CHAPTER 3 BJT

AC ANALYSIS
Part 3
By
Wan Rosmaria Wan Ahmad
For ELE424/ELE422
OCT 2022 – FEB2023
Content of BJT AC Small-Signal
Analysis
1. Introduction
2. AC Equivalent Network & BJT Transistor Modelling
3. re Transistor Model
4. Fixed-bias
5. Emitter Stabilized Bias (Bypassed & Unbypassed RE)
6. Voltage Divider Bias (with bypass capacitor)
7. Emitter Follower
8. Common-Base Amplifier
9. Collector Feedback Amplifier
10. Effect of RL and RS
 Introduction: BJT Amplifiers in General
The BJT in the amp is biased at a
• BJTs can be used as amplifying devices that enable voltage, Q-point by a dc biasing circuit, and
current, or power level of an input signal to be increased (i.e. fed with an ac signal that it needs
amplified). to amplify.
• In order for a BJT circuit to amplify without distortion, the BJT
needs to be dc biased in the operating region that is required.
(Recall: For linear amplification, BJT should be in active region:
EB forward biased and CB to be reverse biased). We know how
to analyze the dc requirements from the previous subtopic.
• But how do we analyze the circuit effect to the ac signal?
• Firstly, it depends on the amplitude of the ac signal wrt the dc
operating conditions.
In small-signal amplifiers, main
• If the magnitude is small and will not change the operating point
significantly, we can use ‘small-signal analysis’ method. factors are usually amplification
Otherwise, the treatment will follow ‘large-signal analysis’. linearity and magnitude of gain.

There is also another category,

which is power amplifiers. Power
Amp require large signal analysis.
Introduction: Amplification in the ac
domain
• Amplifiers are intended to produce output
sinusoidal signals that are greater than the input
sinusoidal signals, i.e. the output ac power is
greater than the input ac power.
• Where does the power come from? The dc power
provides the necessary output ac power increase.
• To illustrate:
• Consider a circuit that has a dc supply. Then, consider
a device added to it (just like a BJT) with a controlling
signal (just like small-signal ac).
• The control mechanism is such that the application of
a relatively small signal to the control mechanism can
result in a substantial oscillation in the output circuit.
• The output current has an ac component riding on the
dc value, keeping the conservation of energy in place.
 Introduction: Amplification in the ac domain
Illustrating effect on BJT output behavior with ac
input

Example: CE amp with DC biasing conditions calculated as

above. We want to see the effect on BJT output characteristics
when ac input signal is fed to B at 60 μA peak-to-peak.

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/
Introduction: Amplification in the ac domain
Illustrating Linear Amplification/ Distortion

http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/
Introduction: Amplifier from DC to AC
Analysis
• For the analysis on the effect of the amplifier to the input signal, we will treat dc and ac separately using
the superposition theorem.
• The superposition theorem allows the dc and ac analysis to be added.
• A complete dc analysis of a system to be done before considering the ac response.
• Once the dc analysis is complete, the ac response can be determined using ac analysis.
• From DC to AC analysis:
• To do dc analysis we draw the dc equivalent circuit, and do the analysis on the input loop and
output loop. There will be parameters from dc analysis that is required in the ac analysis.
• Then, we draw the ac equivalent circuit. The BJT is replaced with ac model. The amplifier circuit is
redrawn and labelled as a 2-port network. Then, we do circuit analysis for input and output
impedance (Zin and Zout), and gain (Av).
• The complete response is addition of the dc and ac analysis.
AC Equivalent Network/BJT Transistor Modelling
1. Two-Port Network
2. Finding AC Equivalent Network
AC Equivalent Network: AC Analysis

• When the BJT amplifier dc analysis has established that the

BJT is operating at the Q-point that is required, we enter ac
analysis. The BJT is replaced with the ac model when doing
ac analysis. For this course, the re model is used.
• For re model in a common-emitter configuration, the value
of IE is required from dc analysis to proceed with ac
analysis.
• The previous slide says that ac analysis involves:
parameters from dc analysis -> ac equivalent circuit -> BJT
ac model -> amplifier circuit as a 2-port network -> analysis
Zin and Zout and Av.
• This section explains the ac equivalent circuit and the
treatment of the amplifier circuit as a 2-port network.
Revision:
Capacitance and Coupling Capacitors

