplied by manufacturers.
Hybrid parameters or h-parameters are used to determine amplifier characteristic

parameters such as voltage gain, input and output resistance etc., h-parameters are easy to
measure and the procedure followed to obtain is quite simple and easy to understand
They are real numbers at audio frequencies. They can be easily obtained from the static
characteristics of transistor itself. Hybrid model is an equivalent model used in small signal
analysis ie. low frequency applications. h stands for hybrid consisting mixed parameters.
Two Port Network:

A pair of terminals through which a current may enter or leave a network is known as port.
Every linear circuit is having input and output and can be analyzed as two-port networks.
In these networks, there are four parameters called hybrid or h-parameters. Out of these
four parameters one is measured in ohms, another is measured in mhos and other two are
measured dimensionless. Since these parameters are of mixed dimension, these are
called as hybrid parameters
2
For example, transistors are often regarded as two-ports, characterized by their h-
parameters which are listed by the manufacturer. The equivalent circuit of a transistor can
be drawn using simple approximation by retaining its essential features. These equivalent
circuits will aid in analyzing transistor circuits easily and rapidly. A transistor can be
treated as a two-port network. The terminal behavior of any two-port network can be
specified by the terminal voltages V1 & V2 at parts 1 & 2 respectively and current i1 and i2,
entering parts 1 & 2, respectively, as shown in figure.
Fig 2.1 Two Port Network
Fig 2.2 Hybrid Model of a Two Port Network
If the input current i1 and output Voltage V2 are takes as independent variables, the input
voltage V1 and output current i2 can be written as
V1=h11I1+h12V2
I2=h21I1+h22V2
The four h parameters are h11, h12, h21 and h22 are defined as follows.
h11 = [V1 / i1] with V2 = 0 = Input Impedance with output part short circuited
h22 = [i2 / V2] with i1 = 0 = Output admittance with input part open circuited.
h12 = [V1 / V2] with i1 = 0 = reverse voltage transfer ratio with input part open circuited.
h21 = [i2 / i1] with V2 = 0 = Forward current gain with output part short circuited.
The dimensions of h – parameters are as follows: h11 - Ω, h22 – mhos h12, h21 – dimension
less. as the dimensions are not alike, (i.e) they are hybrid in nature, and these parameters
are called as hybrid parameters.
3
Table 2.1 h parameter Nomenclature of a transistor
Hybrid Analysis of CE
In common emitter transistor configuration, the input signal is applied between the base
and emitter terminals of the transistor and output appears between the collector and
emitter terminals. The input voltage (Vbe) and the output current (ic) are given by the
following equations:
Vbe = hie.Ib + hre.Vce
Ie = hfe.Ib + hoe.Vce
Fig 2.3 General Amplifier Circuit
Fig 2.4 Hybrid Model of Amplifier
4
Fig 2.5 Hybrid Model of a Two Port Network
Fig 2.6 Hybrid Model of a Common Emitter BJT
Transistor Circuit Performance in h Parameters

Input Impedance:
The general expression for Input Impedance is
Using standard h parameter, its value for CE will be
Current Gain: The general expression for current gain is
Voltage Gain: The general expression for voltage gain is
5
Output Impedance:
The general expression for Output Impedance is
Fig 2.7 Hybrid Model of a Common Base BJT
The Common Collector Amplifier is another type of bipolar junction transistor, (BJT)
configuration where the input signal is applied to the base terminal and the output signal
taken from the emitter terminal. Thus, the collector terminal is common to both the input
and output circuits. This type of configuration is called Common Collector, (CC) because
the collector terminal is effectively “grounded” or “earthed” through the power supply. In
many ways the common collector configuration (CC) is the reverse of the common emitter
(CE) configuration as the connected load resistor is changed from the collector terminal for
RC to the emitter terminal for RE.
6
Fig 2.8 Hybrid Model of a Common Collector BJT
Table 2.2 h parameters for transistor configuration
Common Common Common

Definitions
Base Emitter Collector
Input Impedance with

Output Short Circuit
Reverse Voltage Ratio

Input Open Circuit
Forward Current Gain

Output Short Circuit
Output Admittance
Input Open Circuit
7
Approximate Model of Transistors
Fig 2.9 Approximate Model of Common Emitter
8
Fig 2.10 Approximate Model of Common Base
Input Impedance
By neglecting the reverse voltage gain we have
Current Gain
Single Stage Common Emitter Amplifiers:
Fig 2.11 Single Stage CE
9
For the purpose of analysis, we replace the transistor by its h-parameter model.
This results in the equivalent circuit, we assume sinusoidal input. Hence in the
equivalent circuit, we have used rms value of voltages and currents namely Ib,
Vb, Ic and Vc.
Fig 2.12 Equivalent Model
Current Gain or Current Amplification:

Current gain is defined as the ratio of the load current I1 to the input current Ib. Thus,
Current Gain
Also
Combining Equations, we get,
Hence current gain
Input Impedance Ri:

This is the impedance between the input terminals B and E looking into the amplifier as
WKT
10
But
Substituting the value of Vc
Hence input impedance
Where
Voltage Gain or Voltage Amplification:

It is the ratio of the output voltage Vc to the input voltage Vb. Thus,
Voltage Gain
Output impedance
Output Admittance Y0:

It is the ratio of the output current Ic to the output voltage Vc with Vs = 0. Hence
with VS = 0
On substituting the value of Ic
But with Vs = 0, (Rs + hie) Ib + hre Vc = 0
Or
Combining Equations, we get,
The expression of AI, Ri, AV, Ro are therefore, the same as for CE amplifier except that h-
parameter for CB configuration are used. Thus, we get:
Current gain
11
Input resistance
Where
Voltage Gain
Output admittance
Overall voltage gain
Overall current gain
Power Gain
Small Signal Analysis of Common Emitter
• While Analyzing Small Signal amplifiers we need to draw an equivalent circuit of BJT
and that circuit is called Small signal model of BJT
• In Small Signal Analysis we can do AC and DC analysis separately
• Small-signal analysis assumes that the transistor is correctly biased and concentrates
on the linear behavior for small signals
• In Active Region the transistor will be showing linear behavior
• Small-signal modeling is a common analysis technique in electronics engineering
which is used to approximate the behavior of electronic circuits containing nonlinear
devices with linear equations
Small-signal analysis assumes that the transistor is correctly biased and concentrates on the
linear behavior for small signals, ignoring the messy non-linear. The DC sources are zeroed,
the signal sources are activated, and linear circuit analysis is used to solve for the small-
signal voltages and currents. Small ac signal refers to the input signal (Vbe) whose magnitude
is much small than thermal voltage (VT) i.e. Vbe << V T 3 the transistor operates in the linear
region for the whole cycle of input (called as a linear amplifier) the transistor is never driven
into saturation or cut-off region on the other hand, if the input signal is too large. The
fluctuations along the load line will drive the transistor into either saturation or cut off. This
clips the peaks of the input and the amplifier is no longer linear. The hybrid model is suitable
for small signals at mid band and describes the action of the transistor. Two equations can
be derived from the diagram, one for input voltage Vbe and one for the output ic:
vbe = hie ib + hre vce

ic = hfe ib + hoe vce
If ib is held constant (ib=0) then hre and hoe can be solved:
hre = vbe / vce | ib = 0

hoe = ic / vce | ib = 0
12
Also, if vce is held constant (vce=0) then hie and hfe can be solved:
hie = vbe / ib | vce = 0

hfe = ic / ib | vce = 0
Fig 2.13 Common Emitter
The circuit diagram of a common-emitter (CE) amplifier is shown in Fig 2.13. The
capacitor CB is used to couple the input signal to the input port of the amplifier, and CC is
used to couple the amplifier output to the load resistor RL. We are interested in the bias
currents and voltages, mid-band gain, and input and output resistances of the amplifier.
Fig 2.14 Equivalent Model
13
14
15
Fig 2.15 Small Signal Common Emitter
Zi=Rb||hie
Zo=Rc||RL
Small Signal Common Base:

The CB ac equivalent circuit is drawn, as always, by replacing the supply voltage and
capacitors with short circuits. This gives the circuit in Fig. 6-36(a), which shows that the
transistor base terminal (grounded via capacitor C1) is common to both input and output.
Hence the name common base. The CB h-parameter circuit is now drawn by substituting
the transistor h-parameter model into the ac equivalent circuit, giving the circuit in Fig. 6-
36(b). Once again, the current directions and voltage polarities indicated in the h-parameter
circuit are those produced by a positive-going signal voltage. Note that the feedback voltage
generator (hrb vo) is not included in the CB h-parameter circuit. This is because the
feedback voltage effect is so small that it can be neglected when deriving practical
approximate equations for the circuit performance. This corresponds with the CE h-
parameter circuit, but not with the CC h-parameter circuit, where the feedback voltage is
very important.
Fig 2.16 Common Collector
16
Fig 2.17 Common Collector Equivalent Circuit
Fig 2.18 Simplified Equivalent Model
17
Fig 2.19 Common Collector Circuit
Fig 2.20 Equivalent Circuit
18
Table 2.3 BJT Characteristics
Characteristic Common base Common emitter, Common collector,

(CB) (CE) (CC)
Input Dynamic Very Low (less Low (less than Very High(750K)
Resistance than 100 ohm) 1K)
Output Dynamic Very High High Low

Resistance
Current Gain Less than 1 High Very High
Voltage gain Greater than CC Highest Lowest (less than 1)

but less than CE
Power gain Medium Highest Medium
Leakage current Very small Very large Very large
Relationship In phase Out of In phase

between I/p and o/p phase(180º)
19
Application For High freq. For Audio freq. For impedance
applications Applications Matching
Applications
References:
1. Millman J and Halkias C., “Integrated Electronics”, TMH, 2nd Edition, 2017.
2. S. Salivahanan, N. Suresh Kumar and A. Vallavaraj, “Electronic Devices and Circuits”,
TMH, 2nd Edition, 2017.
3. Donald. A. Neamen, “Electronic Circuits Analysis and Design”, McGraw Hill
Education (India) Private Ltd., 3rd Edition, 2010.
4. Robert L. Boylestad and Louis Nasheresky,” Electronic Devices and Circuit Theory”,
Pearson Education, 11th Edition, 2013.
5. Floyd, “Electronic Devices”, Pearson Education, 9th Edition, 2012.
20
UNIT-III
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS-I – SECA1302

UNIT 3 EQUIVALENT MODEL OF FET AND MOSFET AMPLIFIERS 9 Hrs
Small Signal equivalent circuit of FET and MOSFET - Analysis of CS, CD and CG JFET
amplifiers using small signal equivalent circuits- Analysis of CS, CD and CG MOSFET
amplifiers using small signal equivalent circuits
Small Signal FET Models

