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    Small-Signal Modeling and Linear Amplification

    Uploaded by

    Abraham Jyothimon
    This chapter discusses small-signal modeling and linear amplification using transistors. It aims to provide an understanding of dc and ac equivalent circuits, small-signal voltages and currents, and small-signal models for diodes and transistors. Key concepts covered include identifying common-emitter amplifiers, and estimating their voltage gain, input and output resistances, and linear signal range. The document provides examples of biasing BJTs and MOSFETs in their linear regions, and constructing equivalent circuits to analyze small-signal voltage gains.

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    Small-Signal Modeling and Linear Amplification

    Uploaded by

    Abraham Jyothimon
    24 views30 pages
    This chapter discusses small-signal modeling and linear amplification using transistors. It aims to provide an understanding of dc and ac equivalent circuits, small-signal voltages and currents, and small-signal models for diodes and transistors. Key concepts covered include identifying common-emitter amplifiers, and estimating their voltage gain, input and output resistances, and linear signal range. The document provides examples of biasing BJTs and MOSFETs in their linear regions, and constructing equivalent circuits to analyze small-signal voltage gains.

    Original Description:

    bjt amplifiers

    Original Title

    BJT Amplifiers Labview

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    This chapter discusses small-signal modeling and linear amplification using transistors. It aims to provide an understanding of dc and ac equivalent circuits, small-signal voltages and currents, and small-signal models for diodes and transistors. Key concepts covered include identifying common-emitter amplifiers, and estimating their voltage gain, input and output resistances, and linear signal range. The document provides examples of biasing BJTs and MOSFETs in their linear regions, and constructing equivalent circuits to analyze small-signal voltage gains.

    Copyright:

    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    24 views30 pages

    Small-Signal Modeling and Linear Amplification

    Uploaded by

    Abraham Jyothimon
    This chapter discusses small-signal modeling and linear amplification using transistors. It aims to provide an understanding of dc and ac equivalent circuits, small-signal voltages and currents, and small-signal models for diodes and transistors. Key concepts covered include identifying common-emitter amplifiers, and estimating their voltage gain, input and output resistances, and linear signal range. The document provides examples of biasing BJTs and MOSFETs in their linear regions, and constructing equivalent circuits to analyze small-signal voltage gains.

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    © All Rights Reserved
    Download as PPT, PDF, TXT or read online from Scribd
    Download as ppt, pdf, or txt
    of 30

    Chapter 13

    Small-Signal Modeling and Linear


    Amplification

    Chapter Goals
    Understanding of concepts related to:
    Transistors as linear amplifiers
    dc and ac equivalent circuits
    Use of coupling and bypass capacitors to modify dc and ac equivalent
    circuits
    Small-signal voltages and currents
    Small-signal models for diodes and transistors
    Identification of common-emitter amplifiers
    Amplifier characteristics such as voltage gain, input and output
    resistances and linear signal range
    Rule-of-thumb estimates for voltage gain of common-emitter
    amplifiers.

    Introduction to Amplifiers

    The BJT is an an excellent amplifier when biased in the forward-active


    region.
    The FET can be used as an amplifier if operated in the saturation region.
    In these regions, the transistors can provide high voltage, current and
    power gains.
    DC bias is provided to stabilize the operating point in the desired
    operation region.
    The DC Q-point also determines
    The small-signal parameters of the transistor
    The voltage gain, input resistance, and output resistance
    The maximum input and output signal amplitudes
    The overall power consumption of the amplifier

    A Simple BJT Amplifier

    The BJT is biased in the forward active region by dc voltage sources VBE
    and VCC = 10 V. The DC Q-point is set at, (VCE, IC) = (5 V, 1.5 mA) with IB
    = 15 A.
    Total base-emitter voltage is: vBE VBE vbe
    Collector-emitter voltage is:

    v 10 i R
    CE
    C C

    This produces a load line.

    BJT Amplifier (continued)


    If changes in operating currents and
    voltages are small enough, then IC
    and VCE waveforms are undistorted
    replicas of the input signal.
    A small voltage change at the base
    causes a large voltage change at the
    collector. The voltage gain is given
    by:

    v
    ce 1.65180 206180 206

    An 8 mV peak change in vBE gives a 5


    v v

    0.0080
    be
    A change in iB and a 0.5 mA change in
    iC.
    The minus sign indicates a 1800

    The 0.5 mA change in iC gives a 1.65 V phase shift between input and
    output signals.
    change in vCE .

