DAR ES SALAAM INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

COURSE :ODINARY DIPLOMA IN

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

MODULE : INDUSTRIAL CONTROL

SYSTEMS
CODE : MET 06213

MODULE MASTER: MUNUO E. L.

 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

All modern engineering systems include certain aspects of control

systems at some point.

 CONTROL SYSTEMS
What they are?
In modern usage the meaning of the word SYSTEM has become
nebulous or hazy. So let’s begin by defining it, first abstractly or
conceptually then slightly more specifically or explicitly in relation to
scientific literature.

 Definition 1:
A SYSTEM is an arrangement, set or collection of things connected or
related in such a manner as to form an entirety or whole.

 Definition 2:
A SYSTEM is an arrangement of physical components connected or
related in such a manner as to form and/or act as an entire unit.
FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS OF CONTROL
SYSTEMS

 Definition 3:
The word CONTROL may be defined as the means
by which systems may be made to behave in a
desired manner usually by regulating, directing or
commanding them. Combining the above
definitions gives:
 Definition 4:
A CONTROL SYSTEM is an arrangement of
physical components connected or related in such
a manner as to command, direct, or regulate itself
or another system
 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

 In the most abstract sense it is possible to consider

every physical object a control system. Everything
alters its environment in some manner, if not actively
then passively – like mirror directing a beam of light
shining on it at some acute angle. The mirror here is
considered an elementary control system controlling
the beam of light according to simple equation; ‘The
angle of reflection equals the angle of incidence’

 In engineering and science the meaning of control

systems is usually restricted to apply to those
systems whose major function is to dynamically or
actively command, direct or regulate
 FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS OF CONTROL
SYSTEMS
Control systems may have more than one inputs
or outputs. Often all inputs and outputs are well
defined by the system description. But sometimes
they are not. Whether defined or not it is usually
necessary to carefully consider these extra inputs
and outputs when the system is examined in
detail

 Definition 5:
INPUT is the stimulus or excitation applied to a
control system from an external source, usually in
order to produce a specified response from the
control system
FUNDAMENTAL DEFINITIONS OF CONTROL
SYSTEMS
 Definition 6:
OUTPUT is the actual response obtained from
a control system. It may or may not be equal to
the specified response implied by the input.
 The purpose of control systems
The purpose of control systems usually is to
identify and define the output and input. If the
output and input are given, it is possible to
identify and define the nature of the system’s
components
 Basic types of control systems

There are three basic types of control systems

 Man-made control system
 Natural, including biological control system
 Control systems whose components are both man-
made and natural
 Man-made control system:
An example of a Man-made control system is an
electric switch controlling the flow of electricity. By
definition the person or apparatus flipping the switch
is not part of this control system. Here, flipping the
switch ON/OFF may be taken as the input and the
output is flow or non-flow (two states) of electricity
 Basic types of control systems
 Natural, including biological control
system:
 An example of a biological control system is a
simple act of pointing at an object with a
finger, which chiefly consists of the eyes, the
arm, the hand & finger, and the brain of a man.
 The input of this system is the precise
direction of the object with respect to some
reference and the output is the actual pointed
direction with respect to the same reference
 Basic types of control systems
 Man-made and natural (biological) Control systems:
 An example of man-made and biological Control systems is
the control system consisting of a man driving an
automobile wanting to keep it in the appropriate lane of the
road by constantly watching the direction of the automobile
with respect to the direction of the road.
 The input of this system is the direction or heading of the
road with reference to the painted guide line on the lane
and the output is the heading of the automobile.
 The driver controls this output by constantly measuring it
with his eyes and brain, and correcting it with his hands on
the steering wheel.
 The major components of this control system are the
driver’s hands, eyes and brain and the vehicle
 Application of control systems
Engineering control systems are used for the
control of temperature, flow rates, liquid levels,
chemical composition, speed of prime movers,
position of ships and aircraft, radar guidance,
machine tool operations, etc.
Transducers, which convert such quantities as
pressure, temperature and acceleration into
electrical signals, are commonly used and the
microprocessor, based on the “chip” is now
involved in sophisticated control of medical
equipment, engine ignition systems and
domestic appliances such as the microwave oven
 Application of control systems
 Until recently control theory had only been applied to
engineering systems; however, in recent years attempts
have been made to extend the theory to such wide-ranging
areas as:
• Budgetary control
• Control systems in the human body
• Management control
• Economics of countries to world dynamics

 In the field of engineering, control has wide-ranging

applications from the simple thermostat arrangement to
control the temperature of an oven, to the complex
computer-controlled sampling arm and soil-analyzing
equipment used on the Viking Lander that was landed on the
planet mars.
 Elements of control systems

Control system elements include

various temperature and pressure
measuring devices, springs, levers,
gears, valves, gyroscopes, compressors,
accumulators, bellows, motors, resistors,
relays, transistors, etc.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS CLASSIFICATION

A control system may be an open loop

or a closed loop control system.
 Open loop control systems
 In these types of control systems which are
unmonitored, the response (output) is normally
independent of the reference input. That is, Control
action, “which is that quantity responsible for
activating the system to produce the output”,
is independent of the output. These systems have
neither feedback nor comparing element.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION
 Open loop control systems may be
continuous or sequential control
systems.
A typical example of a continuous open-
loop control system is an electric storage
radiator without a thermostatic control.
In a sequential type of a control system,
the output is obtained after a series of
sequential steps, where the succeeding
steps are carried if and only if the
previous steps are realized
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION
 Advantages of open-loop control system:
- Relatively simple: Resulting in cost, reliability
and maintainability advantages
- Inherently stable

 Disadvantages:
- Relatively slow in response to demanded
changes
- Inaccurate: Due to lack of corrective action for
error(that is, departure of actual value from
desired value)
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION
 Closed loop control systems
 In these types of control systems, there is a
correspondence between the response and the
reference input of a system. The control action is
somehow dependent on the output. These systems
have both feedback and a comparing element. It
may be discontinuous or continuous.
 Feedback of a control system
This is defined as that property of a closed loop control
system which permits the output or other controlled
variables to be compared with the input to the system
so that the appropriate control action may be formed
as some function of the output and input
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION
 Discontinuous control:
 A typical discontinuous is an ON-OFF control
system. Consider the room-heating example. To
overcome the problem of variations in the room
temperature due to alterations in external
conditions, a thermostat can be fitted in the room.
 The thermostat then compares the actual room
temperature with the desired value and any
deviation (error) causes appropriate control action
to be taken. In this case the power would be
switched off if the temperature was too high and
switched on if it was too low. This is sometimes
called two- positions or ON-OFF control
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION
 This ON-OFF type of control is suitable
for systems where the changes in load
occur slowly and the process is very
slow acting, which necessitates
infrequent changes of control action.
When these conditions do not apply, a
more suitable type of system is a
continuous control system
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION
 Continuous control:
 In continuous control, as in on-off systems, the
actual output of the system is fed back and
compared with the desired value in a
comparison element, which generates a
deviation or error signal. In continuous control,
however, the controlling signal generated is
proportional to the magnitude of the error;
hence the term proportional-control system is
also used, see Block diagram:
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION
Example 1:
Draw a block diagram to present a steam turbine
generator-set fitted with a speed governor

Figure: Block diagram of a steam turbine generator set with

governor
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION
If the generator system is again operating for the
national grid, a call for extra electricity from the
generator set increases the load on the turbine
causing it to slow down. This time, however, the
reduced speed is sensed by the governor which
compares the actual speed with the desired
speed or reference signal and generates an error
or deviation signal. The controller generates a
signal so that the control valve is moved an
amount proportional to the error. The resulting
increased steam supply to the turbine causes it
to speed up until the output speed matches the
desired speed
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION

The system response curve looks as

shown below. Note that oscillations
occur because of the system inertia.