Small Signal Low-Frequency FET Model
FET SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS
Field-effect transistor amplifiers provide an excellent voltage gain with the added
feature of high input impedance. They are also considered low-power consumption
configurations with good frequency range and minimal size and weight. Both JFET and
depletion MOSFET devices can be used to design amplifiers having similar voltage gains.
The depletion MOSFET circuit, however, has much higher input impedance than a similar
JFET configuration.
While a BJT device controls a large output (collector) current by means of a
relatively small input (base) current, the FET device controls an output (drain) current by
means of a small input (gate-voltage) voltage. In general, therefore, the BJT is a current-
controlled device and the FET is a voltage-controlled device. In both cases, however, note
that the output current is the controlled variable. Because of the high input characteristic
of FETs, the ac equivalent model is somewhat simpler than that employed for BJTs. While
the BJT had an amplification factor (beta), the FET has a transconductance factor, gm.
FET can be used as a linear amplifier or as a digital device in logic circuits. In fact,
the enhancement MOSFET is quite popular in digital circuitry, especially in CMOS
circuits that require very low power consumption. FET devices are also widely used in
high-frequency applications and in buffering (interfacing) applications.
While the common-source configuration is the most popular, providing an inverted,
amplified signal, one also finds common-drain (source-follower) circuits providing unity
gain with no inversion and common-gate circuits providing gain with no inversion. As with
BJT amplifiers, the important circuit features described in this chapter include voltage
gain, input impedance, and output impedance. Due to the very high input impedance, the
input current is generally assumed to be 0 A and the current gain is an undefined quantity.
While the voltage gain of an FET amplifier is generally less than that obtained using a BJT
amplifier, the FET amplifier provides much higher input impedance than that of a BJT
configuration. Output impedance values are comparable for both BJT and FET circuit
Fig. 3.1 Small signal model of FET
COMMON SOURCE AMPLIFIER

A common-source JFET amplifier is one in which the ac input signal is applied to the
gate and the ac output signal is taken from the drain. The source terminal is common to
both the input and output signal. A common-source amplifier either has no source resistor
or has a bypassed source resistor, so the source is connected to ac ground. A self-biased
common-source n-channel JFET amplifier with an ac source capacitive coupled to the gate
is shown in Figure below. The resistor, RG, serves two purposes: It keeps the gate at
approximately 0 V dc (because IGSS is extremely small), and its large value (usually
several megohms) prevents loading of the ac signal source. A bias voltage is produced by
the drop across RS. The bypass capacitor, C2, keeps the source of the JFET at ac ground.
Fig.3.2 Self biased Common source Amplifier
The input signal voltage causes the gate-to-source voltage to swing above and below
its Q-point value (VGSQ), causing a corresponding swing in drain current. As the drain
current increases, the voltage drop across RD also increases, causing the drain voltage to
decrease. The drain current swings above and below its Q-point value in phase with the
gate-to-source voltage. The drain-to-source voltage swings above and below its Q-point
value (VDSQ) and is 180° out of phase with the gate-to-source voltage, as illustrated in
Figure above. A Graphical Picture The operation just described for an n-channel JFET is
illustrated graphically on both the transfer characteristic curve and the drain
characteristic curve in Figure below. Part (a) shows how a sinusoidal variation, Vgs,
produces a corresponding sinusoidal variation in Id. As Vgs swings from its Q-point value
to a more negative value, Id decreases from its Q- point value. As Vgs swings to a less
negative value, Id increases. The signal at the gate drives the drain current above and
below the Q-point on the load line, as indicated by the arrows. Lines projected from the
peaks of the gate voltage across to the ID axis and down to the VDS axis indicate the peak-
to-peak variations of the drain current and drain-to-source voltage, as shown. Because the
transfer characteristic curve is nonlinear, the output will have some distortion. This can be
minimized if the signal swings over a limited portion of the load line.
Fig 3.3 Transfer Characteristic curve and Drain curve for Common source JFET
Amplifier
AC Equivalent Circuit to analyze the signal operation of the amplifier in Figure

below ,an ac equivalent circuit is as follows. Replace the capacitors by effective shorts,
based on the simplifying assumption that at the signal frequency. Replace the dc source by
a ground, based on the assumption that the voltage source has a zero internal resistance.
The VDD terminal is at a zero-volt ac potential and therefore acts as an ac ground.
The ac equivalent circuit is shown in Figure below. Notice that the VDD end of Rd
and the source terminal are both effectively at ac ground. Recall that in ac analysis, the ac
ground and the actual circuit ground are treated as the same point.
Fig 3.4 AC equivalent circuit for Common source amplifier
An ac voltage source is shown connected to the input in Figure above. Since the input
resistance to a JFET is extremely high, practically all of the input voltage from the signal
source appears at the gate with very little voltage dropped across the internal source
resistance. Vgs = Vin
Vgs = Vin
Voltage Gain: The expression for JFET voltage gain that was given in Equation below
applies to the common-source amplifier.
Phase Inversion The output voltage (at the drain) is out of phase with the input
voltage (at the gate). The phase inversion can be designated by a negative voltage gain,
Recall that the common-emitter BJT amplifier also exhibited a phase inversion.
Input Resistance is derived as follows, because the input to a common-source
amplifier is at the gate, the input resistance is extremely high. Ideally, it approaches
infinity and can be neglected. As you know, the high input resistance is produced by the
reverse-biased PN junction in a JFET and by the insulated gate structure in a MOSFET.
The actual input resistance seen by the signal source is, the gate-to-ground resistor, RG, in
parallel with the FET’s input resistance, VGS IGSS. The reverse leakage current, IGSS, is
typically given on the datasheet for a specific value of VGS so that the input resistance of
the device can be calculated.
Common drain JFET amplifier
A common-drain JFET amplifier is one in which the input signal is applied to the
gate and the output is taken from the source, making the drain common to both. Because it
is common, there is no need for a drain resistor. A common-drain JFET amplifier is shown
in Figure below. A common-drain amplifier is also called a source-follower. Self-biasing is
used in this particular circuit. The input signal is applied to the gate through a coupling
capacitor, C1, and the output signal is coupled to the load resistor through C2.
Fig. 3.5 Self biased Common Drain Amplifier
Voltage Gain as in all amplifiers, the voltage gain is Av Vout / Vin. For the source-
follower, Vout is IdRs and Vin is Vgs IdRs as shown in above Figure. Therefore, the gate-
to-source voltage gain is IdRs (Vgs IdRs). Substituting Id gmVgs into the expression gives
the following result:
The vgs term cancel so,
Notice here that the gain is always slightly less than 1. If then a good approximation
is since the output voltage is at the source, it is in phase with the gate (input) voltage.
Input Resistance because the input signal is applied to the gate, the input resistance
seen by the input signal source is extremely high, just as in the common-source amplifier
configuration. The gate resistor, RG, in parallel with the input resistance looking in at the
gate is the total input resistance.
where
Common Gate Amplifier
The common-gate FET amplifier configuration is comparable to the common-base BJT

amplifier. Like the CB, the common-gate (CG) amplifier has a low input resistance. This is
different from the CS and CD configurations, which have very high input resistances
Common-Gate Amplifier Operation A self-biased common-gate amplifier is shown in

figure. The gate is connected directly to ground. The input signal is applied at the source
terminal through C1. The output is coupled through C2 from the drain terminal.
Fig 3.6 Common Gate Amplifier
Voltage Gain: The voltage gain from source to drain is developed as follows:
Where Rd = RD || RL. Notice that the gain expression is the same as for the
common-source JFET amplifier.
Input Resistance: As you have seen, both the common-source and common-drain
configurations have extremely high input resistances because the gate is the input terminal.
In contrast, the common-gate configuration where the source is the input terminal has a
low input resistance. This is shown as follows. First, the input current is equal to the drain
current
Second, the input voltage equals Vgs.

Therefore, the input resistance at the source terminal is
Small signal analysis of MOSFET:
Common Source configuration of E- MOSFET with potential divider biasing:
Fig 3.7 Circuit Diagram of common source amplifier
3.8 AC equivalent circuit

In common source configuration of E-MOSFET, the inputs is fed to the gate and
output is taken at the drain. The resistor R1 and R2 acts as biasing resistors. For AC analysis
the source is connected to ground and hence source terminal is connected to both input and
output.
The circuit diagram of voltage-divider bias for E-MOSFET is shown in the above
Figure 3.7. The AC equivalent model of the voltage–divider bias circuit of E-MOSFET can
be obtained by shorting the capacitors and grounding the biasing sources as shown in the
above figure. Replacing the devices by its small signal model, we get the figure shown
below.
3.9 Small signal equivalent circuit for common source amplifier
Input impedance:
Input impedance is the resistance looking back from the input terminal. From the
small signal signal model of voltage divider configuration of E-MOSFET shown in the
above figure 3.9, the input impedance can be calculated as
Output impedance:
Output impedance is the resistance looking back from the output terminal. From
the small signal; model of MOSFET, The output impedance is calculated as follows,
When Vi = 0, gate-source voltage = 0, Therefore, is an open circuit. Hence the

output impedance is equal to drain resistance.
Therefore, the output impedance is given by,
Voltage gain:
Voltage gain is the ratio of output voltage to input voltage.
Therefore,
Common Drain Amplifier:
The circuit diagram and the small signal diagram are as follows:
Fig.3.10 Circuit Diagram of Common Drain Amplifier

Fig 3.11 Small signal model of common drain amplifier
Input Impedance is given by,
Therefore,
The output impedance is
Voltage Gain is,
Common Gate Amplifier:
The circuit diagram and the small signal model are given below:
Fig.3.12 Circuit Diagram of mall signal model of common gate amplifier
Fig. 3.13 Small signal model of common gate amplifier

Input Impedance,
Output Impedance,
Voltage Gain,
JFET and MOSFET small signal model Amplifiers || Review

It provides an excellent voltage gain with high input impedance. Due to these characteristics, it is
often preferred over BJT.
Three basic FET configurations
Common source, common drain and common gate
1. MOSFET low frequency a.c Equivalent circuit
Figure shows the small signal low frequency a.c Equivalent circuit for n-channel JFET.
Fig. 3.13 Small signal model of JFET

Common Source Amplifier with Fixed Bias
Figure shows Common Source Amplifier with Fixed Bias. The coupling capacitor C1 and C2 which
are used to isolate the d.c biasing from the applied ac signal act as short circuits for ac analysis.
Fig. 3.14 Common Source Circuit of JFET
The following figure shows the low frequency equivalent model for Common Source Amplifier
With Fixed Bias. It is drawn by replacing
All capacitors and d.c supply voltages with short circuit
JFET with its low frequency a.c Equivalent circuit
Fig. 3.15 Small Signal Model of CS MOSFET Amplifier
Input Impedance Zi
Zi = RG
Output Impedance Zo
15
Fig. 3.16 Equivalent circuit Model of MOSFET for output
It is the impedance measured looking from the output side with input voltage Vi equal to Zero.
As Vi=0,Vgs =0 and hence gmVgs =0 . And it allows current source to be replaced by an open
circuit.
If the resistance rd is sufficiently large compared to RD, then
16
2. Common source amplifier with self bias(Bypassed Rs)
Figure shows Common Source Amplifier With self Bias. The coupling capacitor C1 and C2 which
are used to isolate the d.c biasing from the applied ac signal act as short circuits for ac analysis.
Bypass capacitor Cs also acts as a short circuits for low frequency analysis.
Fig. 3.17 Common Source amplifier model of MOSFET