• Capacitance are reactive devices: its

impedance depends on the frequency. To
low frequency signals, C has high
impedance. To high frequency, C has low
impedance.
• In general, role of coupling capacitors is
to allow only the AC signal to be passed
from one circuit element to another. The
capacitor blocks the DC signal from http://www.learningaboutelectronics.com
entering the second element. /Articles/What-is-a-coupling-capacitor
AC Equivalent Network:
Capacitors in the Amplifier
• Consider the CE amp as an example to aid our discussion.
• BJT amplifiers have coupling capacitors C1 and C2 at the input and
output to ensure that only the ac component of input signal is taken
in/sent out.
• This means that the common-emitter amplifier is biased only by the dc
biasing circuit. Any other dc levels from the connecting circuit is
blocked by C1 thus does not interfere with the biasing levels that set Q-
point.
• C3 is a bypassed capacitor. It is sometimes added to increase voltage
gain and avoid fluctuations in IE that affects re. The DC levels from the
biasing circuit maintains to provide feedback and stabilization, but the
ac is channeled to the GND.
• When doing dc analysis, to form dc equivalent circuits, capacitors are
treated as open circuits.
• When doing ac analysis, to form ac equivalent circuits, capacitors are
treated as short circuits.
 AC Equivalent Network:
Forming the AC Equivalent Circuit
To form the ac equivalent circuit of a given
amplifier:
• Set all dc sources to zero and replace them by a
short-circuit equivalent.
• Replace all capacitors by a short circuit
equivalent.
• Remove all elements bypassed by the short-
circuit equivalents introduced by steps 1 and 2.
• Redraw the network in a more convenient and
logical form and label the current
 Revision:
Two-port Network
• Any network with input and output
terminals (such as the transistor
network here) can be represented by a
2-port network with the voltage and
current notation shown.
• Ii: input current, Io: output current
• Even though the network appearance in • Zi: input impedance (impedance when looking into the
the system block may change, the system)
quantities represented by the reduced • Zo: output impedance (impedance when looking
network must be the same as defined back to the system.
by the original network. • Vi and Vo has positive terminal at the point that Ii and
Io enters the system
• Av = Vo / Vi -> Voltage gain of the system
• Ai = Io / Ii -> Current gain of the system
 AC Equivalent Network:
The AC Equivalent Circuit as a 2-port Network
• Redraw the network in a more convenient
and logical form, replace the BJT with the ac
model, and label the current voltage
parameters of a 2-port network.
• Input:
• Vi: Input voltage as the voltage from B to
ground, and
• Zi: Input impedance is defined from B to
ground,
• Ii: Input current as the Ib
• Output:
• Vo: The output voltage as the voltage
from collector to ground, and
• Io: The output current as the current
through the load resistor RC.
• Zo: Output impedance is defined from C
to ground,
re Transistor Model
1. The Model in CE Configuration
2. Theory behind the elements in the model
3. The Model in CB Configuration
re Model:
Introduction to BJT AC Model

• We will replace the BJT with an ac model when we do small-signal ac

analysis. An “ac model” is an equivalent circuit that represents the ac
characteristics of the transistor.
• There are 3 models commonly used in small signal ac analysis of a transistor:
• re model
• Hybrid π model
• Hybrid equivalent model
• For this course, we will cover re model.
• For future advanced courses with high frequency switching, hybrid models
will be considered – but not for this course.
The re model in CE configuration

• We will replace the BJT with the re model.

• It consists of resistor β re, dependent current source βIb and an output resistor ro.
• To find the value re, we need IE found from dc analysis.
• The applied voltage Vi is equal to the voltage Vbe with the input current being the base current Ib.
• For the common-collector configuration, the model defined for the common-emitter configuration is
normally applied.
The re model in CE configuration:
Explaining βre
• At the input, BE forward-biased junction input
characteristics is just like a forward biased diode.
• But a diode is still not a passive element for the
model. It is replaced by its equivalent resistance re:

• The value of IE comes from dc analysis.

• In the re model, the resistance between B and E is
re because it is representing input impedance
value Zi.
• Typical values of is 50 to 200, with values of 𝑒
typically a few hundred ohms to 6 or 7 kohm
The re model in CE configuration:
Explaining βIb and ro Or, if VA is not available, r can o

be found from slope of curve

• In the model, Ic is represented by a dependent current source
Ic= βIb
• In reality, IC characteristics have a slope in the active region. Or, ro can be
This slope is represented by ro. determined
• The steeper the slope, the less the ro, and the less ideal the from data
transistor. A good transistor has high output impedance i.e. sheets, hoe
large ro. Value ro is typically in the range of 40 kΩ to 50 k Ω.
• EARLY VOLTAGE VA: If the slope of the curves is extended In terms of Early Voltage
until they reach the horizontal axis, they will all intersect at a and dc Q-point IC
voltage called the Early voltage.
• Output resistance ro can be determined from:
• VA and Q-point, or
• from slope of curve, or
• from data sheets hybrid parameters.
The re model:
PNP BJT for Common-Base Configuration
• Just like the CE config, a forward-biased diode is used
to represent the connection from base to emitter.
• IC is related to IE by α.
• The direction is opposite compared to the previous
slides because this is PNP BJT and not NPN.
We are now ready to do ac analysis on all of the amplifier circuits that was
covered in “BJT DC biasing circuits”.