Figure: System response curve

 CONTROL SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION
 Features of closed-loop control systems:
The main features of this type of control system are;
 Since the actuating signal from the controller only controls
the output power, and does not supply it, high power
outputs can be accurately controlled from low power
inputs.
 The error signals generated by the comparison element
are usually very small in magnitude; hence, some form of
amplification (magnification) must be included in the
controller for most systems.
 Closed-loop control systems have a self-regulating
property, since any external disturbance will change the
output, resulting in error signal being generated, which
produces a reaction to maintain the output
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
CLASSIFICATION
 Essentials, Advantages and disadvantages of
closed-loop control system
 Three essentials for a continuous closed-loop
control system are:
- Feedback
- Comparison, and
- Controller
 Advantages of closed-loop control systems:
- Relatively fast in response to demanded changes
- Relatively accurate in matching actual to desired
value
 Disadvantages:
- Relatively complex
 Classwork 1
a)Describe the components and variables
of the biological control apparatus
involved in walking in a prescribed
direction.
b)Why is walking a closed loop operation?
c)Under what conditions would the
human walking apparatus become
open-loop system
 Classwork 1
Solution for Classwork 1
a)Components involved in walking are: brain-the
controller to initiate correction action, eyes-determines
the control action after detecting the difference between
input and output, and legs & feet-walk in the prescribed
direction as commanded by brain.
• The input may be taken as the desired walk
direction and
• The output is the actual walk direction
b)Walking is a closed loop operation because the control
action is a function of the output
c) The system becomes open loop system, if the eyes
are closed which breaks the feedback loop.
 Classwork 2
Identify the components, inputs, and output, and describe the
operation of the biological Control system consisting of a
human being reaching for an object
Solution for Classwork 2
a) The basic components of this system are brain, arm &
hand, and eyes
b) The brain interprets and ends the required nervous system
signal to the arm and hand to reach for the object.
The eyes are employed as a sensing device, continuously
feeding back the position of the hand to the brain
c)The output for the system is the hand position, and
The input for the system is the object position
d) The objective of this control system here is to reduce the
distance between hand position and object position to zero
DEFINITIONS OF VARIOUS CONTROL
TERMINOLOGIES
Consider the following general block diagram
of a control system

In control engineering, the following

terminologies are frequently used:
 DEFINITIONS OF VARIOUS
CONTROL TERMINOLOGIES
 Input signal (Reference input):
This is an external signal applied to feedback control
systems in order to command a specified action of the
plant or process. It often represents ideal plant output
behavior
 Output signal:
This is the actual response obtained from a control
system. It may or may not be equal to the specified
response implied by the input.
 Controlled output or variable:
This is that quantity or condition of the plant or process,
which is controlled
 DEFINITIONS OF VARIOUS
CONTROL TERMINOLOGIES
 Feedback transducers:
These are the components required to establish the
functional relationship between the primary feedback
signal and the controlled output. They are also called;
feedback elements, monitoring-or measuring –devices
 The error signal:
Also called the actuating signal or control action, and is
the algebraic sum consisting of the reference input plus or
minus (usually minus) the primary feedback.
 Primary feedback signal:
This is a signal which is a function of the controlled output,
and which is algebraically summed with the reference
input to obtain the actuating signal
 DEFINITIONS OF VARIOUS
CONTROL TERMINOLOGIES
 Control mechanism (control elements):
Also called the controlled variable, and are the components
required to generate the appropriate control signal
(manipulated variable) applied to the plant. The component
that actually applies the control signal is termed as final control
element.
 Comparator:
A comparing element detects the error between the input and
the output, and feeds this information to the controller to
initiate a control action.
 Plant or Process:
Also called the control system, and is the body, process or
machine, of which a particular quantity or condition is to be
controlled.
 DEFINITIONS OF VARIOUS
CONTROL TERMINOLOGIES
 Manipulated variable:
Also called control signal, and is the quantity or condition
that the control mechanics (control elements) apply to the
plant or process.
 Disturbance:
It is an undesired input signal, which affects the value of the
controlled output or variable.
 Forward path:
This is the transmission path from the actuating signal to the
controlled output.
 Feedback path:
This is the transmission path from the controlled output to
the primary feedback signal.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS REPRESENTATIONS

Control systems may be represented in

three ways for easy analysis and
predicting the relationship between
different variables on different
components of the control system.
Systems can be represented using:
 Block diagrams
 Signal Flow Graph (SFG)
 Differential equations and other
mathematical relations.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS REPRESENTATIONS

Block Diagram Representation (Algebra)

• Block diagram is a short hand, pictorial
representation of a physical system
illustrating the functional relationship among
its components.
• It is a pictorial representation of the cause
and effect relationship between input and
output of a physical system.
• Blocks can be arranged either in CASCADE or
CANONICAL form
 CONTROL SYSTEMS REPRESENTATIONS

In general a block diagram consists of a specific

configuration of four types of elements as shown
below.

 Blocks - to give descriptions of a system

 Summing points - to compare output with input
 Arrows- to represent unidirectional signal flow.
 Take off points – the start of the system
branches
 CONTROL SYSTEMS REPRESENTATIONS

 Canonical Form of a Feedback

Control System block diagram
Study the block diagram below
 CONTROL SYSTEMS REPRESENTATIONS

The following definitions refer to the above block

diagram

 G- Direct transfer (forward transfer function)

 H- Feedback transfer function
 GH- Loop transfer function (Open loop T F)
 C/R- Closed loop transfer function (Control Ratio)
 E/R- Actuating signal ratio (Error ratio)
 B/R- Primary feedback ratio
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
In the following equations, -sign refers
to a positive feedback system and +
sign refers to negative feedback system
A

B

C
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Example 2: Distinguish between the terms “Open
Loop” and “Closed Loop” when applied to control
systems. Illustrate your answer by reference to a
particular example of each type of system and sketch
its relative block diagram.