The following figure 3.18 shows the low frequency equivalent model for Common Source Amplifier
with self Bias.
Fig.3.18.Small signal model for Common Source MOSFET
17
The negative sign in the voltage gain indicates there is a 180o phase shift between input and output
voltages.
Common source amplifier with self bias (unbypassed Rs)
Fig.3.19. Common Source MOSFET amplifier
Now Rs will be the part of low frequency equivalent model as shown in figure. 3.19.
18
Fig.3.20. Small signal model for Common Source MOSFET amplifier
Input Impedance Zi
Zi = RG
Output Impedance Zo
It is given by
19
20
Common source amplifier with Voltage divider bias (Bypassed Rs)
Figure shows Common Source Amplifier With voltage divider Bias. The coupling capacitor C1 and
C2 which are used to isolate the d.c biasing from the applied ac signal act as short circuits for ac
analysis. Bypass capacitor Cs also acts as a short circuits for low frequency analysis.
Fig.3.21. Common Source MOSFET amplifier with Voltage divider bias
The following Figure 3.21 shows the low frequency equivalent model for Common Source Amplifier
with voltage divider Bias
21
The negative sign in the voltage gain indicates there is a 180o phase shift between input and output
voltages.
ü Common Drain Amplifier

In this circuit, input is applied between gate and source and output is taken between source and
drain.
22
In this circuit, the source voltage is
Vs = VG+VGS
When a signal is applied to the MOSFET gate via C1 ,VG varies with the signal. As VGS is fairly
constant and Vs = VG+VGS, Vs varies with Vi.
The following figure shows the low frequency equivalent model for common drain circuit.
23
Input Impedance Zi
Zi = RG
Output Impedance Zo
It is given by
24
25
Substitute the value Vo and Vi. Then
26
Common drain circuit does not provide voltage gain.& there is no phase shift between input and
output voltages.
Table summarizes the performance of common drain amplifier
27
SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
UNIT – IV
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS 1- SECA1302
Page 1
I. Introduction
UNIT 4 MULTISTAGE AMPLIFIERS AND FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF BJT AND FET
AMPLIFIERS 9 Hrs
Multistage Amplifiers- Methods of Coupling- RC Coupled- Transformer Coupled – Direct
Coupled Amplifiers- Amplifier frequency response – Miller effect
Frequency response of transistor amplifiers with circuit capacitors – BJT frequency response
– Low and High frequency analysis of CE,CB, CC - Frequency response of FET - Low and
High frequency analysis of CS,CG, CD JFET & MOSFET.
4.1 Multistage Amplifiers
• The performance obtainable from a single stage amplifier is often insufficient for
many applications.
• Several stages may be combined forming a multistage amplifier. These stages are
connected in cascade,
i.e. output of the first stage is connected to form input of second stage, whose
output becomes input of third stage, and so on.
Figure 4.1 Block Diagram of Multistage Amplifier

• Single amplifier is inadequate for practical purposes.
• Additional amplification over two or three stages is necessary. To achieve this, the
output of each amplifier stage is coupled in some way to the input of the next stage.
The resulting system is referred to as multistage amplifier.
(OR)
A transistor circuit containing more than one stage of amplification is known as multistage
transistor amplifier.Ex: Transistor radio receiver- Number of amplification stages
may be six or more.
Cascading
• In Multi-stage amplifiers, the output of first stage is coupled to the input of next stage
using a coupling device. These coupling devices can usually be a capacitor or a
transformer. This process of joining two amplifier stages using a coupling device can
be called as Cascading.
• The following figure shows a two-stage amplifier connected in cascade.
The overall gain is the product of voltage gain of individual stages.
Page 2
Figure 4.2 Two-stage amplifiers
Where AV = Overall gain

AV1 = Voltage gain of 1st stage
AV2 = Voltage gain of 2nd stage Av
Av = Av1* Av2
Av = (V2/V1) * (Vo/V2) = Vo/V1
Multistage amplifiers:
• Overall gain of an ac signal will get increased.
• Calculated by simply multiplying each gain together.
The overall gain of a multistage amplifier is the product of the gains of the individual stages,
Gain (A) = A1* A2*A3*A4*... *An
Figure 4.3 Multistage Amplifier

Need for multistage amplifiers:
• To transfer the AC from the output of one stage to the input of next stage.
• To block the DC to pass from the output of one stage to the input of next stage, which
means to isolate the DC conditions
• To amplify extremely weak signals to sufficient level, so that it can travel to a large
distance.
Page 3
• The distortion can be reduced by changing the signal within stages.
To understand the working of multistage amplifiers, the following terms need to be known
1. Gain
2. Decibel gain
3. Frequency response
4. Bandwidth
Gain
The ratio of the output electrical quantity to the input of the amplifier is called its gain.
It can be current gain or voltage gain or power gain.
The gain of a multistage amplifier is equal to the product of gains of individual stages.
E.g. G1, G2 and G3 are the individual voltage gains of a three- stage amplifier,
then total voltage gain G is given by
G = G1 × G2 × G3
Decibel gain
While analyzing circuits in the frequency domain, it is more convenient to compare the
amplitude ratio of the output to input values on a logarithmic scale rather than on a linear
scale. So if we use the logarithmic ratio of two quantities, P1 and P2 we end up with a new
quantity or level which can be presented using Decibels.
Unlike voltage or current which is measured in volts and amperes respectively, the decibel, or
simple dB for short, is just a ratio of two values, well actually the ratio of one value against
another known or fixed value, so therefore the decibel is a dimensionless quantity, but does
have the “Bel” as its units after the telephone inventor, Alexander Graham Bell.
The ratio of any two values, where one is fixed or known and of the same qunatity or units,
whether power, voltage or current, can be represented using decibels (dB) where “deci”
means one tenth (1/10th) of a Bel. Clearly then there are 10 decibels (10dB) per Bel or 1 Bel =
10 decibels.
The decibel is commonly used to show the ratio of power change (increasing or decreasing)
and is defined as the value which is ten times the Base-10 logarithm of two power levels. For
example, 1 watt to 10 watts is the same power ratio as 10 watts to 100 watts, that is 10:1, so
while there is a large difference in the number of watts, 9 compared to 90, the decibel ratio
would be exactly the same. Hopefully then we can see that the decibel (dB) is a ratio used for
comparing and calculating levels of power change and not the power itself.
Power gain = 10log10[Pout/Pin]dB
Page 4
Figure 4.4 Amplifier Stage
Pin =Vin2 / R = R * Iin2

Pout =Vout2 / R = R * Iout2
Voltage gain in db = 10log10[(Vout2 / R)/ (Vin2 / R)] = 20log10[Vout / Vin ]
Current gain in db = 10log10[(R * Iout2)/ (R * Iin2)] = 20log10[Iout / Iin ]
Decibel gain
Advantages:
The following are the advantages of expressing the gain in db :
(a) The unit db is a logarithmic unit. Our ear response is also logarithmic i.e. loudness of
sound heard by ear is not according to the intensity of sound but according to the log
of intensity of sound.
Thus if the intensity of sound given by speaker (i.e. power) is increased 100 times, our
ears hear a doubling effect (log10 100 = 2).Hence, this unit tallies with the natural
response of our ears.
(b) When the gains are expressed in db, the overall gain of a multistage amplifier is the sum of
gains of individual stages in db.
Figure 4.5 Two stage Amplifier
Page 5
Gain as number =( V2/V1) * (V3/V2)
Gain in db = 20log10( V2/V1) * (V3/V2)
Gain in db = 20log10( V2/V1) + 20log10( V3/V2)
G1(db) + G2(db)
Frequency response
Figure 4.6 Frequency Response curve

The curve between voltage gain and signal frequency of an amplifier is known as frequency
response.
• The voltage gain of an amplifier varies with signal frequency.
• It is because reactance of the capacitors in the circuit changes with signal frequency
and hence affects the output voltage and voltage gain.
• The gain of the amplifier increases as the frequency increases from zero till it becomes
maximum at f r , called Resonant frequency.
• If the frequency of signal increases beyond f r , the gain decreases.
Bandwidth
The range of frequency over which the voltage gain is equal to or greater than 70.7%(3db) of
the maximum gain is known as bandwidth.
Page 6
Figure 4.7 Bandwidth f 2 − f 1
1. Draw the 3db line from the maximum value and find f 1 and f 2 from the graph.
2. The (f 1) is called lower cut-off frequency & (f 2) is known as upper cut-off frequency
3. Therefore, f 2 − f 1 is the bandwidth. ( i.e. Upper cutoff frequency – Lower cutoff frequency)
5. For distortion less amplification, it is important that signal frequency range must be
within the bandwidth of the amplifier.
Bandwidth of an amplifier is the range of frequency at the limits of which its voltage gain
falls by 3 db from the maximum gain.
The frequency f 1 or f 2 is also called 3-db frequency or half-power frequency.
Half Power Bandwidth
The half-power point or half-power bandwidth is the point at which the output power has
dropped to half of its peak value; that is, at a level of approximately -3 dB
Half-power gain in dB = 10log10[(Pout max /2 )/ Poutmax]
= 10log10[1/2] = -3 dB
Types of multistage amplifier
Page 7
Figure 4.8 Multistage Amplifiers
The output of first stage is coupled to the input of next stage using a coupling device. The
process of transferring energy between circuits is known as COUPLING.
There are various ways of coupling signals into and out of amplifier circuits.
Common methods of amplifier coupling
• RC Coupled Amplifier
• Transformer Coupled Transistor Amplifier
• Direct Coupled Amplifier
(i) In RC coupling, a capacitor is used as the coupling device. The capacitor connects the
output of one stage to the input of the next stage in order to pass the a.c. signal on while
blocking the d.c. bias voltages.
(ii) In transformer coupling, transformer is used as the coupling device. The transformer
coupling provides the same two functions (viz. to pass the signal on and blocking d.c.) but
permits in addition impedance matching.
(iii) In direct coupling or d.c. coupling, the individual amplifier stage bias conditions are so
designed that the two stages may be directly connected without the necessity for d.c. isolation
4.2 RC Coupled Amplifier
Page 8
Figure 4.9 RC coupled Amplifier
• As the coupling from one stage to next is achieved by a coupling capacitor (C C)
followed by a connection to a shunt resistor, therefore, such amplifiers are called
Resistance - Capacitance coupled amplifiers.
• R1, R2 and RE – used for biasing and stabilisation of network.
• CE- emitter bypass capacitor offers low reactance path to the signal. Without it, the
voltage gain of each stage would be lost.
• CC transmits a.c. signal but blocks d.c. This prevents d.c. interference between various
stages and the shifting of operating point
Operation:
• It may be mentioned here that total gain is less than the product of the gains of
individual stages. It is because when a second stage is made to follow the first stage, the
effective load resistance of first stage is reduced due to the shunting effect of the input
resistance of second stage. This reduces the gain of the stage which is loaded by the
next stage.
• For instance, in a 3-stage amplifier, the gain of first and second stages will be reduced
due to loading effect of next stage. The overall gain shall be equal to the product of the
gains of three stages.
Page 9
Figure 4.10 Frequency Response
The frequency response of a typical RC coupled amplifier :
(i) At low frequencies (< 50 Hz): two factors cause a falling of voltage gain
 Reactance of coupling capacitor CC is quite high - very small part of signal will pass
from one stage to the next stage.
 CE cannot shunt the emitter resistance RE effectively because of its large reactance at
low frequencies.
ii) At mid-frequencies (50 Hz to 20 kHz): the voltage gain of the amplifier is constant.
 Thus, as the frequency increases in this range, reactance of CC decreases which tends
to increase the gain.
 However, at the same time, lower reactance means higher loading of first stage and
hence lower gain.
 These two factors almost cancel each other, resulting in a uniform gain at mid-
frequency.
(iii) At high frequencies (> 20 kHz): two reasons causes the voltage gain drops off
 Reactance of CC is very small and it behaves as a short circuit- increases the loading
effect of next stage and serves to reduce the voltage gain.
 Capacitive reactance of base-emitter junction is low which increases the base current.
This reduces the current amplification factor β.
Advantages :
(i) It has excellent frequency response.
Page 10
(ii) The gain is constant over the audio frequency range which is the region of most
importance for speech, music etc.
(iii) It has lower cost since it employs resistors and capacitors which are cheap.
(iv) The circuit is very compact as the modern resistors and capacitors are small and
extremely light.
Disadvantages :
(i) The RC coupled amplifiers have low voltage and power gain.
(ii) They have the tendency to become noisy with age, particularly in moist climates.
(iii) Impedance matching is poor.
Applications:
• The RC coupled amplifiers have excellent audio fidelity over a wide range of
frequency.
• Therefore, they are widely used as voltage amplifiers e.g. in the initial stages of public
address system.
Note:
• If other type of coupling (e.g. transformer coupling) is employed in the initial stages,
this results in frequency distortion which may be amplified in next stages.
• However, because of poor impedance matching, RC coupling is rarely used in the final
stages.
 RC coupling- used in initial stages
 Transformer coupling- used in final stages
4.3 Transformer-Coupled Amplifier