Please do the tutorials and attend online discussion for more question and
answer engagement.
 Common-Emitter
Fixed-Bias Configuration
 Common-Emitter
Fixed-Bias Configuration
Take note of parameters Vi, Ii, Zi, Vo, Io and Zo.
Before doing AC analysis, the parameter IE is needed.
Take note of the components that will be shorted and the effects of doing so.
1. Redraw ac equivalent circuit
Replace dc supplies and capacitors with short circuits.
Redraw/relocate for easier analysis. RB is relocated and can be seen to be
in parallel with the input section; RC with the output section.
2. Redraw with re model replacing BJT:
Then, determine β, re and ro.
β: typically obtained from a specification sheet or direct measurement
(using testing instruments that produce output characteristics)
re: from dc analysis. (26 mV/IE)
ro: from specification sheet or measurement from output characteristics.
 CE Fixed-Bias Configuration:

3. Circuit analysis for 2-port parameters

To find Zin: find equivalent resistance looking into the input port.
Zi=RB// βre
To find Zo: find equivalent resistance looking back into the output
port by setting Vin=0.
Zo=RC//ro
Gain, Av:
This approach is applicable for most of the examples here:
• Find Vo with expression Ib from output port.
• Replace Ib with Vin from input port.
• Find Vo/Vin.
When one of parallel resistances are much larger than the other,
the larger resistance is assumed as open circuit.
CE Fixed-Bias Configuration:
Gain, Av
• Based on the derived expressions, Av is independent of
the term β even though β was used to determine Q-point
and re.
Expression of Av is negative.
• This means that there is a 180° phase shift that occurs
between the input and output signals. When the input is
in its positive cycle reaching max peak, the output is in
the negative cycle, reaching the min peak.
CE Fixed-Bias Configuration:
Example:
a. Determine re.
b. Find Zi (with ro =∞Ω)
c. Calculate Zo (with ro = ∞Ω)
d. Determine Av (with ro = ∞Ω)
e. Repeat parts (c) and (d) including ro = 50 kΩ in all
calculations and compare results
Emitter-Stabilized Bias (ESB)
Configuration
Emitter-Stabilized Bias Configuration

• Now we consider BJT single stage amplifier

that includes emitter resistor (RE) that may or
may not be bypassed in the ac domain.
• The configuration emitter-stabilized bias
config is considered.
• We first consider the unbypassed situation
and then modify the resulting equations for the
bypassed configuration.
• A voltage divider bias configuration too may or
may not have RE bypassed.
Emitter-Stabilized Bias Configuration:
Unbypassed RE • There is R between emitter and GND.
E

• Vin is not Vbe. Vo is not VCE.

• There is no bypass • In the small-signal current notation,
capacitor that is
connected in parallel to Ie=(β+1) Ib
RE. • To break down equations for easier handling, we
• Take note of parameters introduce Zb.
Vi, Ii, Zi, Vo, Io and Zo. Zin = RB||Zb
• Before doing AC • We ignore ro by assuming that ro is very large
analysis, the parameter compared to the network sections that are in
IE is needed. parallel with it hence its effects can be ignored.
• Take note of the • Assumption is valid for ro>>10 (RC+RE) and ro
components that will be /re >>1
shorted and the effects
of doing so. • Putting ro here makes analysis a great deal more complicated.
• Text compares the analysis with and without ro, arriving to a
satisfactorily same expression when given approximations.
Emitter-Stabilized Bias Configuration:
Unbypassed RE
Step (1) Redraw AC equivalent circuit with Step (2) re-model. Find IE from DC
re model analysis
𝟐𝟔𝒎𝑽
𝒓𝒆 =
𝑰𝑬
Emitter-Bias Stabilizer Configuration:
Unbypassed RE
• To find Zi, Find equivalent resistance looking
into the input port:

• Approximate: ro ≥ 10(RC+RE)
β >>1 Zb = β(re+RE)
RE>>re Zb = β RE
• To find Zo: Find equivalent resistance
looking back into the output port by setting
Vin=0, making βIb an open circuit:

• To find Av: Do Ohm’s Law for Vo and replace

Ib with expression containing Vi.