Example 3: A control system contains an input

transducer, output transducer, comparator, error
amplifier and actuator. Sketch a labeled block diagram
showing these components arranged to the control of
a load and describe the function of each component.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Solution for Example 3
(a)Input transducer: is an amplifying element to give
the reference input a strong signal.
(b)Error amplifier: Is a controller that receives
actuating signals and informs the actuator to
generate necessary control action to the plant.
(c)Actuator: Is an element that generates the actual
control action to control the plant.
(d)Comparator: Is a comparison element between the
reference input and the controlled variable (output).
(e)Output transducer: Is a measuring device for the
output and it also strengthens the output signal
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Solution for Example 3
Example 3 can be drawn as below.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Example 4:
Draw a block diagram to represent the
level-control system shown in figure
below

Figure: A level-control system

 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Solution for example 4

Figure: Block diagram of a level-control system

 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS

 Block Diagram Transformation Theorems

Block diagrams of complicated control
systems can be simplified using easily
derivable transformations. The letter G is
used to represent any transfer function
and W,X,Y,Z denote any s-domain signals
as shown in table below
Block Diagram Transformation Theorems
Transformation Equation Block diagram Equivalent Block
Diagram
1 Combining
Blocks in Y = (G1G2)X
Cascade
2 Combining
Blocks in
parallel or Y = G1X+G2X
eliminating a
Forward Loop
3 Removing a
Block from a
forward path Y = G1X+G2X

4 Eliminating a
Feedback Loop
Y = G1(X+G2X)

5 Removing a
Block from Y = G1(X+G2X)
Feedback Loop
6 Rearranging
Summing Points Z=W+X+Y

7 Moving a
Summing Point
ahead of Block Z=PX+Y

8 Moving a
Summing Point
beyond a Block Z=G(X+Y)

9 Moving a
Takeoff Point Y=GX
ahead of a
Block
10 Moving a
Takeoff Point Y= GX
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
 A Unity Feedback System
A unity feedback system is a feedback system in
which the primary feedback B is identically equal
to the controlled output C as shown in figure below

Figure: Unity Feedback System

Any feedback system with only linear elements in
the feedback loop can be put into the form of a
unity feedback system
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS

Example 5:

a)Figure: Feedback system b) Figure: Unity Feedback

system
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
 Multiple Inputs
 Sometimes it is necessary to evaluate a
system’s performance when several stimuli are
simultaneously applied at different points of the
system
 When multiple inputs are present in a linear
system, each is treated independently, without
relying on the others. The output due to all
stimuli acting together is found in the following
manner
Step 1; Set all inputs except one equal to zero
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Step 2: Transform the block diagram to canonical form
using the transformation theorems given
Step 3: Determine the response due to the chosen input
acting alone
Step 4: Repeat steps 1 to 3 for each of the remaining
inputs
Step 5: Algebraically add all responses (outputs)
determined in steps 1 to 5

 This sum is the total output of the system with all inputs
acting simultaneously.
 It is re-emphasized here that this superposition process
above is dependent on the system being linear.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS

Example 6: Determine the output C of

the following system
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Solution for example 6;
Step 1: Set input U = 0 and determine
output CR due to input R acting alone
which gives

CR = G1G2R
1 + G1G2
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Step 2: Set input R = 0 and determine output C U
due to input U acting alone which gives

CU = G 2U
1 + G 1G 2
Step 3: Combine Output C due to input R and
Output C due to input U to get the total output C
due to both inputs R and U acting together
C = CR + C U = G 1 G 2 R + G 2 U
1 + G 1G
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
 Reduction of Complicated Block
Diagrams
 The block diagram of a control system may
include several feedback loops or feed
forward loops and multiple inputs.
 Every multiple loop feedback system may be
reduced to canonical form by means of a
systematic block diagram reduction methods
or techniques
 CONTROL SYSTEMS REPRESENTATIONS

The following general steps may be used as general

approach:

Step 1: Combine all cascade blocks using transformation 1

Step 2: Combine all parallel steps using transformation 2
Step3: Eliminate all minor feedback loops using
Transformation 4
Step 4: Shift summing points to the left and take off points
to the right of the major loop, using transformation 7 and 8
Step 5: Repeat step 1 to 4 until the canonical form has
been formed for a particular input
Step 6: Repeat step 1 to 5 for each input as required
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Example:
Reduce the block diagram to canonical form
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Class work 1: Reduce the following block diagram to
canonical form

Class work 2: Reduce the following block diagram to

canonical form isolating block H1
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Class work 3: Reduce the following block diagram to
canonical form putting block H1 alone in the feedback
path

Class work 4: Determine the transfer function, C/R of

the following control system
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Class work 5: Determine the transfer function, C/R of
the following control system

Class work 6: Determine the transfer function, C/R of

the following control system
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Class work 7: Reduce the following block diagram to
canonical form

Class work 8: Determine the output C for the following

control system
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Find control ratio of the control system block
diagram below using superposition PRINCIPLE.

(Answer: C/R = G1G2G3+G4+G2G3G4H)

1+G2G3H
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Find the output C of the control system block
diagram below using superposition principle.

(Answer: C = G1G3R+G2G3Y)
1+G3H
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Find the output C of the control system block
diagram below using superposition principle
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS

Find Transfer Function of the control system block

diagram below using superposition Principle
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Signal Flow Graphs
Representation
 A signal flow graph is a pictorial
representation of the simultaneous
equations describing a system.
 It graphically displays the transmission
of signals through the system as does
the block diagram.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Signal Flow Graphs
Representation
 A signal flow graph is a pictorial
representation of the simultaneous
equations describing a system.
 It graphically displays the transmission
of signals through the system as does
the block diagram.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
 Fundamentals of signal flow graphs
Let us consider the simple equation,
The variable and can be function of time,
complex frequency or any other
quantity. They may even be constants
which are “variables” in the mathematical
sense.
For signal flow graphs, is a mathematical
operator mapping and and is called
transmission function.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
The signal flow graph is represented as
follows:
Node Node
Xj Aij Xi

Example:
Where, E is a voltage,
I is a current and R is a resistance
The signal flow graph for this equation is
I R E
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
 Signal flow graph Algebra/Rules
Rule 1. The addition Rule
The value of the variable designated by
a node is equal to the sum of all signals
entering the node.
is represented by
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Example:
The signal flow graph for the equation of a
line in rectangular coordinates, Y = mX + b
x

b 1 Y

Since b and Y –axis intercept is a constant;

it may represent a node (variable) or a
transmission function.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Rule 2: Transmission Rule
The value of the variable designated by a node is
transmitted on every branch leaving that mode
Xi  AikXk , i 1,2,3,.........n, k  fixed

is represented by

Example:
Draw the signal flow graph of the simultaneous equation,
Y = 3X, Z = -4X
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Rule 3: Multiplicative Rule
A cascaded (series) connection of n-1 branches with
A21, A32 , A43............ Ann  1 can be replaced by
transmission function
a single branch with a new transmission function equal
to the product of the old ones.