In RC coupled amplifier, the effective load of each stage is decreased due to the low resistance
and the voltage and power gain also gets decreased.
Page 11
Fig 4.11 Transformer coupled Amplifier
• R1 & R2 resistors provide the biasing and stabilization for the circuit.
• Cin isolates DC and allows only AC components from the input signal to the circuit.
• The emitter capacitor provides a low reactance path to the signal and offers stability to
the circuit.
• The first stage of output is connected as an input to the second stage through
secondary windings of the primary transformer.
• It is mostly used for power amplification.
• When an a.c. signal is applied to the base of first transistor, it appears in the amplified
form across primary P of the coupling transformer.
• The voltage developed across primary is transferred to the input of the next stage by
the transformer secondary S. The second stage renders amplification in an exactly
similar manner.
• Impedance matching - By this property, low resistance of one stage can be reflected as
high load resistance to the previous stage. Therefore the voltage at primary windings
can be forwarded according to the ratio of secondary windings of the transformer.
Frequency response
Figure 4.12 Frequency Response
• It is clear that frequency response is rather poor i.e. gain is constant only over a small
range of frequency.
• At low frequencies, the reactance of primary begins to fall, resulting in decreased gain.
• At high frequencies, the capacitance between turns of windings acts as a bypass

condenser to reduce the output voltage and hence gain.
Page 12
• Hence, transformer-coupled amplifier introduces frequency distortion. It is possible to
achieve a fairly constant gain over the audio frequency range.
• Transformer coupled that achieves a frequency response may cost 10 to 20 times

expensive than the RC coupled amplifier.
Advantages
 No signal power is lost in the collector or base resistors.

 An excellent impedance matching can be achieved in a transformer coupled
amplifier
 Due to excellent impedance matching, transformer coupling provides higher gain.
 As a result, a single stage of properly designed transformer coupling can provide
the gain of two stages of RC coupling.
Disadvantages
 It has a poor frequency response i.e. the gain varies considerably with frequency.
 The coupling transformers are bulky and fairly expensive at audio frequencies.
 Frequency distortion is higher i.e. low frequency signals are less amplified as
compared to the high frequency signals.
 Transformer coupling tends to introduce *hum in the output.
 (There are hundreds of turns of primary and secondary. These turns will multiply an
induced e.m.f. from nearby power wiring. As the transformer is connected in the base
circuit, therefore, the induced hum voltage will appear in amplified form in the
output.)
Applications
• Transformer coupling is mostly employed for impedance matching.
• In general, the last stage of a multistage amplifier is the power stage. Here, a
concentrated effort is made to transfer maximum power to the output device e.g. a
loudspeaker.
• For maximum power transfer, the impedance of power source should be equal to that
of load.
• The impedance of an output device is a few ohms whereas the output impedance of
transistor is several hundred times this value. In order to match the impedance, a step-
down transformer of proper turn ratio is used.
Page 13
4.4 Direct-Coupled Amplifier
Figure 4.13 Direct coupled amplifier
• There are many applications in which extremely low frequency (< 10 Hz) signals are to
be amplified e.g. amplifying photo-electric current, thermo-couple current etc.
• The coupling devices such as capacitors and transformers cannot be used because the
electrical sizes of these components become very large at extremely low frequencies.
• Under such situations, one stage is directly connected to the next stage without any
intervening coupling device.
• This type of coupling is known as direct coupling
Operation
• It shows the circuit of a three-stage direct-coupled amplifier.
• It uses *complementary transistors. This makes the circuit stable w.r.t. temperature
changes. In this connection (i.e., npn followed by pnp), when the temperature rises, is
opposite for the two transistors. Thus the variation in one transistor tends to cancel
that in the other. Thus, the first stage uses npn transistor, the second stage uses pnp
transistor and so on.
• This arrangement makes the design very simple. The output from the collector of first
transistor T1 is fed to the input of the second transistor T2 and so on.
• The weak signal is applied to the input of first transistor T1. Due to transistor action,
an amplified output is obtained across the collector load RC of transistor T1. This
voltage drives the base of the second transistor and amplified output is obtained across
its collector load.
• In this way, direct coupled amplifier raises the strength of weak signal.
Page 14
Advantages
 The circuit arrangement is simple because of minimum use of resistors.
 The circuit has low cost because of the absence of expensive coupling devices.
o Disadvantages
 It cannot be used for amplifying high frequencies.
 The operating point is shifted due to temperature variations.
Table 4.1 Comparison between multistage amplifiers

4.5 Miller Theorem
• The Miller effect is a basic electronic phenomenon associated with feedback circuits.
• It can occur undesirably in amplifiers, caused by parasitic capacitance.
• It accounts for an increase in the equivalent input capacitance of an inverting voltage

amplifier due to amplification of capacitance between the input and output terminals.
• Although Miller effect normally refers to capacitance, any impedance connected

between the input and another node exhibiting high gain can modify the amplifier
input impedance via the Miller effect.
• In transistor amplifiers, it is necessary to split the capacitance between input and

output. It can be achieved by using miller’s theorem.
Page 15
Figure 4.14 Miller feedback circuits
I1= ( V1-V2 ) / Z----(a)
I2 = (V2- V1) / Z----(b)
I1 = V1/ Z1-----(c )
I2=V2 / Z2-----(d)
If (a)= (3)
V1/ Z1 = ( V1-V2 ) / Z
Z1 = ( V1*Z)/(V1-V2)
Z1= Z * 1 / (1-V2/V1)
Z1= Z / ( 1- Av)
If (b) = (d)
(V2- V1) / Z = V2 / Z2
Z2 = Z/(1-(1/Av))
Page 16
Figure 4.15 Resistive feedback circuits
Page 17
Figure 4.16 Capacitive feedback circuits
Miller Input capacitance

Cmi = C (1-Av)
Cmo = C ( 1-(1/Av))
Non Inverting Amplifier
(O/P of the amplifier in phase with the I/P)
Inverting Amplifier :Output of the amplifier is 180 degree out of phase with respect to
input.
Figure 4.17 Inverting Amplifier-Output of the amplifier is 180 degree out of phase
with respect to input.
Page 18
4.6 Frequency response of transistor amplifiers with capacitor circuit
• Most amplifiers have relatively constant gain over a certain range (band) of
frequencies, this is called the bandwidth (BW) of the amplifier
• The gain of an amplifier remains relatively constant across a band of frequencies.
• When the operating frequency starts to go outside this frequency range, the gain
begins to drop off.
BW= fc2-fc1
Center frequency fo = √ fc1fc2
The ratio of fo to fc1 equals the ratio of fc2 to fo , this is:
fo / fc1 = fc2 / fo
fc2 = fo 2 / fc1 ( OR)
fc1 = fo 2 / fc2
• Frequency response analysis – Cutoff frequencies
• The cut-off frequencies of single stage BJT/FET amplifiers are influenced by the RC
combinations formed by the network capacitors CC, CE, etc. and the resistive
parameters that are present in the network.
Figure 4.18 Frequency analysis
Page 19
It is to be recalled that at High frequencies Xc = 1/2𝝅𝒇𝒄 ≈ 0 Ώ
At low frequencies Xc = 1/2𝝅𝒇𝒄 ≈ ∞ Ώ
Low Frequency High Frequency HIGH FREQUENCY
The Change in the reactance of The Change in the reactance of
inductors and capacitors could affect inductors and capacitors could affect
the gain of amplifiers the gain of amplifiers
Capacitors can no longer be treated as The reactance of intrinsic capacitance of
short circuits - their reactance becomes
devices becomes low enough -the signals
larger enough to affect the signal could effectively pass through them and
change the response of the circuit
Reactance of the primary of The stray capacitance of transformer
transformer becomes low – Resulting to windings reduces the gain of amplifier
poor low frequency response.
Table 4.2 Comparison between Low Frequency and High Frequency
Low Frequency Response of RC circuit
Low frequency , the amplifier circuit behaves like high pass filter
( At low frequencies , Xc tends to ∞ and the capacitance treated as open circuit)
Figure 4.19 LPF Response

Vo = V1 *R / R-jXc
I Vo I = V1*R / √ (R2 + Xc2 )
If Xc = R
I Vo I = V1*R / √ (2R2 )
I Vo I = V1 / √ 2
Av = 0.707
High Frequency Response of RC circuit
 At high frequencies (Frequency increases, Xc decreases) act as short circuit.
Page 20
 Also the parasitic capacitance comes into effect and defines the 3db point.
 At high frequencies, it acts as low pass filter.
Figure 4.20 HPF Response

The frequency response of an amplifier refers to the frequency range in which the amplifier
will operate with negligible effects from capacitors and device internal capacitance. This
range of frequencies can be called the mid-range.
At frequencies above and below the midrange, capacitance and any inductance will affect the
gain of the amplifier
.•At low frequencies the coupling and bypass capacitors lower the gain.
•At high frequencies stray capacitances associated with the active device lower the gain.
•Also, cascading amplifiers limits the gain at high and low frequencies.
 At low frequencies, coupling capacitor (CS, CC) and bypass capacitor (CE) reactances
affect the circuit impedances.
 The capacitive reactance varies inversely with frequency. At lower frequencies the
reactance is greater, and it decreases as the frequency increases.
 At high frequencies, the coupling and bypass capacitors become effective ac shorts and
do not affect an amplifier's response. Internal transistor junction capacitances,
however, do come into play, reducing an amplifier's gain and introducing phase shift
as the signal frequency increases.
 At high and mid frequencies , Vi ≈ V0 voltage across the load , so Vo/Vi =1
 At low frequencies Vo=0 voltage across the load and Vo/Vi =0
 Between two extremes the ratio between Vo and Vi will vary between 0 and 1 .
4.7 Low Frequency Analysis of Capacitor Coupled BJT Amplifier
Page 21
Figure 4.21 RC Coupled amplifiers
Vs = signal source
Rsig = Internal resistance of signal source
Cs = coupling capacitor for Vs
Cc= coupling capacitor for RL
Cc = bypass capacitor for RE
 A capacitor coupled (also called RC coupled) BJT amplifier circuit .