Approx: Zb ≈ β(re+RE)
ro ≥ 10(RC+RE)

All these formula are

applied if ro is ignored,
as the ro is large or the
Approx: Zb = β RE condition above is
satisfied.
What happen when the condition is not
satisfied? Or the ro ≤ 10(RC+RE)
• For unbypassed ESB or VDB AC analysis, we need to use the following
equation;
Emitter-Stabilized Bias Configuration: Unbypassed RE
and ro=40kΩ ≥ 10 (RC+RE)
(Example)
Determine; a. re, need to do DC analysis to find IE first
a. re
b. Zi
c. Zo
d. Av
ESB AC Equivalent Circuit
Emitter-Stabilized Bias Configuration:
Bypassed RE
• There is a bypass capacitor that is connected
in parallel to RE.
• Take note of parameters Vi, Ii, Zi, Vo, Io and
Zo.
• Before doing AC analysis, the parameter IE is
needed.
• Take note of the components that will be
shorted and the effects of doing so. RE would
be bypassed. The ac equivalent circuit would
be similar to the fixed-bias configuration.
 Emitter-Stabilized Bias Configuration:
Bypassed RE Step (3) Circuit Analysis
To find Zin: find equivalent resistance looking into the
Step (1) Redraw AC equivalent circuit with re input port.
model Zi=RB// βre
If RB≥10βre, Zi= βre
To find Zo: find equivalent resistance looking back into the
output port by setting Vin=0.
Zo=RC//ro
Gain Av: This approach is applicable for most of the examples
here:
• Find Vo with expression Ib from output port.
• Replace Ib with Vin from input port.
• Note that here is no RE between emitter and GND. • Find Vo/Vin.
• When one of parallel resistances are much larger than the
Step (2) Find IE from DC analysis and re other, the larger resistance is assumed as open circuit.
𝟐𝟔𝒎𝑽
𝒓𝒆 = 𝑉𝑂 −𝛽𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑟𝑜 −𝐼𝑏 𝑅𝐶 ∥ 𝑟𝑜
𝑰𝑬 𝐴𝑉 = = =
𝑉𝑖 𝛽𝑟𝑒 𝑟𝑒
Voltage Divider Bias (VDB)
Configuration
Common Emitter Voltage Divider Bias
Configuration:
Recall: For DC:
• Exact method uses Thevenin Equivalent circuit
• Approximate method when βRE ≥ 10R2 uses voltage
divider rule for finding VB.
• Take note of parameters Vi, Ii, Zi, Vo, Io and Zo.
• Before doing AC analysis, the parameter IE is needed. Take
note of the components that will be shorted and the effects of
doing so.
• Particularly, the bypass capacitor that will short out RE when
doing ac analysis.
Common Emitter Voltage Divider Bias
Configuration:
1. Redraw ac equivalent circuit &
2. Replace BJT with re model

Replace dc supplies and capacitors with short circuits.

Redraw/relocate for easier analysis. R1||R2 is relocated and can be seen to be in parallel with the input
section; RC with the output section.
Then, determine β, re and ro.
The circuit is similar to CE fixed-bias configuration ac equivalent circuit (because of bypass capacitor)
 Common Emitter Voltage Divider Bias
Configuration:
3. Circuit analysis for 2-port parameters
To find Zin: find equivalent resistance looking into the input port.
Zi=R’// βre
To find Zo: find equivalent resistance looking back into the output port
by setting Vin=0.
Zo=RC//ro
Gain, Av:
This approach is applicable for most of the examples here:
• Find Vo with expression Ib from output port.
• Replace Ib with Vin from input port.
• Find Vo/Vin.
• When one of parallel resistances are much larger than the other, the
larger resistance is assumed as
open circuit. Note: Negative. 180º shift
between Vin and Vo.
Common Emitter Voltage Divider Bias
Configuration: Example
a. Determine re.
b. Find Zi (with ro = ∞Ω)
c. Calculate Zo (with ro = ∞Ω)
d. Determine Av (with ro = ∞Ω)
e. Repeat parts (c) and (d) including ro = 50 kΩ in all calculations
and compare results
End of Fixed Biased, Emitter Stabilized
Bias, and Voltage Divider Bias