Module 2

Advanced Devices and applications

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Topics:
p-n junctions,
Zener diode,
transistor characteristics,
Optoelectronic devices: Solar cells, photo detectors and
LEDs
 p-n junction
• A p-n junction is an interface or a boundary between two
semiconductor material types, namely the p-type and the
n-type, inside a semiconductor.
• The p-side or the positive side of the semiconductor has an
excess of holes and the n-side or the negative side has an
excess of electrons
• When p-type and n-type materials are placed in contact with each
other, the junction behaves very differently than either type of
material alone. Specifically, current will flow readily in one direction
(forward biased) but not in the other (reverse biased), creating the
basic diode.
• This non-reversing behavior arises from the nature of the charge
transport process in the two types of materials and the formation of
a depletion zone.
 Forward and Reverse
Biasso an electron can move across the
 The p side is made more positive,
junction and fill a vacancy or "hole" near the junction. It can then
move from vacancy to vacancy leftward toward the positive terminal,
which could be described as the hole moving right.
 The p side is made more negative, making it "uphill" for electrons
moving across the junction. The conduction direction for electrons in
the diagram is right to left, and the upward direction represents
increasing electron energy.
 Zener Diode
A Zener diode is a specially designed, highly doped PN
junction diode. Zener diode is like an ordinary PN junction
diode but normally operated in reverse biased condition.
Working Principle of Zener Diode
When a PN junction diode is reverse biased, the depletion layer becomes
wider. If this reverse biased voltage across the diode is increased
continually, the depletion layer becomes more and more wider. At the
same time, there will be a constant reverse saturation current due to
minority carriers.
• After certain reverse voltage across the junction, the minority carriers
get sufficient kinetic energy due to the strong electric field.
• Free electrons with sufficient kinetic energy collide with stationary ions
of the depletion layer and knock out more free electrons.
• These newly created free electrons also get sufficient kinetic energy due
to the same electric field, and they create more free electrons by
collision cumulatively.
• Due to this commutative phenomenon, very soon, huge free electrons
get created in the depletion layer, and the entire diode will become
conductive. This type of breakdown of the depletion layer is known as
avalanche breakdown, but this breakdown is not quite sharp.
• There is another type of breakdown in depletion layer which is sharper
compared to avalanche breakdown, and this is called Zener breakdown
.
• When a PN junction is diode is highly doped, the concentration of
impurity atoms will be high in the crystal.
• This higher concentration of impurity atoms causes the higher
concentration of ions in the depletion layer hence for same applied
reverse biased voltage, the width of the depletion layer becomes
thinner than that in a normally doped diode.
• Due to this thinner depletion layer, voltage gradient or electric field
strength across the depletion layer is quite high.
• If the reverse voltage is continued to increase, after a certain applied
voltage, the electrons from the covalent bonds within the depletion
region come out and make the depletion region conductive.
• This breakdown is called Zener breakdown. The voltage at which this
breakdown occurs is called Zener voltage.
When a zener diode is connected across a voltage source, and the source voltage is
more than Zener voltage, the voltage across a Zener diode remain fixed
irrespective of the source voltage. Although at that condition current through the
diode can be of any value depending on the load connected with the diode. That is
why we use a Zener diode mainly for controlling voltage in different circuits.
The graphical representation of the operation of the zener diode, it is normally called the V-I
characteristics of a Zener diode shown below.

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 Solar cells
Solar Cell is a semiconductor device which converts light energy into the
electrical energy. A solar cell is basically a p-n junction diode. It works on the
principle of photovoltaic effect to convert light energy into electrical energy.
Construction of Solar Cell