 At middle and high frequencies, the capacitors Cc,Cs and Ce can be considered short
circuits because their reactance become low enough, that there are no significant
voltage drops across the capacitors.
 At low frequencies, the coupling capacitors Cc,Cs and Ce could no longer be treated as
short circuit because their reactance become high enough that the there are significant
voltage drops across the capacitors.
Coupling Capacitors
– To couple the various stages of a multi-stage amplifier • For AC performance essentially a
short circuit and AC current flows from one stage to the next stage – To support the biasing
of each stage individually: • For DC performance: open circuit and no biasing current flows
from one stage to another
Page 22
ByPass Capacitors
– To support the addition of a resistor for biasing purposes only • For DC performance: open
circuit and current flows through the biasing resistor – Short-circuit the biasing resistor for
AC performance. • For AC performance: short circuit and no current flows through the
resistor (shorted out/bypassed)
To find Zi
Case (i) Equivalent Circuit involving Cs capacitor:
Figure 4.22 Equivalent Circuit

The input impedance of the circuit is:
Figure 4.23 Input impedance
Page 23
The Lower cutoff frequency involving Cs capacitor is:
Sub: R= Ri+ Rsig
C=Cs
To find Output impedance Z0:

Case (ii)Equivalent Circuit involving Cc capacitor:
Figure 4.24 Equivalent Circuit
Figure 4.25 Equivalent circuit Cc
Page 24
The output impedance of the circuit is:
Figure 4.26 Equivalent circuit
Case (iii) Equivalent Circuit involving Ce capacitor:
Figure 4.27 Equivalent circuit Ce
• Cs and Cc shorted.
• By calculating the equivalent input resistance (Rs’ = Rsig ǁ RB1 ǁ RB2 ) and reflecting
into the emitter circuit (ie ., dividing by β )
• The resistance Re seen looking into RE from the output side can be computed as:
Page 25
The Lower cutoff frequency involving Ce capacitor is: Sub: R= Re
C= Ce
fLE = 1/ 2𝝅CeRe
Cutoff frequency= Maximum (FLS,FLC,FLE)
4.8 LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF JFET COMMON SOURCE AMPLIFIER
Figure 4.28 Common Source Amplifier JFET
 The analysis of low frequencies response of FET amplifier is similar to that of BJT
amplifiers.
 At middle and high frequencies, the capacitors Cc,Csand Cg consider short circuits
because their reactance become low enough that the there are no significant voltage
drops across the capacitors.
 At low frequencies .the coupling capacitors Cc, Cs and Cg could no longer be treated
as short circuits because their reactance become high enough that the there are
significant voltage drops across the capacitors.
Page 26
Figure 4.29 Equivalent circuit CG
 The frequency analysis of high pass RC network can be used for capacitor coupled
FET amplifer circuit.
 For the portion of the circuit involving the coupling capacitors Cg, the equivalent
circuit
- Equivalent circuit assumes that the input impedance of the amplifier (Zi) is
purely resistive and is equal to Ri
Case 1 : Considering CG and other CD, CS are short circuit

The value of the input impedance (resistance) of the amplifier can be computed
R = Rsig + Ri and C =CG
Page 27
Figure 4.30 Equivalent circuit Ce with Zi
The lower cutoff frequency (half power frequency ) can be computed as
Case 2 : Considering Cc and other CG, CS are short circuit
Figure 4.31 Equivalent circuit Zo
 For the portion of the circuit involving the coupling capacitor Cc, the equivalent
circuit is shown Figure 4.31.
- Equivalent circuit assumes that the output impedance of the transistor is purely
resistive and is equal to Ro
The value of the output impedance (resistance) of the amplifier can be computed as
Zo = Ro = RD ║ rd
Page 28
If rd is equal to unity
Zo = Ro = RD
The lower cut off frequency can be computed as
fLC = 1/2𝝅(𝑹𝒐 + 𝑹𝑳)𝑪𝒄
Case 3 : Considering CS and other CG, CD are short circuit
 For the portion of the circuit involving the bypass capacitor Cs, the equivalent circuit
is shown in Figure.
- The resistance (Req)seen looking into Rs, from the output side can be computed
as:
Req = Rs ║ 1/gm
R = Req and C= CS
Figure 4.32 Equivalent circuit Cs
 The low cut off frequency of the portion of the circuit involving the bypass capacitor
Cs can be computed as:
 fLS= 1/ 2𝝅𝑹𝒆𝒒𝑪𝒔
 Overall , the effect of the capacitor Cg,Cc and Cs must be considered in determined
the low cutoff frequency of the amplifier,
 The highest lower cutoff frequency among the three cutoff frequencies will have the
greatest impact on the low cutoff frequency of the amplifier.
 If the cutoff frequencies due to the capacitors are relatively far apart , the highest low
cutoff frequencies will essentially determine the low cutoff frequency .
Page 29
4.9 HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF BJT
Figure 4.33 High frequency Response of BJT
Cbe =capacitance between the base and emitter of the transistor

Cce= capacitance between the collector and emitter of transistor
Cbc = capacitance between the base and collector of transistor
Cwi= wiring capacitor at input of amplifier
Cwo = wiring capacitor at output of amplifier
 At the higher frequency end the higher cut off frequency(-3db) of BJT circuits is
affected by:
- Network capacitance (parasitic and induced)
- Frequency dependence of the current gain hfe
 At high frequencies , the high cutoff frequency of a BJT circuit is affected by:
- The interelectrode capacitance between the base and emitter , base and
collector, collector and emitter.
- Wiring capacitor at the input and output of the BJT
- At high frequencies, the reactance of the interelectrode and wiring capacitor
become significantly low, resulting to a “shorting” effect across the capacitance
.
- The “shorting” effect at the input and output of an amplifier causes a reduction
in the gain of the amplifier
Page 30
Input and output capacitances are given by
Figure 4.34 High frequency Response – Ci capacitance
 At the high frequency end, the reactance of the capacitance Ci will deacrease as
frequency increases, resuting to reduction in the total impedance at the input side
- This will result to lower voltage across Ci, resulting to lower base current ,and
lower voltage gain
Figure 4.35 High frequency Response – Co capacitance
Page 31
 At the high frequency end , the reactance of capacitance Co will decrease as frequency
increases, resulting to reduction in the total impedance at the output side
- This will result to lower output voltage Vo, resulting to lower voltage and
power gain .
Figure 4.36 High frequency Response – Hybrid pi Model
 The hybrid 𝝅 high frequency equivalent circuit for common emitter.

 The resistance rb includes the base contact resistance (due to actual connection to the
base) base bulk resistance (resistance from external base terminal to the active region
of transistor) and base spreading resistance (actual resistance within with active region
of transistor )
 The resistances rg , r0 and ru are the resistance between the indicated
terminals
 When the BJT is in the active region
 Cbe and Cbc are the capacitance between the indicated terminals
 At the high frequency end, hfe of a BJT will be reduced as frequency increases
Page 32
 The variation of hfe with frequency can approximately be computed as:
 The upper cutoff frequency of the entire system (upper limit for the bandwidth) is
lower than the lowest upper cutoff frequency (lowest among fHi , fHO and f𝜷
 The lowest upper cutoff frequency has the greatest impact on the bandwidth of the
system. it defines a limit for the bandwidth of the system
 The lower is the upper cut off frequency, the greater is its effect on the bandwidth of
the entire system
4.10 GAIN BANDWIDTH PRODUCT:

The Gain-Bandwidth of the circuit (usually amplifier) is the product of the bandwidth and the
gain at which the bandwidth is measured. For an operational amplifier, the gain-bandwidth
product for one configuration will always equal the gain-bandwidth product for any other
configuration of the same amplifier.
Page 33
fT ≈ ( hfemid ) ( f𝜷 ) = (𝜷mid ) ( f𝜷 ) = Gain bandwidth product , since 𝜷mid is gain f𝜷 bandwidth
Bandwidth f𝜷 ≈ fT / 𝜷mid
4.11 FET High Frequency Responses
FET HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE

 The high frequency response analysis for FET is similar to that of BJT.
 At the high frequency end, the high cutoff frequency(-3db) of FET circus is affected by
the network capacitance (parasitic and induced ).
 The capacitance that affect the high frequency response of the circuit are composed of:
- The inter-electrode capacitance between the gate and source, gate and drain, and
drain and source.
- Wiring capacitance at the input and output of the circuit.
 At high frequencies, the reactance of the inter electrode and wiring capacitance
because significantly low, resulting to a “shorting” effect across the capacitances.
 The shorting effect at the input and out of an amplifier causes a reduction in the gain
of the amplifier
 For common source FET circuits, the Miller effect will be present, since it is an
inverting amplifier.
Page 34
Figure 4.37 Common source FET amplifier circuit
 Cgs = capacitance between the gate and source of transistor

 Cds = capacitance between drain and source of transistor
 Cgs = capacitance between gate and source of transistor
 Cwi = wiring capacitor at input of amplifier
 Cwo = wiring capacitance at output of amplifier
Figure 4.33 Equivalent circuit for Common source FET amplifier
 At mid and high frequencies, CG,CS , and CC are assumed to be short circuits
because Their impedances are very low.
 The input capacity Ci includes the input wiring capacitance(Cwi), the transistor
capacitance Cgs, and the input Miller capacitance CMi
 The output capacitance Co includes the output wiring capacitance (Cwo),the
transistor parasitic capacitance Cds, and the output Miller capacitance C MO.
 Typically, Cgs and Cgd are higher than Cds.
Page 35
 At high frequencies ,Ci will approach a short–circuit and Vgs will drop,
resulting to reducing in voltage gain.
 At high frequencies, Co will approach a short-circuit and Vo will drop,
resulting to reduction in voltage gain.
Figure 4.34 Equivalent circuit for Common source FET amplifier- Ci & Co capacitance
Page 36
4.12 COMMON DRAIN JFET AMPLIFIER – LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Figure 4.35 Analysis of Common drain amplifier Low frequency- Ci & Co capacitance
COMMON DRAIN JFET AMPLIFIER- HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Page 37
Figure 4.36 Analysis of Common drain amplifier High frequency- Ci & Co capacitance
4.13 COMMON GATE JFET AMPLIFIER – LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Figure 4.37 Analysis of Common gate amplifier Low frequency- Ci & Co capacitance
COMMON GATE JFET AMPLIFIER – HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Page 38
Figure 4.38 Analysis of Common gate amplifier High frequency- Ci & Co capacitance
4.14 COMMON BASE LOW FREQUENCY RESPONSE