The signal flow graph equivalence is represented by

 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Example:
Draw the signal flow graph of the
simultaneous equation, Y= 10X, Z = -
20Y

This reduces to,

 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
 Terminologies of Signal Flow Graph
The examples associated with each
definition refer to the signal flow graph
below.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
• A Path is a continuous unidirectional succession of
branches along no node is passed more than once.
eg.X1 to X2 to X3 to X4 , X1 to X2 to X4 are paths.
• An Input Node or Source is a node with only
outgoing branches. e.g. X1 is an input node.
• An Output Node or Sink is a node with only
incoming branches e.g. X4 is an output node.
• A Forward Path is a path from the input node to
output node. e.g. X1 to X2 to X3 to X4, X1 to X2 to X4
• A Feed Back path or feedback loop is a path
which originates and terminates on the same node
eg.X2 to X3 and back to X2
 CONTROL SYSTEMS REPRESENTATIONS

• A self-loop is a feedback consisting of a

single branch.eg.A33
• A Branch gain is a transmission function of
that branch when the transmission function
is a multiplicative operator .e.g. A33 is a gain
of a self –loop branch.
• A path gain is the product of the branch
gains encountered in traversing a path. e.g.
the path gain of the path X1 to X2 to X3 to X4
is
• A loop gain is a product of the branch gains
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
 Construction of signal flow graphs
Consider the block diagram of the canonical
feedback control system given by

The signal flow graph is easily constructed from

the above block diagram

Note that the – or + sign of the summing is associated

with H
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
 The General Input-Output Gain formula
The general formula (Mason’s Gain
Formula) for any signal flow graph is
 P i i
T  i 1


Where, T= C/R, (Control ratio or Transfer

function)
• the forward path gains
• Possible product of k non-touching
loop gains
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS

1-(sum of all loop gains) + (sum of all gain

products of two non-touching loops)-(sum of all
gain products of three non-touching loops) +
…………
Evaluated with all loops not
touching eliminated
E.g. (All loop gains not touching forward
path P1)
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Example:
Determine the control ratio (C/R) of the
feedback control system using Mason’s
Gain
The signal graph is
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
• There are two forward paths
P1 G1G2 G3 ,
P2 G1G3G4
• There are three feedback loops
P11 G1G4 H 1 ,
P21  G1G2 G4 H 2 ,
P31  G1G3G4 H 2
• There are no non-touching loops and all loops
touch both forward paths. Then
.  1  0 1,  1  0 1
1 2

.  1  G G H  G G G H  G G G H 
1 4 1 1 2 4 2 1 3 4 2

Thus, Transfer function, T is

 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
 How To Use Output-Input –Relation
When looking for ratio by equation 1 the
following steps will help very greatly.
Step: 1. Determine the number of all forward
paths present in the signal flow graph and
calculate their path gains, Pi
Step:2. Determine the number of all feedback
loops present and calculate their loop gains
Step:3. Observe carefully the loops obtained in
step 2 and see if there are any two non-touching
loops. Calculate their loops gain product.
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Step:4.Repeat step 3, for three, four, five etc.
possible combinations of non-touching loops.
Calculate also their loop gain product.
Step:5.Observe the forward paths obtained in
step 1 together with other loops obtained in step
2. See which loop does not touch path.
Determine for such combination.
Step:6.Substitute all the variables obtained in
‘Mason’s Gain formula to obtain the required
transfer function or the (Output-Input ratio).
 CONTROL SYSTEMS
REPRESENTATIONS
Classwork:
Obtain the output – input relation from
the S.F.G below and construct the
canonical form of block diagram.
 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
Continuous Open Loop Control
System
Continuous open loop control system is a type of control
system which has no comparison between the actual value
and the desired value.
A typical example of a continuous open loop control
system is an electric storage radiator without
thermostatic control as indicated below.

Figure: Block diagram of an Electric storage radiator

 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
 Features of Continuous Open Loop Control
System:
The main features of this type of control
system are;
There is no comparison between actual and
desired values
Each input setting determines a fixed
operating position for the controller
Changes in external conditions (load
changes) result in an output change unless
the controller setting is altered manually.
 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
Example
Draw a block diagram to represent a steam
turbine generator set without a governor.
Solution
The block diagram looks as illustrated below

Figure: Block diagram of a steam turbine

generator
 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
If the system is operating to supply electricity for the national
grid, the speed must remain constant to maintain the correct
mains frequency. A call for extra electricity from the generator
set causes extra load on the turbine, causing it to slow down
and unless the input is manually changed, the turbine will
settle down at a new steady speed.
A typical graph of speed against time, or the system response
curve, is shown here;

Figure: System response curve

 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
• Sequential Open Loop Control System
A sequential open loop control system is a
special type of open loop control system
and is employed in many mechanical
handling and packaging systems. A typical
system is shown below.

Figure: Block diagram of sequential control system

 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
Example
The drilling rig shown in figure below is required to perform the following
sequence of operations. Pressing a start button supplies air to the cylinder A to
clamp the component, and this initiates the drill movement. The first movement
is rapidly fed to trip valve 1, followed by slow controlled feed on the drilling
stroke to trip valve 2, which causes the drill stroke to reverse. Striking trip valve
3 on the reverse stroke causes cylinders A to unclamp allowing the Work piece
to be removed. Draw a block diagram to present this sequence of operations.
 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS

Solution

Figure: Block diagram of a drilling rig

 TYPES OF CONTROL SYSTEMS
 Features of a sequential open loop control system:
The main features of this type of control system are;
 The finish of one action initiates the start of the next
 Actions take place in a certain fixed sequence
 Since there is no comparison between actual output
and the desired value, rapid changes can occur in
the output if any load changes occur, although
feedback of a completed action is used.
 This type of system often employs pneumatic or
hydraulic actuation, using cylinder to perform the
operations, and mechanical trip valves to signal the
completion of the operation.
 BRANCHES OF CONTROL

Three branches for continuous closed-loop control

systems are:
 Servo-Mechanisms/Kinetic control:
• Sometimes called Kinetic control, and is the type of
feedback control system whose objective is to
displace the disturbance on the plant or process in
such a manner that the output of the plant follows a
continually changing reference input or desired
value
• They are applied to control position and motion
parameters such as displacement, velocity and
acceleration.
Examples of servo-control type include Positioners for
 BRANCHES OF CONTROL
Regulators:
• They are feedback control system
whose objective is to maintain constant
controlled variables such as speed,
voltages, temperature etc., irrespective
of the external load (disturbance) on
the plant or process.
• These are basically particular
examples of process control and
servomechanisms
 BRANCHES OF CONTROL
Process Controllers:
• These are special types of regulators with the
objective of controlling process variables such as
pressure, flow, level, temperature, acidity and
concentration.
• In this type of system, there is usually one optimum
desired value, known as the set point.
• The control system is required to ensure that the
process output is maintained at this level in spite of
changes in external conditions, which affect the
process
•Examples of process-control applications include
Petrol-chemical-plant control, Vat-temperature control
in breweries, and Limekiln control
 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Comparison Elements
Comparison elements compare the
output or controlled variable with the
desired input or reference signal and
generates an error or deviation signal.
They perform the mathematical
operation of subtraction.
 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
 Differential levers
 The differential levers are mechanical
comparison elements and are
extensively used in pneumatic and
hydraulic cylinder systems to control
the flow of fluid from and to the
reservoir.
 They have three floating pivots, and
sometimes they are also called
FLOATING LEVER
 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Figure: Differential or Floating lever