    A Simple MOSFET Amplifier

    The MOSFET is biased in the saturation region by dc voltage sources VGS and
    VDS = 10 V. The DC Q-point is set at (VDS, IDS) = (4.8 V, 1.56 mA) with VGS = 3.5
    V.
    Total gate-source voltage is: vGS VGS vgs
    A 1 V p-p change in vGS gives a 1.25 mA p-p change in iDS and a 4 V p-p change
    in vDS. Notice the characteristic non-linear I/O relationship compared to the BJT.

    A Practical BJT Amplifier using


    Coupling and Bypass Capacitors

    AC coupling through capacitors is


    used to inject an ac input signal and
    extract the ac output signal without
    disturbing the DC Q-point
    Capacitors provide negligible
    impedance at frequencies of interest
    and provide open circuits at dc.

    In a practical amplifier design, C1 and


    C3 are large coupling capacitors or dc
    blocking capacitors, their reactance (XC
    = |ZC| = 1/C) at signal frequency is
    negligible. They are effective open
    circuits for the circuit when DC bias is
    considered.
    C2 is a bypass capacitor. It provides a
    low impedance path for ac current from
    emitter to ground. It effectively
    removes RE (required for good Q-point
    stability) from the circuit when ac
    signals are considered.

    DC and AC Analysis -- Application of


    Superposition
    DC analysis:
    Find the DC equivalent circuit by replacing all capacitors by open
    circuits and inductors (if any) by short circuits.
    Find the DC Q-point from the equivalent circuit by using the
    appropriate large-signal transistor model.
    AC analysis:
    Find the AC equivalent circuit by replacing all capacitors by short
    circuits, inductors (if any) by open circuits, dc voltage sources by
    ground connections and dc current sources by open circuits.
    Replace the transistor by its small-signal model (to be developed).
    Use this equivalent circuit to analyze the AC characteristics of the
    amplifier.
    Combine the results of dc and ac analysis (superposition) to yield the
    total voltages and currents in the circuit.

    DC Equivalent for the BJT Amplifier

    DC Equivalent Circuit

    All capacitors in the original amplifier circuit are replaced by open


    circuits, disconnecting vI, RI, and R3 from the circuit and leaving RE
    intact. The the transistor Q will be replaced by its DC model.

    AC Equivalent for the BJT Amplifier

    The coupling and bypass capacitors are replaced by short circuits. The DC
    voltage supplies are replaced with short circuits, which in this case connect
    to ground.

    AC Equivalent for the BJT Amplifier


    (continued)
    R R R 10k 30k
    B 1 2
    R R R 4.3k100k
    C 3

    By combining parallel resistors into equivalent RB and R, the equivalent AC


    circuit above is constructed. Here, the transistor will be replaced by its
    equivalent small-signal AC model (to be developed).

    Hybrid-Pi Small-signal AC Model for


    the BJT

    The hybrid-pi small-signal


    model is the intrinsic lowfrequency representation of the
    BJT.
    The small-signal parameters are
    controlled by the Q-point and
    are independent of the geometry
    of the BJT.

    Transconductance:
    I
    gm C 40I
    C
    V
    T
    Input resistance:

    oV
    T o
    r
    I
    gm
    C
    Output resistance:

    V V
    ro A CE
    I
    C

    Small-signal Current Gain and


    Amplification Factor of the BJT
    The amplification factor is given by:

    v ce
    F
    ,v ce ro gm v be
    v be

    F
    1 I
    C i

    F
    C

    Q po int

    o gmr

    o > F for iC < IM, and o < F for


    iC > IM, however, o and F are
    usually assumed to be about
    equal.

    I V V
    V V
    gmro C A CE A CE
    F
    V
    I
    V
    T
    C
    T
    V

    For VCE << VA, F A 40VA


    V
    T
    the maximum voltage
    F represents
    gain an individual BJT can provide,
    independent of the operating point.

    Example o Calculation for 2N2222A

    Choose the Q-point at about (5 V, 5 mA) for this analysis. Notice the slope of the
    DC current gain characteristic in this region. Ideally, the slope would be zero.