Both voltage and current biasing follow the same rules as those applied to the common
emitter amplifier. As before, insert a blocking capacitor in the input signal path to avoid
disturbing the dc bias. The common base amplifier uses a bypass capacitor – or a direct
connection from base to ground to hold the base at ground for the signal only! The common
emitter amplifier (except for intentional RE feedback) holds the emitter at signal ground,
while the common collector circuit does the same for the collector.
Page 39
Steps 1: D C voltage sources are replaced by ground
2: D C current sources are open circuited
3: Capacitors are shorted
Case 1: Consider Cc1 and Cc2 shorted

RB is redundant
r∏ base to emitter junction r∏ / ( 1+ 𝜷)
R1 = r∏ / ( 1+ 𝜷) is parallel with RE + Rs ; C= Cc1
F1= 1 / 2∏ R1Cc1
Case 2: Consider CB and Cc1 shorted
Emitter to base (Rs ║ RE ) * (1+ 𝜷 )
R2 = { (Rs ║ RE ) * (1+ 𝜷 ) + r∏ } ║ RB
F2 =1 / 2∏ R2CB
Case 3
R3= Rc+RL
Page 40
F3 = 1 / 2∏ R3C
COMMON BASE HIGH FREQUENCY RESPONSE
Note that, unlike the CE/ER amplifier, no internal feedback capacitance exists for the
common base configuration. This is the most important characteristic of the CB stage and
means that there is no Miller effect, which means that the capacitances are smaller, which
means that the cutoff frequency will be higher.
Using the method of open circuit time constants, we can define equivalent resistances for each
of the remaining capacitances. With vS=0 and, therefore, gmvbe=0
since Cb’e and re are quite small. At such high frequencies, it is often necessary to take into
account effects that may generally be considered negligible.
 AC & DC Grounded
 Capacitance is shorted and RB is redundant
 No Miller capacitance
 C𝝅 and C𝝁 are present
 Wire capacitances are present
 Vi=0 and gm V𝝅 = 0 current source is open
Ci = Cwi + C𝝅
Co = Cwo + C𝝁
Ri= RE ║ RS ║ r∏ / ( 1+ 𝜷)
Ro = RL ║ RC
Fhi =1 / 2∏ RiCi
Fho =1 / 2∏ RoCo
Page 41
4.15.High-Frequency Response -MOSFET
(Amplifier gain falls off due to the internal capacitive effects of transistors)
Figure 4.39 Capacitive effects in MOSFET
Figure 4.40 Capacitive effects in MOSFET- Cgd,Cdb,Cgs
Page 42
MOSFET LOW FREQUENCY COMMON SOURCE RESPONSE
Figure 4.41 MOSFET Low Frequency Common Source Response- Cc1 capacitance
Figure 4.42 MOSFET Low Frequency Common Source Response- Cs capacitance
Page 43
Figure 4.43 MOSFET Low Frequency Common Source Response- Cc2 capacitance
CS High-Frequency Response –MOSFET
Figure 4.44 MOSFET High Frequency Common Source Response- Cin capacitance
Page 44
Figure 4.45 MOSFET High Frequency Common Source Response- Cin capacitance
Page 45
UNIT-V
ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS-I– SECA1302
1
UNIT 5 POWER SUPPLIES AND POWER AMPLIFIERS 9 Hrs
Linear mode power supply - Rectifiers - Half-Wave Rectifier - Full-Wave Rectifier – Filters
- L,C, LC, CLC Filter- Regulators - Zener Diode regulator - Linear series, shunt voltage
Regulators - Switched mode power supply (SMPS) - Large Signal Amplifiers - Class A,
Class B, Class C, Class D- Distortion in power amplifiers
Linear mode power supply: A regulated DC power supply is also known as a linear
power supply; it is an embedded circuit and consists of various blocks. The regulated
power supply will accept an AC input and give a constant DC output. The figure below
shows the block diagram of a typical regulated DC power supply.
Figure 5.1 Block diagram of linear regulated power supply
• Linear regulated power supplies gain their name from the fact that they use linear,
i.e. non-switching techniques to regulate the voltage output from the power
supply.
• The term linear power supply implies that the power supply is regulated to
provide the correct voltage at the output.
• The voltage is sensed and this signal is fed back, normally into some form of
differential amplifier where it is compared with a reference voltage, and resulting
signal is used to ensure the output remains on the required voltage.
2
Figure 5.2 Differential Amplifier
Power supply input transformer:
• As many regulated power supplies take their source power from an AC mains
input, it is common for linear power supplies to have a step down or occasionally
a step up transformer.
• This also serves to isolate the power supply from the mains input for safety.
• The transformer is typically a relatively large electronic component, especially if

it is used in a higher power linear regulated power supply.
• The transformer can add significant weight to the power supply, and can also be
quite costly, especially for the higher power ones.
Rectifier:
• As the input from an AC supply is alternating, this needs to be converted to a DC

format. Various forms of rectifier circuit are available.
• The simplest form of rectifier that could be used in a power supply is a single
diode, providing half wave rectification. This approach is not normally used
because it is more difficult to satisfactorily smooth the output.
• Normally full wave rectification, using both halves of the cycle is used. This
provides a waveform that can be more easily smoothed.
• There are two main approaches to providing half wave rectification. One is to use
a centre tapped transformer and two diodes. The other is to use a single
winding on the power supply transformer and to use a bridge rectifier with four
diodes.
• As diodes are very cheap, and the cost of providing a centre tapped transformer is
more, the most common approach these days is to use a bridge rectifier.
3
Power supply smoothing:
Figure 5.3 Smoothing action of a Capacitor
Once rectified from an AC signal, the DC needs to be smoothed to remove the

varying voltage level. Large reservoir capacitors are used for this.
The smoothing element of the circuit uses a large capacitor. This charges up as the
incoming waveform from the rectifier rises to its peak. As the voltage of the rectified
waveform falls away, once the voltage is below that of the capacitor, the capacitor
starts to supply charge, holding the voltage up, until the next rising waveform from
the rectifier.
Linear power supply regulators:
• There are two main types of linear power supply:
4
Figure 5.4 Shunt and Series regulator
• Shunt regulator: The shunt regulator is less widely used as the main element
within a linear voltage regulator. For this form of linear power supply, a variable
element is placed across the load.
• There is a source resistor placed in series with the input, and the shunt regulator is
varied to ensure that the voltage across the load remains constant.
• Series regulator: This is the most widely used format for a linear voltage
regulator. As the name implies a series element is placed in the circuit, and its
resistance varied via the control electronics to ensure that the correct output
voltage is generated for the current taken.
• A reference voltage is used to drive the series pass element which may be a
bipolar transistor or a FET. The reference may just be a voltage taken from a
reference voltage source, e.g. an electronic component such as a Zener diode.
Linear power supply advantages / disadvantages
• The use of any technology is often a careful balance of several advantages and
disadvantages. This is true for linear power supplies which offer some distinct
advantages, but also have their drawbacks.
5
Linear PSU advantages Established technology:
Linear power supplies have been in widespread use for many years and their 2
technology is well established and understood. Low noise: The use of the linear
technology without any switching element means that noise is kept to a minimum
and the annoying spikes found in switching power supplies are now found.
Linear PSU disadvantages Efficiency: In view of the fact that a linear power
supply uses linear technology, it is not particularly efficient. Efficiencies of
around 50% are not uncommon, and under some conditions they may offer much
lower levels.
Heat dissipation: The use of a series or parallel (less common) regulating

element means that significant amounts of heat are dissipated and this needs to be
removed.
Size: The use of linear technology means that the size of a linear power supply
tends to be larger than other forms of power supply. Despite the disadvantages,
linear regulated power supply technology is still widely used, although it is more
widely used where low noise and good regulation are needed. One typical
application is for audio amplifiers where the linear supply is able to provide
optimum performance for powering all the stages of the amplifier.
Rectifiers
• The main application of p-n junction diode is in rectification circuits.
• These circuits are used to describe the conversion of A.C signals to D.C in
power supplies.
• A rectifier is an electrical device that converts alternating current (AC),

which periodically reverses direction, to direct current (DC), which flows
in only one direction.
• Diode rectifier gives an alternating voltage which pulsates in accordance

with time. The filter smoothes the pulsation in the voltage and to produce
D.C voltage, a regulator is used which removes the ripples.
• There are two primary methods of diode rectification:
6
1. Half Wave Rectifier
2. Full Wave Rectifier
Half Wave Rectifier
• In a half-wave rectifier, one half of each a.c input cycle is rectified.
• When the p-n junction diode is forward biased, it gives little resistance and when
it is reversing biased it provides high resistance.
• During one-half cycles, the diode is forward biased when the input voltage is
applied and in the opposite half cycle, it is reverse biased.
Figure 5.5 Half Wave Rectifier
• When A.C supply is applied to the transformer, the voltage will be decreasing at
the secondary winding of the diode. All the variations in the A.C supply will
reduce, and we will get the pulsating D.C voltage to the load resistor.
• In the second half cycle, the current will flow from negative to positive and
the diode will be reverse biased. Thus, at the output side, there will be no current
generated; a small amount of reverse current will flow during reverse bias due to
minority carriers.
7
Figure 5.6 Working of Half Wave Rectifier
Average DC Load Current (IDC)
Figure 5.7 Load voltage wave forms for half wave rectifier
8
Average DC Load Voltage (EDC)
9
R.M.S value of Load Current (IRMS)
10
DC Power Output (PDC)
AC Power Input (PAC)
11
Rectifier Efficiency (η)
Ripple Factor (γ)
• Ripples are the oscillations that are obtained in DC which is corrected by using
filters such as inductors and capacitors.
• These ripples are measured with the help of the ripple factor and are denoted by γ.
• Ripple factor tells us the number of ripples presents in the output DC. Higher the
ripple factor, more is the oscillation at the output DC and lower is the ripple
factor, less is the oscillation at the output DC.
• Ripple factor is the ratio of RMS value of the AC component of the output voltage
to the DC component of the output voltage.
12
Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
13
Load Current
14
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
Fig 5.8 PIV rating of a Diode
15
Voltage Regulation
Disadvantages of Half Wave Rectifier
16
Characteristics of Half Wave Rectifier
Following are the characteristics of half-wave rectifier:
Ripple Factor
• Ripples are the oscillations that are obtained in DC which is corrected by using
filters such as inductors and capacitors.
• These ripples are measured with the help of the ripple factor and are denoted by γ.
• Ripple factor tells us the number of ripples presents in the output DC. Higher the
ripple factor, more is the oscillation at the output DC and lower is the ripple
factor, less is the oscillation at the output DC.
• Ripple factor is the ratio of RMS value of the AC component of the output
voltage to the DC component of the output voltage.
Full wave Rectifier
17
Figure 5.9 Working of Full Wave Rectifier (+ve half cycle)
18
Figure 5.10 Working of Full Wave Rectifier (-ve Half Cycle)
19
Figure 5.11 Current and voltage wave forms at load for full wave rectifier
Average DC Load Current (IDC)
20
Average DC Load Voltage (EDC)
21
R.M.S value of Load Current (IRMS)
DC Power Output (PDC)
22
AC Power Output (PAC)
Rectifier Efficiency (η)
23
Ripple Factor (γ)
Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV)
24
Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF)
25
26
Figure 5.12 Working of Bridge Wave Rectifier (+ve Half Cycle)
Figure 5.13 Working of Bridge Wave Rectifier (-ve Half Cycle)
27
Comparison of Rectifier Circuits
28
FILTERS
Figure 5.14 Power supply using rectifier and filter
29
Capacitor Input Filter
Figure 5.15 Capacitor input filter
Full wave rectifier with capacitor input filter
Figure 5.16 Full wave Rectifier with Capacitor input