For a control system that employs a negative

feedback, the input and output are applied in
opposite direction.
 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
• Our aim is to determine the amount of
floating point, S movement.
• Let us assume pivot, T is fixed, the
lever is moved due to input, and from
the similar triangles, the movement of
S is obtained.
 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
• Let T be fixed,
RR' T SS' T

ST SS '
 
RT RR'

b 

a  b i

When pivot, R is now fixed, pivot, S moves in the

other direction. Movement of S is determined by the
same procedure.
 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
If R is now fixed for triangle similarity

The resultant movement of S will be obtained

by superposition principle
i.e
The actuating signal or error or deviation

For a lever made with equal arms (i.e. a = b)

 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
Control Elements
Control elements are those elements in which the
amplified and conditioned error signal is used to
regulate some energy source to the process.
 Process control valve
In many process systems, the control element is
the pneumatically actuated control valve, which
is used to control/regulate the flow of some fluid.
A control valve is essentially a pressure reducing
valve and consists of two major parts which are
the valve body assembly and the valve actuator.
 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

 Hydraulic servo-valves
In hydraulic control systems, the hydraulic
energy from the pump is converted to
mechanical energy by means of a
hydraulic actuator. The flow of fluid from
the pump to the actuator in most systems
is controlled by a servo-valve. The servo-
valve is one of the control-valves which
control the flow of fluid from the reservoir
to other pneumatic/hydraulic working
elements
 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
A servo-valve is a device using
mechanical motion to control fluid flow.
There are three main Modes Of Control
Sliding – the spool valve
Seating – the flapper valve
Flow dividing – the jet pipe valve
 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
 Spool valve
These are the most widely used type of valves. They
incorporate a sliding spool moving in a ported sleeve as
illustrated in figure below. The valves are designed at a
fixed pressure drop, which is proportional to the spool
displacement from the null position

Figure: A spool valve

 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
 Spool valves classification
Spool valves are classified according to:-
 The number of “ways” flow can enter or leave the valve.
A four way valve is required for use with double acting-cylinders
 The number of lands on the sliding spool.
Three and four lands are the most commonly used as they give a
balanced valve i.e. the spools does not tend to move due to fluid
motion through the valve.
 The valve center-characteristics. That is the relationship between
the land width and the port opening. The flow-movement
characteristics are directly related to the type of valve-center
employed.
 Flapper valves. These are the valves that incorporate a flapper-
nozzle arrangement. They are used in low cost single-stage valves
for systems requiring accurate control of small flows.
 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
 Valve Characteristics
Flow against valve displacement

Figure: Flow against valve displacement

The flow rate Q, will be directly proportional to the spool

valve displacement, Thus,

Where K isQ the3 constant of proportionality and is called

K  m / s  Per valve displacement

valve flow constant
 CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

 Velocity-Characteristics
Cylinder Characteristic

Where V=Velocity of the piston

K
A=effective cross-sectional area of piston
V=Q/A, V
A
=displacement of the spool
 LOGIC JUNCTION

Logic Operation Rules of Boolean

Algebra
Table 1 shows the Operation Rules of
Boolean algebra
 LOGIC JUNCTION
.Table 1: Operation Rules of Boolean algebra
0 1 T =0 Fundamental Law
X+0=X X.1 = X Idempotent Law
X+1=1 X.0 = 0 Idempotent Law
X+X=X X.X = X Idempotent Law
X X Involution Law
X+Y =Y +X XY = YX Communicative Law
X + XY = X X X  Y   X Absorption Law
X  XY  X  Y  
X X  Y  XY De Morgan’s Law
X  Y   X .Y X .Y   X  Y
X  YZ X  Y X  Z  X Y  Z XY  XZ Distributive Law
X  Y  Z  = X  Y   Z X YZ  = XY Z Associative Law
= = XYZ
X Y  Z
 LOGIC JUNCTION
 Logic Terminologies
 A logic gate: This is an electronic sub-system
which controls the information (signal) flow to a
system.
Five basic gates are; AND, NAND, OR, NOT and
NOR. These gates are satisfied when inputs are
such that a change in any one input will change the
output. A satisfied AND or OR gate has a true
output, whereas satisfied NAND or NOR gate has a
false output.
 Truth table (s): This is a table that gives for every
possible combination of elements, an outcome of
an operation.
 LOGIC JUNCTION
• Switching algebra: Sometimes called logical
algebra or Boolean algebra. This assists in
determining the outcomes of every possible
combinations of element
 Logic sum (or operation): This is an
operation (+) that gives an outcome at logic 1
always unless ALL input variables are at logic
zero  A “OR” B = A + B
 Logic product (AND operation): This is an
operation (.) that gives the outcome at logic
zero always unless all input variables are at
logic 1  A “AND” B = A.B = AB
 LOGIC JUNCTION
 Boolean Algebra states
In Boolean algebra there are two states which are the binary O
and 1 state and are naturally related to the true and false logic
variables. Also there are two operations (+ and .), that is,
addition and product as explained above. We will find the
following Boolean algebra useful. Consider two logic variables
A and B and the results of some Boolean logic operation Q. we
can define.
Q A AND B= A.B
Q is true if and only if A is true AND B is true
Q = A OR B = A + B
Q is true if A is true or B is true
Q = A NOT B = A. , Q is true if A is true and B is false
A useful way of displaying the results of Boolean operations is
with a truth table. We can see a summary of a number of basic
 LOGIC JUNCTION
 LOGIC GATES
The AND gate
The AND gate is used to determine when
both inputs are true. The schematic
symbol used is
X Y X AND Y
0 Truth
0 Table
0
0 1 0
1 0 0
1 1 1

AND gate symbol

 LOGIC JUNCTION
 The NAND gate
NAND gates’ are negated AND gates. They are true when
at least one input is not true. As a side note, it is often
easier (and cheaper) to buy NAND gates instead of AND
gates. This is due to the fact that on the transistor level
the number of transistors to construct NAND gate is less
than the number required for an AND gate. The schematic
symbol used is
Truth
X Table
Y X NAND Y
0 0 1
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

NAND gate symbol

 LOGIC JUNCTION
 The OR gate
OR gates are used to determine when at least
one input is true. Schematic symbol used is
Truth Table

X Y X OR Y
0 0 0
OR gate symbol 0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 1
 LOGIC JUNCTION
 The NOR gate
NOR gates are negated OR gates. They
are true when all inputs are not true. The
schematic symbol uses is
Truth Table
X Y X NOR Y
0 0 1
0 1 0
OR gate symbol 1 0 0
1 1 0
 LOGIC JUNCTION
 The NOT gate
NOT gates return the opposite of the
input. The schematic symbol used is
Truth Table
X NOT X
0 1
1 0
NOT gate symbol
The open circle indicates NOT or negation
function and can be replaced by an inverter in
any circuit. A signal is negated if it passes
through the circle
 LOGIC JUNCTION