Solar cell is basically a junction diode, but construction is little bit different
form conventional p-n junction diode. A very thin layer of n-type semiconductor
is grown on a relatively thicker p-type semiconductor. Few finer electrodes are
provided on the top of the n-type semiconductor layer. These electrodes do not
obstruct light to reach the thin n-type layer. Just below the n-type layer there is
a p-n junction. A current collecting electrode is provided at the bottom of the p-
type layer. The entire assembly is enclosed by thin glass to protect the solar cell
from any mechanical shock.
Working
When light passes through very thin n-type layer reaches the
p-n junction, the light photons can enter easily into the junction. These
light photons, carry sufficient energy to create a number of electron-
hole pairs. The incident light breaks the thermal equilibrium condition
of the junction. The free electrons in the depletion region can quickly
come to the n-type side of the junction. Similarly, the holes can quickly
come to the p-type side of the junction.
These newly created free electrons and holes cannot further cross the
junction because of barrier potential of the junction. As the
concentration of electrons becomes higher in n-type side of the junction
and concentration of holes becomes higher in p-type side of the
junction. Now the p-n junction will behave like a small battery cell. A
I-V Characteristics
The current V/s voltage characteristics of a solar cell is determined by connecting a resistance box and a
voltmeter across a solar cell. A known intensity of light from a halogen lamp is made to fall on it. The
resistance values are varied step by step, and the corresponding voltages across the resistance box are
measured using a voltmeter. From the acknowledged values of V and R, the value of I is determined using
the relation: I=V/𝑅

The fig. represents a graph between voltage and current. The current obtained by shortcircuiting the two
terminal of the solar cell is called short – circuit current (I sc). The voltage Voc is known as open – Circuit
voltage and the product of these two quantities gives the ideal power of the cell. The maximum power
produced by a solar cell is given by the area of the largest rectangle that can be formed in the V-I curve (at
the point Pmax) . The corresponding voltage and current are represented by V max and Imax. So maximum power
produced by a solar cell is
Pmax = Vmax × Imax
Efficiency of solar cell

Efficiency of a solar cell can be defined as the ratio of

maximum output electrical power converted by the solar cell
to the total input optical power available for energy
conversion.

η =
Where Input optical power =

So η = ×100 %
The efficiency of the commercially used solar cell lies in the range of
10% - 19% .
Fill factor
The fill factor of a solar cell is defined as the ratio of the
maximum output power of solar cell to the ideal power. It is
given by the relation:

f= =
Where (Isc) is short – circuit current and Voc is known as open –
Circuit voltage. The fill factor of the solar cell lies in the range
0.65-0.8.
 LEDs

A light-emitting diode (LED) is a

semiconductor device that emits light when
it is forward biased. Light-emitting diodes are
heavily doped p-n junctions.
Principle: When a suitable forward voltage is
applied to the LED, electrons are able to
recombine with holes within the device,
releasing energy in the form of photons. This
effect is called electroluminescence and the
color of the light is determined by the energy
band gap of the semiconductor
When we connect the LED to an external voltage in the forward bias, the height of
potential barrier across the p-n junction is reduced. At a particular voltage the height of
potential barrier becomes very low and the LED starts glowing. This particular voltage is
called the knee voltage or the threshold voltage.
Now the holes from p region move towards n region and electrons from n region move
towards p region and the recombine with each other.
During the recombination process, the light is emitted.
According to Einstein-Planck equation, Energy of photon is given by
E = hν
where h is plank’s constant and ν is the frequency of light. This energy is equivalent to
the bandgap of the semiconductor Eg therefore
Eg = hν
=

Hence the wavelength of light is inversely proportional to energy bandgap of the

semiconductor
Types of Light Emitting Diodes
There are different types of light-emitting diodes present and some of
them are mentioned below.
•Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) – infra-red
•Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (GaAsP) – red to infra-red, orange
•Aluminium Gallium Arsenide Phosphide (AlGaAsP) – high-brightness red,
orange-red, orange, and yellow
•Gallium Phosphide (GaP) – red, yellow and green
•Aluminium Gallium Phosphide (AlGaP) – green
•Gallium Nitride (GaN) – green, emerald green
•Gallium Indium Nitride (GaInN) – near-ultraviolet, bluish-green and blue
•Silicon Carbide (SiC) – blue as a substrate
•Zinc Selenide (ZnSe) – blue
•Aluminium Gallium Nitride (AlGaN) – ultraviolet
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1) Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) LED has a band gap of 1.5 eV. Then the light emitted by it
will be
Ans:
Hence the light emitted would be infra red

2) SiC based LED emits blue light of wavelength of 450 nm then the band gap of LED will
be
Ans: =