filter
30
Figure 5.17. Charging and discharging of Capacitor input filter
31
Figure 5.18. Half wave Rectifier with Capacitor filter
Bridge rectifier with capacitor filter
Figure 5.19. Bridge Rectifier with Capacitor filter
32
Expression for Ripple Factor
Figure 5.20 Derivation for ripple factor
Figure 5.21.Triangular Approximation of ripple voltage
33
34
Advantages and Disadvantages of Capacitor input filter
Inductor Filter or Choke Filter
35
Figure 5.22 (a) Circuit diagram of choke filter
Fig.5.22 (b) Current waveform of choke filter
Operation of Inductor filter
36
37
Expression for the ripple factor
38
LC Filter or L section Filter
Figure 5.23 Choke Input Filter
39
Derivation of Ripple Factor
Figure 5.24 Diagram for derivation of ripple factor
40
41
42
Advantages of Bleeder Resistor
43
CLC Filter or π Filter
44
Figure 5.25 π type filter
Ripple factor for π filter
45
Advantages and Disadvantages of π Filter
46
Comparison of Filter Circuits
Regulators
47
Figure 5.26 Voltage Regulator
Voltage Regulator Characteristics
Load Regulation:
Line Regulation or Source Regulation:
48
Basic Voltage Regulator
Types of Voltage Regulators
Shunt Voltage Regulator
49
Series Voltage Regulator
Zener diode as a shunt regulator
Figure. 5.29 Zener diode as a shunt regulator

50
Regulation with varying input voltage
51
Regulation with varying Load
52
Advantages of IC Voltage Regulators
Classification of IC Voltage Regulators
Figure 5.32 Classification of IC regulators
Three terminal fixed voltage regulators
Figure 5.33 Three terminal voltage regulators

53
IC series of 3 terminal fixed voltage regulators
54
Adjustable regulator using 78XX series
Need of Switched Mode Power Supply
55
Block diagram of SMPS
56
Figure 5.35 Block diagram of switched mode power supply
57
Figure 5.36 Waveforms of switched mode power supply
58
59
Power Amplifiers/Large signal Amplifiers
One method used to distinguish the electrical characteristics of different

types of amplifiers is by “class”, and as such amplifiers are classified according to
their circuit configuration and method of operation. Then Amplifier Classes is the
term used to differentiate between the different amplifier types. Amplifier Classes
represent the amount of the output signal which varies within the amplifier
circuit over one cycle of operation when excited by a sinusoidal input signal. The
classification of amplifiers range from entirely linear operation (for use in high-
fidelity signal amplification) with very low efficiency, to entirely nonlinear (where
a faithful signal reproduction is not so important) operation but with a much
higher efficiency, while others are a compromise between the two.
Amplifier classes are mainly lumped into two basic groups. The first are
the classically controlled conduction angle amplifiers forming the more common
amplifier classes of A, B, AB and C, which are defined by the length of their
conduction state over some portion of the output waveform, such that the output
stage transistor operation lies somewhere between being “fully- ON” and “fully-
OFF”.
The second set of amplifiers are the newer so called “switching” amplifier
classes of D, E, F, G, S, T etc, which use digital circuits and pulse width
modulation (PWM) to constantly switch the signal between “fully-ON” and
“fully-OFF” driving the output hard into the transistors saturation and cutoff
regions.
60
Class A Amplifier
Figure 5.37 Class A Amplifier and its output characteristics
To achieve high linearity and gain, the output stage of a class A amplifier
is biased “ON” (conducting) all the time. Then for an amplifier to be classified
as “Class A” the zero signal idle current in the output stage must be equal to or
greater than the maximum load current (usually a loudspeaker) required to
produce the largest output signal. As a class A amplifier operates in the linear
portion of its characteristic curves, the single output device conducts through a
full 360 degrees of the output waveform. Then the class A amplifier is equivalent to
a current source.
The output characteristics with operating point Q is shown in the figure above. Here
(Ic)Q and (Vce)Q represent no signal collector current and voltage between collector
and emitter respectively. When signal is applied, the Q-point shifts to Q1 and Q2.
61
The output current increases to (Ic)max and decreases to (Ic)min. Similarly, the
collector-emitter voltage increases to (Vce)max and decreases to (Vce)min.
D.C Power drawn from collector battery Vcc is given by
62
63
Advantages of Class A Amplifiers
The advantages of Class A power amplifier are as follows −

The current flows for complete input cycle
It can amplify small signals
The output is same as input
No distortion is present
Disadvantages of Class A Amplifiers

Low power output
Low collector efficiency
Transformer coupled class A power amplifier
The circuit in which the output current flows for the entire cycle of the AC input
supply.
The disadvantage is that it has low output power and efficiency.
In order to minimize those effects, the transformer coupled class A power
amplifier has been introduced.
It is similar to the normal amplifier circuit but connected with a transformer in the
collector load.
64
Figure 5.38 Transformer coupled Class A Amplifier
Here R1 and R2 provide potential divider arrangement. The resistor Re provides

stabilization, Ce is the bypass capacitor and Re to prevent a.c. voltage.
The transformer used here is a step-down transformer.
The high impedance primary of the transformer is connected to the high
impedance collector circuit. The low impedance secondary is connected to the load
(generally loud speaker).
Transformer Action
The transformer used in the collector circuit is for impedance matching. RL is the
load connected in the secondary of a transformer. RL’ is the reflected load in the
primary of the transformer.
The number of turns in the primary are n1 and the secondary are n2. Let V1 and
V2 be the primary and secondary voltages and I1 and I2 be the primary and
secondary currents respectively.
65
Figure 5.39 Transformer action
Circuit Operation
If the peak value of the collector current due to signal is equal to zero signal
collector current, then the maximum a.c. power output is obtained. So, in order to
achieve complete amplification, the operating point should lie at the center of the
load line.
The operating point obviously varies when the signal is applied. The collector
voltage varies in opposite phase to the collector current. The variation of collector
66
voltage appears across the primary of the transformer.
Advantages
The advantages of transformer coupled class A power amplifier are as follows.
No loss of signal power in the base or collector resistors.
Excellent impedance matching is achieved.
Gain is high.
DC isolation is provided.
Disadvantages
The disadvantages of transformer coupled class A power amplifier are as follows.
Low frequency signals are less amplified comparatively.
Hum noise is introduced by transformers.
Transformers are bulky and costly.
Poor frequency response.
Applications
The applications of transformer coupled class A power amplifier are as follows.
This circuit is where impedance matching is the main criterion.
67
These are used as driver amplifiers and sometimes as output amplifiers.
Push-Pull Class A Power Amplifier
The main problems that should be dealt with are low power output and efficiency.
It is possible to obtain greater power output and efficiency than that of the Class A
amplifier by using a combinational transistor pair called as Push-
Pull configuration.
two complementary transistors in the output stage with one transistor being an
NPN or N-channel type while the other transistor is a PNP or P-channel (the
complement) type connected in order to operate them like PUSH a transistor to
ON and PULL another transistor to OFF at the same time. This push-pull
68
configuration can be made in class A, class B, class C or class AB amplifiers.
Construction of Push-Pull Class A Power Amplifier

The construction of the class A power amplifier circuit in push-pull configuration
is shown as in the figure below. This arrangement mainly reduces the harmonic
distortion introduced by the non-linearity of the transfer characteristics of a single
transistor amplifier.
Figure.5.40 Push-Pull Class A Power Amplifier

In Push-pull arrangement, the two identical transistors T1 and T2 have their
emitter terminals shorted. The input signal is applied to the transistors through the
transformer Tr1 which provides opposite polarity signals to both the transistor
bases. The collectors of both the transistors are connected to the primary of output
transformer Tr2. Both the transformers are center tapped. The VCC supply is
provided to the collectors of both the transistors through the primary of the output
transformer.
The resistors R1 and R2 provide the biasing arrangement. The load is generally a
loudspeaker which is connected across the secondary of the output transformer.
The turns ratio of the output transformer is chosen in such a way that the load is
well matched with the output impedance of the transistor. So maximum power is
69
delivered to the load by the amplifier.
Circuit Operation
The output is collected from the output transformer Tr2. The primary of this
transformer Tr2 has practically no dc component through it. The transistors
T1 and T2 have their collectors connected to the primary of transformer Tr2 so
that their currents are equal in magnitude and flow in opposite directions through
the primary of transformer Tr2.
When the a.c. input signal is applied, the base of transistor T1 is more positive
while the base of transistor T2 is less positive. Hence the collector current ic1 of
transistor T1 increases while the collector current ic2 of transistor T2 decreases.
These currents flow in opposite directions in two halves of the primary of output
transformer. Moreover, the flux produced by these currents will also be in opposite
directions.
70
The overall operation results in an a.c. voltage induced in the secondary of output
transformer and hence a.c. power is delivered to that load.
It is understood that, during any given half cycle of input signal, one transistor is
being driven (or pushed) deep into conduction while the other being non-
conducting (pulled out). Hence the name Push-pull amplifier. The harmonic
distortion in Push-pull amplifier is minimized such that all the even harmonics are
eliminated.
Figure.5.41 Output Waveform in Push-Pull Class A Power Amplifier
Advantages
High a.c. output is obtained.
The output is free from even harmonics.
The effect of ripple voltages are balanced out. These are present in the power
supply due to inadequate filtering.
Disadvantages
The transistors are to be identical, to produce equal amplification.
Center-tapping is required for the transformers.
71
The transformers are bulky and costly.
Class B Amplifier
Class B amplifiers were invented as a solution to the efficiency and heating

problems associated with the previous class A amplifier. The basic class B
amplifier uses two complimentary transistors either bipolar of FET for each half
of the waveform with its output stage configured in a “push-pull” type
arrangement, so that each transistor device amplifies only half of the output
waveform.
When the input signal goes positive, the positive biased transistor conducts
while the negative transistor is switched “OFF”. Likewise, when the input signal
goes negative, the positive transistor switches “OFF” while the negative biased
transistor turns “ON” and conducts the negative portion of the signal. Thus
the transistor conducts only half of the time, either on positive or negative
half cycle of the input signal. Then we can see that each transistor device of the
class B amplifier only conducts through one half or 180 degrees of the output
waveform in strict time alternation, but as the output stage has devices for both
halves of the signal waveform the two halves are combined together to produce
the full linear output waveform.
More clearly, when the collector current flows only during the positive half cycle
of the input signal, the power amplifier is known as class B power amplifier.
The biasing of the transistor in class B operation is in such a way that at zero
signal condition, there will be no collector current. The operating point is selected
to be at collector cut off voltage. So, when the signal is applied, only the positive
half cycle is amplified at the output.
When the signal is applied, the circuit is forward biased for the positive half cycle
of the input and hence the collector current flows. But during the negative half
cycle of the input, the circuit is reverse biased and the collector current will be
72
absent. Hence only the positive half cycle is amplified at the output.
As the negative half cycle is completely absent, the signal distortion will be high.
Also, when the applied signal increases, the power dissipation will be more. But
when compared to class A power amplifier, the output efficiency is increased.
Well, in order to minimize the disadvantages and achieve low distortion, high
efficiency and high output power, the push-pull configuration is used in this class
B amplifier.
Class B Push-Pull Amplifier
Though the efficiency of class B power amplifier is higher than class A, as only
one half cycle of the input is used, the distortion is high. Also, the input power is
not completely utilized. In order to compensate these problems, the push-pull
configuration is introduced in class B amplifier.
Construction
The circuit of a push-pull class B power amplifier consists of two identical