Fundamentals of Switching Algebra

• Simplification of Boolean algebra
Combinational logic circuits
Not always truth matches with that of a
basic gate. At times you need to combine
two or more gates in order to realize the
logic circuit that corresponds to the truth
table. This is called “Combinational logic”
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Consider the following truth tables
A B C F A B C F A B C F
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1
0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 0 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1

(a) (b) (c)

Task: Develop logic circuits
corresponding to Truth Table (TT)
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Example for truth table (a),
Before constructing a logic circuit you need to
obtain the logic expression (logic function)
from the truth table
Step 1: Look at the truth table and consider
all rows for which the output is at logical 1.
Develop the equations for each now where the
output is at logical 1 by using an AND
operation. These AND operation equations will
either be in their true or inverted forms
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Step 2: All the above equations are
ORed together to give the logic
function.
The
ABCAND
, ABC , –ABequations
C , ABC and ABC are;

Logic circuit corresponding to F can be

developed as follows;
 LOGIC JUNCTION
• Logic circuit corresponding to F is
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Class work 1
Develop the logic circuits from the TT
for the following logic expressions
1.
2.
3.
4.
 LOGIC JUNCTION

 Switching Algebra Theorems

Let’s discuss eleven (11) basic logic theorems,
together with the two De Morgan’s theorems,
which will help in constructing a logic circuit
that requires a minimum number of logic
elements.
Theorem 1:
Since A is a binary variable then, A is either 0
or 1
Case 1: If A = 0, and
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Case 2: When, A = 1, A 0 and A 1
In either case,

Theorem 2: A.0 = 0
If you consider the AND – gates. It will give an output at logical 0
always unless ALL input variables are at logical 1.
The input 0 is said to inhibit the AND – gate to give a zero output
always.
Theorem 3: A + 0 = A
The zero input is said to enable the OR – gate to give out A always.
Theorem 4: A.1 = A
The input 1 enable the AND – gate to give an output A.
Theorem 5: A + 1 = 1
The input 1 locks up the OR – gate and does not respond to any
changes in the input A. So the output is held up at logic 1 always.
 LOGIC JUNCTION

Theorem 6: A + A = A
When A = 0; A + A = 0 + 0 =0
Or A = 1; A+ A = 1 + 1 = 1
In either case the output follows A.
Theorem 7: A. A =A
Case 1: If A = 0; A.A = 0.0 = 0
Case 2: When A = 1, :A.A= 1.1 =1
In either case the output is equal to A
 LOGIC JUNCTION

Theorem 8: A + A 1
Case 1: When A = 0, and A + = 0 + 1 = 1
Case 2: If A = 1, A = 0 and A + A = 1 + 0
=1
The output isA. Aalways
0
equal to 1
Theorem 9:
If A = 0; A 1 and A. A 0 .1 = 0
Case 1:
A = 1; A 0 and A. A 0 = 1.0 = 0
Case 2: If
The output is 0
 LOGIC JUNCTION

Theorem 10: A.B + A.C = A.(B + C)

This can be verified by using truth table
A B C A.B A.C A.B + A.C B+C A(B + C)
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1 0 0 0 1 0
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Theorem 11: A + =A+B

 LOGIC JUNCTION

 De Morgan’s theorems
Theorem 1:

A NOR is equivalent to inverting inputs to

an AND-gate
 LOGIC JUNCTION

 Application of de Morgan’s laws

To apply these laws correctly one needs to
know the terms involved and the function
between them. For instance
a. AB + CDE + FG
b. (A + B) (C + D)
c. (A + B) (C + D) + EFG
d. ABC
 LOGIC JUNCTION
When applying De Morgan’s laws, the
following three rules are to be used
Rule No. 1: Compliment the entire expression
Rule No. 2: Change the function between each
term
Rule No. 3: Compliment each term
Example 1: Apply the De Morgan’s rules to
Rule No. 1: is Complimented as
Rule No. 2: = then F is changed as A
+B
 LOGIC JUNCTION

Rule No. 3: A + B each term complimented as A  B

 AB  A  B

Example 2: Apply the De Morgan’s rules to A.B.C

Solution:
ABC = ABC
= A.B.C
= A B C
 ABC  A  B  C
 LOGIC JUNCTION

As already stated above that; X .Y  X  Y  

and X  Y  X .Y
Consider that truth table that defines the OR gate. Using the lines in this
table that yields a true result gives

Q = A.B  A.B  A.B

= A.B  A.B  A.B  A.B
   
= A/ B  B  B A  A
=A+B
 LOGIC JUNCTION

Since Q is a two state variable, all other input combinations must yield a
false. If the truth table had more than a single output results, each such
result would require a separate equation. An alternative is to write an
expression for the false condition
Q  A.B
Q A  B
Q  A.B
Q A  B
 LOGIC JUNCTION
 Simplification of Logic functions
Using switching algebra theorems one is able to reduce
any logic function to its simplest terms that are
realized by a minimum number of elements.
Example 1: Simplify F = , and realize it in a
logic circuit diagram.
Solution:
F = AB  AB
= ABB 
= A since B  B 1
 F A

Logic circuit
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Example 2: F = CBA + C BA  CB A
Solution
CBA + C BA  CB A  
= CBA  C BA  CB A

= BA C  C  CB A 
= BA + CB A
 C  C 1
 

= B A  C 
  A 
 
=  F  BA  C 
 LOGIC JUNCTION

H/W
Minimize the following expressions
and realize the simpler versions with
logic circuit diagrams
1. f = ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC
2. f = ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC
3. f = ABC  ABC  ABC
4. f = ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC
 LOGIC JUNCTION
 Simplification by Karnaugh Map (K-Map)
A B C Y
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1  A.B.C
0 1 1 1  A.B.C
1 0 0 0
1 0 1 1  A.B.C
1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1  A.B.C

Y = ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC

  
Y = ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC 
= AB C  C  AC B B
Y = AB  AC Since C  C  B  B 1

The circuit is drawn below

 LOGIC JUNCTION
Example 3
Simplify the following Boolean algebra expression
F= A.BC  A.BC  A.BC  A BC
Solution
F= A.BC  A.BC  A.BC  A BC
  
F= A BC  BC  A BC  BC 
F= A.C  A.C

F= C A  A 
F= C

• In the previous we have seen how Boolean

algebra can be used to describe logic circuits.
• We shall construct a logic ckt if a truth table is
available. First we need to find a logic
expression corresponding to the truth table.
This is done by using the following Rules.
 LOGIC JUNCTION
1. Write a term (defined in rules below) for
each row where the value of Y = 1
2. Each term contains all the input variables in
either true or inverted form ANDed together.
3.The input variable is written in inverted form
if the value of the input variable in that row is
0 and true form if the value in that row is 1
4.All these terms are then ORed together.
Using these rules we obtain the equation from the truth table
Y = ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC
 LOGIC JUNCTION
By using some of the basic Boolean algebra we can
simplify the expression for Y as;

Y  
= ABC  ABC  ABC  ABC 
= ABC  C  AC B B
 Y = AB  AC since C  C  B  B 1

A circuit based on the simplified version is drawn.