    From Figure 3 for the 2N2222A BJT at the chosen Q-point

    1 I

    C i

    F C Q po int

    o gmr

    F 200100 5.6x103
    2 103
    I
    10
    C

    1 I

    C I

    F
    C Q po int

    at about IC = 5 mA and 25 C

    180
    180
    o

    212

    5.6x10 3
    1 0.15
    3
    1 5x10


    180

    for F = 180

    Given the tolerances usually encountered in forward current gain, the


    assumption of F = o seems reasonable for preliminary analysis and
    initial designs.

    Equivalent Forms of the Small-signal


    Model for the BJT

    The voltage-controlled current source gmvbe can be transformed into a


    current-controlled current source,
    v i r i o
    be b
    bg
    m
    gmv gmi r oi
    be
    b
    b
    vce
    ic gmv
    gmv oi
    be r
    be
    b
    o
    The basic relationship ic=ib is useful in both dc and ac analysis when
    the BJT is biased in the forward-active region.

    Small Signal Operation of BJT

    be
    BE

    I
    exp
    exp

    c
    C
    C
    S
    V
    V

    T
    T

    2
    3
    v

    1
    1

    I 1 be be be ...
    C V
    2 V
    6 V

    T
    T
    T

    2
    3
    v

    1
    1
    be

    be
    be
    ic i I I

    ...
    C C C V
    2 V
    6 V

    T
    T
    T

    BE
    i I exp
    C S
    V

    For linearity, ic should be directly proportional to vbe.


    v

    I
    be
    C v g v
    ic I
    v 2V 50mV

    C V V be m be for
    T
    be
    T
    T
    If we limit vbe to 5 mV, the relative change in ic compared to IC that

    ic gm vbe vbe 0.005

    0.200
    corresponds to small-signal operation is:
    I
    I
    V
    0.025
    C
    C
    T

    Small-Signal Analysis of the Complete


    C-E Amplifier: AC Equivalent

    The AC equivalent circuit is


    constructed by assuming that all
    capacitances have zero
    impedance at signal frequency
    and the AC voltage source is at
    ground.
    Assume that the DC Q-point has
    already been calculated.

    Small-Signal Analysis of Complete C-E


    Amplifier: Small-Signal Equivalent
    vo gmv R
    be L
    and

    v R r

    i B
    v
    be R R r
    I B

    R ro R R
    L
    C 3

    Overall voltage gain from source vi


    to output voltage vo across R3 is:
    vo vo vbe
    Av v v v
    i be i
    Av gm R
    L

    B
    R R r
    I
    B

    Capacitor Selection for the CE Amplifier


    Zc

    1
    1
    CapacitiveReactanceXc Z c
    where 2f
    jC
    C

    The key objective in design is to make the capacitive reactance


    much smaller at the operating frequency f than the associated
    resistance that must be coupled or bypassed.

    X R r MakeX 0.01 R r for < 1%gainerror.


    c1
    B
    c1
    B
    X 0MakeX 1for <1%gainerror.
    c2
    c2

    X R MakeX 0.01 R for <1%gainerror.


    c3
    3
    c3
    3

    C-E Amplifier Input Resistance

    The input resistance, the total


    resistance looking into the
    amplifier at coupling capacitor C1,
    represents the total resistance
    presented to the AC source.
    v x ix ( R r )
    B
    v
    R x R r R R r
    B
    1 2
    in i
    x

    C-E Amplifier Output Resistance

    The output resistance is the total


    equivalent resistance looking into the
    output of the amplifier at coupling
    capacitor C3. The input source is set to 0
    and a test source is applied at the output.
    vx vx
    ix

    gm v
    But vbe=0.
    be
    R
    ro
    C
    vx
    Rout
    R ro R
    C
    C
    ix
    since ro is usually >> RC.

    CE Amplifier Design Example


    Using LabVIEW Virtual Instruments

    Amplifier Power Dissipation

    Static power dissipation in amplifiers is determined from their DC


    equivalent circuits.
    Total power dissipated in C-B
    and E-B junctions is: PD VCE IC VBE IB
    where VCE VCB VBE

    Total power supplied is:

    P V I I whereI I I
    S CC C 2
    2 1 B

    V
    V
    V
    EQ
    BE
    I CC andI

    1 R R
    B R
    1 R
    1 2
    EQ F E

    The difference is the power dissipated by the bias resistors.

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