transistors T1 and T2 whose bases are connected to the secondary of the center-
tapped input transformer Tr1. The emitters are shorted and the collectors are
given the VCC supply through the primary of the output transformer Tr2.
The circuit arrangement of class B push-pull amplifier, is same as that of class A

push-pull amplifier except that the transistors are biased at cut off, instead of
using the biasing resistors. The figure below gives the detailing of the construction
of a push-pull class B power amplifier.
73
Figure 5.42 Class B Amplifier
74
Figure 5.43 Output wave forms of Class B Amplifier
The transformers are center-tapped. When no signal is applied at the input, the
transistors T1 and T2 are in cut off condition and hence no collector currents flow.
As no current is drawn from VCC, no power is wasted.
When input signal is given, it is applied to the input transformer Tr1 which splits
the signal into two signals that are 180o out of phase with each other. These two
signals are given to the two identical transistors T1 and T2. For the positive half
cycle, the base of the transistor T1 becomes positive and collector current flows. At
the same time, the transistor T2 has negative half cycle, which throws the
transistor T2 into cutoff condition and hence no collector current flows.
For the next half cycle, the transistor T1 gets into cut off condition and the
transistor T2 gets into conduction, to contribute the output. Hence for both the
cycles, each transistor conducts alternately. The output transformer Tr3 serves to
join the two currents producing an almost undistorted output waveform.
75
76
Complementary Symmetry Push-Pull Class B Amplifier
The push pull amplifier which was just discussed improves efficiency but the usage
of center-tapped transformers makes the circuit bulky, heavy and costly. To make
the circuit simple and to improve the efficiency, the transistors used can be
complemented
Figure 5.44 Complementary Symmetry Push-Pull Class B Amplifier
The above circuit employs a NPN transistor and a PNP transistor connected in push
pull configuration. When the input signal is applied, during the positive half cycle of
the input signal, the NPN transistor conducts and the PNP transistor cuts off.
During the negative half cycle, the NPN transistor cuts off and the PNP transistor
conducts.
In this way, the NPN transistor amplifies during positive half cycle of the input,
while PNP transistor amplifies during negative half cycle of the input. As the
transistors are both complement to each other, yet act symmetrically while being
connected in push pull configuration of class B, this circuit is termed
as Complementary symmetry push pull class B amplifier.
Advantages
As there is no need of center tapped transformers, the weight and cost are reduced.
77
Equal and opposite input signal voltages are not required.
Disadvantages
It is difficult to get a pair of transistors (NPN and PNP) that have similar
characteristics.
We require both positive and negative supply voltages.
Class AB Amplifier
As its name suggests, the Class AB Amplifier is a combination of the “Class A” and
the “Class B” type amplifiers. The AB classification of amplifier is currently one of
the most common used types of audio power amplifier design. The class AB
amplifier is a variation of a class B amplifier as described above, except that both
devices are allowed to conduct at the same time around the wave forms crossover
point eliminating the crossover distortion problems of the previous class B
amplifier.
**a new circuit which would have all the advantages of both class A and class B
Cross-over Distortion
In the push-pull configuration, the two identical transistors get into conduction, one
after the other and the output produced will be the combination of both.
When the signal changes or crosses over from one transistor to the other at the zero
voltage point, it produces an amount of distortion to the output wave shape. For a
transistor in order to conduct, the base emitter junction should cross 0.7v, the cut
off voltage. The time taken for a transistor to get ON from OFF or to get OFF from
ON state is called the transition period.
At the zero voltage point, the transition period of switching over the transistors
from one to the other, has its effect which leads to the instances where both the
transistors are OFF at a time. Such instances can be called as Flat spot or Dead
band on the output wave shape
This cross over distortion effect also reduces the overall peak to peak value of the
output waveform which in turn reduces the maximum power output.
78
It is understood that this cross-over distortion is less pronounced for large input
signals, where as it causes severe disturbance for small input signals. This cross over
distortion can be eliminated if the conduction of the amplifier is more than one half
cycle, so that both the transistors won’t be OFF at the same time.
This idea leads to the invention of class AB amplifier, which is the combination of
both class A and class B amplifiers.
Figure 5.45 Cross over Distortion
As the name implies, class AB is a combination of class A and class B type of

amplifiers. As class A has the problem of low efficiency and class B has distortion
problem, this class AB is emerged to eliminate these two problems, by utilizing the
advantages of both the classes.
The cross over distortion is the problem that occurs when both the transistors are
OFF at the same instant, during the transition period. In order to eliminate this, the
condition has to be chosen for more than one half cycle. Hence, the other transistor
gets into conduction, before the operating transistor switches to cut off state. This is
achieved only by using class AB configuration.
79
Figure 5.46 Class AB Amplifier
Therefore, in class AB amplifier design, each of the push-pull transistors is
conducting for slightly more than the half cycle of conduction in class B, but much
less than the full cycle of conduction of class A.
The conduction angle of class AB amplifier is somewhere between 180o to
360o depending upon the operating point selected.
80
Figure 5.47 Output wave forms of Class AB Amplifier
The small bias voltage given using diodes D1 and D2, as shown in the above figure,
helps the operating point to be above the cutoff point. Hence the output waveform of
class AB results as seen in the above figure. The crossover distortion created by
class B is overcome by this class AB, as well the inefficiencies of class A and B don’t
affect the circuit.
So, the class AB is a good compromise between class A and class B in terms of
efficiency and linearity having the efficiency reaching about 50% to 60%. The class
A, B and AB amplifiers are called as linear amplifiers because the output signal
amplitude and phase are linearly related to the input signal amplitude and phase.
81
The advantage of this small bias voltage, provided by series diodes or resistors, is
that the crossover distortion created by the class B amplifier characteristics is
overcome, without the inefficiencies of the class A amplifier design. •So the class
AB amplifier is a good compromise between class A and class B in terms of
efficiency and linearity, with conversion efficiency reaching about 50% to 60%
Class C Power Amplifier
Class C Power Amplifier design has the greatest efficiency but the poorest linearity
of the classes of amplifiers mentioned here. The previous classes, A, B and AB are
considered linear amplifiers, as the output signals amplitude and phase are linearly
related to the input signals amplitude and phase. However, the class C amplifier is
heavily biased so that the output current is zero for more than one half of an input
sinusoidal signal cycle with the transistor idling at its cut-off point.
When the collector current flows for less than half cycle of the input signal, the
power amplifier is known as class C power amplifier.
The efficiency of class C amplifier is high while linearity is poor. The conduction
angle for class C is less than 180o. It is generally around 90o, which means the
transistor remains idle for more than half of the input signal. So, the output
current will be delivered for less time compared to the application of input signal.
This kind of biasing gives a much improved efficiency of around 80% to the
amplifier, but introduces heavy distortion in the output signal. Using the class C
amplifier, the pulses produced at its output can be converted to complete sine wave
of a particular frequency by using LC circuits in its collector circuit.
82
Figure 5.48.Class C Amplifier
Due to its heavy audio distortion, class C amplifiers are commonly used in high
frequency sine wave oscillators and certain types of radio frequency amplifiers,
where the pulses of current produced at the amplifiers output can be converted to
complete sine waves of a particular frequency by the use of LC resonant circuits
in its collector circuit.
Class D Power Amplifier
A Class D audio amplifier is basically a non-linear switching amplifier or PWM

amplifier. Class-D amplifiers theoretically can reach 100% efficiency, as there is
no period during a cycle were the voltage and current wave forms overlap as
current is drawn only through the transistor that is on.
83
Figure 5.49.Block Diagram of Class D Amplifier
Amplifier Classes and Efficiency
Figure 5.50. Amplifier classes and their efficiency

84
Amplifier Class by Conduction Angle
Crossover Distortion
When the dc base voltage is zero, both transistors are off and the input signal
voltage must exceed VBE before a transistor conducts. Because of this, there is a
time interval between the positive and negative alternations of the input when
neither transistor is conducting, as shown in Figure. The resulting distortion in the
output waveform is called crossover distortion.
Figure 5.51. Cross over distortion

Electronic Circuits I

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SCHOOL OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

UNIT – I – ELECTRONIC CIRCUITS I – SECA1302

Figure 2. BJT (2 junctions) Figure 3. BJT (3region of operations)

Input signal Amplified output signal

Figure 6. Configuration of transistor

Figure 7. Transistor Biasing

Factors that affect the operating point

In a transistor amplifier, both dc and ac conditions prevail. The dc sources set up dc

There are different methods in AC and DC analysis as shown in figure 12.

Figure 12. Methods of BJT analysis

Figure 13.DC load line

Step 3: Output DC operating point

+Vcc - IcRc - VCE = 0

Figure 14. Operating point

Need for Stabilization

Methods of Transistor Biasing

Figure 18. Fixed bias circuit Analysis

Stability factor S’’- Fixed Bias

Figure 19. Collector to base bias circuit Analysis

Apply KVL at the output side

Stability factor S’’

Figure 21. Fixed bias with emitter resistor

Figure 22. Stability factor

Stability factor S’:

For JFETs and Depletion-Type MOSFETs:

Figure 24. Fixed bias circuit

Figure 25. fixed bias analysis

Output loop KVL:

• Using below tables, we can draw the graph

Figure 26. Q point

Figure 27. Self bias FET

For p-channel JFET

KVL for Output Loop:

Figure 29. N channel JFET

Using Kirchoff’s Law on the Output loop:

1. Plot the line: By plotting two points:

Figure 31. Zero bias

Figure 33. Voltage divider bias

E-MOSFET FEEDBACK BIASING

Figure 35. Feedback biasing

Figure 37. Voltage Divider biasing

Figure 39. Two port Network

Hybrid parameters or h-parameters are used to determine amplifier characteristic

Two Port Network:

Fig 2.1 Two Port Network

Fig 2.2 Hybrid Model of a Two Port Network

Fig 2.3 General Amplifier Circuit

Fig 2.4 Hybrid Model of Amplifier

Fig 2.6 Hybrid Model of a Common Emitter BJT

Transistor Circuit Performance in h Parameters

Using standard h parameter, its value for CE will be

Current Gain: The general expression for current gain is

Using standard h parameter, its value for CE will be

Voltage Gain: The general expression for voltage gain is

Using standard h parameter, its value for CE will be

Fig 2.7 Hybrid Model of a Common Base BJT

Table 2.2 h parameters for transistor configuration

Common Common Common