The upper AND-gate will have a 1 output when A =
0 and B = 1. This occurs in the 3rd and 4th row in the
truth table. The lower AND – gate will have a 1
output when A = 1 and C = 1, which occurs in the
6th and 8th row in the truth table.
 LOGIC JUNCTION
 Karnaugh Map Method
 The use of Boolean identities for minimization
can be a cumbersome (troublesome) procedure.
 It may take a long time to find the simplest
circuit or may not be found at all.
 A method for simplifying a Boolean expression
directly from the input –output specifications will
now be given.
 This method requires that a Boolean function is
specified on a so called Karnaugh map or in
short K-map.
 LOGIC JUNCTION

Examples 1: A two variable Boolean function is

specified by its truth table (a) and its K-map (b) as
seen below (a) TT (b) K.Map
A B Y 0 1
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 0
1 1 0

Each cell in the K-map corresponds to a row in the

truth table. In each cell is indicated which value the
output must have for the input combinations
indicated by the row and column headings
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Example 2: A three variable function is shown below in Truth Table
and K-Map A B C Y
0 0 0 1
0 0 1 0
0 1 0 1
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 1 0
(a) Truth table (b) K-map

 Notice the order in which the rows in the k-map are labeled
 When grouping from one row to the next the value of either A
or B may change, but in no case will the values of both A and B
change at the same time.
 This order is an essential feature for the applicability of the K-
map for simplification.
 LOGIC JUNCTION
For a four variable Boolean function, the truth table
and its corresponding K-map are plotted below.
A B C D Y
0 0 0 0 1
0 0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0 0
0 0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0 1
0 1 0 1 0
0 1 1 0 1
0 1 1 1 0
1 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 0
1 0 1 1 0
1 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0
1 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0
1 1 1 1 0 0 1 0 0
(a)Truth table (b) K-map
 LOGIC JUNCTION

• Simplification procedure
Consider the following Boolean expressions:

Y1 = AB  AB
Y2 = ABC  ABC
Y3 = ABC D  ABC D
By using Boolean identities:

Y1 = A B  B =A 

Y2 = BC A  A  BC 

Y3 = AB D C  C  AB D 
The two terms in the expressions on the left above,
only differs by one variable which is in true form in
one term and inverted form in the other. The two
terms can then be replaced by the common factor
 LOGIC JUNCTION

• K-Maps of the expressions

Their corresponding K-map are shown below.

0 0
1 1

(a) Y1 = A

0 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
1 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
(b) Y2  BC (c) Y3  AB D
 LOGIC JUNCTION
• Since the two terms in the above expressions differ
by the value of the one variable, they are always
found in adjacent cells in their corresponding K-map
as shown above.
• Adjacent cells: Two cells are said to be adjacent if in
the K-map are placed side by side or one above the
other. In K-map (c) we have an example of a “split”
adjacency where left and right columns are
considered adjacent to each other. Similarly the top
and bottom rows are also considered adjacent.
• NOTE: Every time we find two 1’s in adjacent cells in
a K-map we know that the two correspondent
terms can be reduced to one term
 LOGIC JUNCTION

Class work
Derive the minimized terms corresponding
to the following K-maps
1 0 0 0 0 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 0

0 0 0 0 0 0
0 1
1 0 0 0 0 0

a) b) c)
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Consider other two K-maps with more than one loop

0 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 0 1

1 1 0 1 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0

a) b)

The procedure:
 The two adjacent 1s are encircled by a loop to indicate that they
are to be read as a single term.
 The simplified term is obtained from the map by looking at the
value of each input variable in turn.
Example
Using variable A as an example:
 LOGIC JUNCTION

- If A=0 for both cells , use in the term

- If A=1 for both cells , use A in the term
- If A differs in the two cells , discard the use of A
in the term
We have seen how two adjacent cells with 1’s can
be read as single term, which has one input
variable eliminated or simplified. Similarly a
group of four adjacent 1’s can be read as a single
term, which has two input variables eliminated.
To be adjacent the four 1’s must either form
two by two square or straight line of four cells.
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Example
From these examples K-Maps (a ,b, and c) when
best looped give; a) Y1 = B, Y2 = and Y3 =
1 0 0 1
0 0 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 0 0
1 1 1 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
1 0 1 1

a) Y1 = B (b) Y2 = c) Y3 =
 LOGIC JUNCTION

If eight 1’s are found in a two by four

cell pattern in a K-map then all 1’s can be
read as a single term with three input
variables eliminated
Example
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1

a) Y1= C b) Y2 =
 LOGIC JUNCTION
• In the following, a two cell adjacency will be
called a 2- set; a four cell adjacency will be
called a 4- set, etc.
• When a Boolean function is specified by its
corresponding K-map the general technique is to
circle all 1’s either singly or in sets of adjacent
cells.
• Each circle is then converted to a term of the
equation. Very often there may be a choice of
ways in which 1s can be circled.
• Therefore the following five rules will explain
which choice should be made.
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Rule 1:
Use the fewest possible circles and
make each circle as large as possible
00 01 11 10
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
(a) Incorrect grouping: Y = A BC  AC D  AC D

00 01 11 10
1 0 0 1
1 0 0 1
0 0 0 0
0 0 1 1
(b) Correct grouping: Y = A BC  A D
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Rule 2:
Circles may overlap. In other words a 1 may be
0 or1circle .
included in more than one set
0 0
0 1
1 1
0 0
Y = AB + BC

Assignment: Circle best the following K-map and

then write the simplified expression.
0 0 0 1
1 1 1 1
0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Rule 3:
Use only enough circles to cover all 1’s. In
other words do not include a circle if all
1’s in that circle are also included in the
other circle 01 0
1
0
0
0
0
0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0

(a) Wrong: Y = ABC  BC D  ABD

0 0 0 0
1 1 0 0
0 1 1 0
0 0 0 0

(b) Correct: Y = = ABC  ABD

 LOGIC JUNCTION
Consider the K-map (a) below that should be best
circled to give the best results
0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1 Circle best to get these possible

0 0 0 1 equally correct solutions
1 1 0 1
in b) and c) 00 01 11 10
0 1 0 0
a) 0 1 1 1
0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1

(b) Y = ABC  AC D  ABC  AC D

00 01 11 10
0 1 0 0
0 1 1 1
0 0 0 1
1 1 0 1
(c ) Y = AB D  BC D  ABD  BC D
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Each of the 1’s in the two maps (b) and (c) above
can be included in two different 2-sets and
altogether there are eight possible 2-sets. Part
(b) and (c) show two different ways of including
all 1’s in only four of the eight possible 2-sets.
Both solutions are equally correct.
Rule 4:
When circling a map first find the 1’s which can
be entered in only one set. Once these necessary
sets are selected the task of choosing the
remaining sets is often simplified
 LOGIC JUNCTION
Example
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0

(a) Necessary sets are bared for easy selection

00 01 11 10
0 1 1 0
1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
0 1 0 0
(b) Circling the 1’s
The 1’s with bar below can only be entered in one set. Every other 1’s can be
entered into two different 2-sets. Once the sets containing the bared 1’s are
selected and have been circled, the remaining sets are easily selected. The
sets containing the bared 1’s are called necessary sets
 LOGIC JUNCTION

Rule 5:
Side length of circles or loops selected
must be in 2 power n (that is 2n)
Example:
0 0 1 0
0 0 1 0
1 1 1 1
0 0 1 1
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE

Control systems have two types of responses

which are;
• Transient response
• Steady-state response

 Transient response – Is the response of the system

that decays and approaches zero as time tends to infinity
after excitation.
 Steady-state response – Is the response of the system
which persists or remains and becomes the final value of
the output as time tends to infinity after excitation
(response which persists when transient response
vanishes)
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
Before systems response can be determined we shall first
determine system dynamic behavior by mathematical
representation or determination of its differential equation
• Equivalent Systems/Systems Modeling
Control systems contain many mechanical,
electrical, hydraulic and pneumatic devices inter
connected in various ways. For purpose of analysis
it is convenient to represent them by equivalent
systems made up of standard elements such as
masses, springs, dampers, resistance, capacitance
etc. which are more easily analysed to give their
dynamic equations.
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE

The use of differential equations is made to

give mathematical representation of systems
dynamic behavior. Let us consider three
systems to guide us in this discussion.
 Mechanical comparator (spring–damper-
system)
The force F is applied on a plate of negligible
mass attached to the system as shown in the
figure. The force causes the system to be
displaced
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
Figure showing spring damper system.
For equilibrium
F  Fs  Fd Spring force damping force
dx
But Fs kx and Fd C
dt
dx dx
Force of dashpot is directly proportional to the velocity i.e. Fd 
dt dt
dx
c  kx  F
dt
{Differential equation or mathematical model governing the dynamic
behavior of spring-damper-system}
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
 Fluid system
The flow system consists of the flow value of valve resistance equal to R
dv
Net flow+ Rate of accumulation in the system Qi  Q0  , but volume,
dt
V  Ah
dh
Qi  Q0  A
dt
dh
A  Q0 Qi
dt
hk
But Q0  , where k=constant
R
Since the outflow Q0 h  Q0 hk
R R
dh hk
 A  Qi ] Differential equation / Mathematical representation for
dt R
fluid system
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
 Electrical system (resistance-capacitor
system)

When the system is connected to the supply voltage,

Vo there will be an electric current, i circulating in the
system. Ohm’s law; the p.d across the resistor is iR.
The terminal (output), voltage, v 0 vi  iR , iR  v 0 vi 
The electrical charge, q in the system will be stored in the capacitor, and is
given by q CVo 
dq  dv 
Also by definition, i  C  0 
dt  dt 
dV0
RC  Vo Vi ] Mathematical model for the electrical system
dt
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
•Order of the System:
Order of the system Is the order (degree or
power) of the differential equation that defines
the dynamic behavior of the system.

dV0
e.g. RC  Vo Vi , has power of 1, so is a first order control system
dt
Let d  D , where D is called D-operator
dt
Then , RCDV0  V0 Vi
1  RCDVo Vi
Vo 1 
 Vi 1  RCD  Transfer operator or function for the electrical system

 
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE

This Transfer operator of electrical system can be

illustrated diagramatically as follows,

dx
Recall: Mechanical system, c  kx  F ; cDx  kx  F ;
dt
k  cD x  F
 1 
x 1  x k 
 ;   
F k  cD F c 
1 D
 k 
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
 The use of D-operator

D-operator is given by D d
dt

D   d   1  1 or per time
dt  time  time
Note:
1. All multiples of the D-operator in the transfer
operator must have units of time = (Resistance to
flow)-(capacity to store).
2) All first order systems have the Capacity to
store mass, energy etc. Resistance to flow
3)The time parameter obtained by multiplying
resistance to flow and capacitance equals time
constant for the system
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
• Transfer Function/ Transfer Operator
In general all 1st order dynamics will be
represented by the following transfer function.
, as a standard form

Where k = the system gain

The system time constant
These standard signals (forcing functions) are:-
(1) Step function
(2) Ramp function
(3) Sinusoidal function
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
 System response of 1st order dynamics
Most control systems do not know in advance
the type of input it will be subjected to. For
example:
i) When radar tracks an enemy plane, the
nature of the enemy plane’s variation is
random
ii) Terrain, curves on roads etc. are random
for new drives in an automobile system
iii) The loading on shearing machine- when
and which load will be applied or shown off
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
Despite the above situations, still the
following types of inputs can be brought out
a) Step input – signifies a sudden change
b) Impulse input – signifies momentary
shock
c) Ramp input – signifies a constant velocity
d)Parabolic input – signifies a constant
acceleration
e)Sinusoidal input – signifies a varying
frequency
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE

However, in our case, we shall consider

1st order dynamics only whose general
transfer operator is given as
These 1st order systems will be allowed to
respond to three standard signals:
(1)step input (function)
(2)the ramp input (function)
(3)the sinusoidal input (function)
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
Response of 1st order lag system to
a Step input
For step input  i (t )  i

Consider a typical first order lag element with a transfer operator given by
o k
 , then, in differential- equation form, this is
i 1  D
1  D  0  Ki.....................(i)
The solution for (i) consists of two parts
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
• a
(a) Transient (Complimentary function), response when RHS tends to 0,
(b) Steady state response (Particular Integral), response when transient
response
(LHS) Varnishes
a) Transient Response
Put Transient Response (RHS ) = 0
This is given by ,  0 1  D  0
 0  D 0 0
 d 0 

 0    0  ………………….(ii)
 dt 
Assuming a solution of the form,  0 .t  Aet
Aet  DAet 0
Differentiating gives
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE

• A
Substitute in (ii)
Aet  Ae t 0
Dividing by Aet both sides
1
 1   0 , thus,  

So,  0  Ae  t
  Transient solution

b) Steady State Response

This is given by
1  D  0 .ss  Ki
 0 . ss 1  D  1 Ki
Using binomial expansion

1  D  (1 
1  D   1 1  1D 

2
 ...) Ki
1! 2!
 
 0 . ss = 1  D  D 2  ... Ki
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
For a step input whose magnitude of the step
change is ,then
 . = 1  D  terms..in..D  and ..higher Ki
0 ss
2

Then,  0 . ss = Ki , (since Di 0 )

So, the complete response is the sum of Transient response and
Steady state response
 o o.t   0 . ss
 0  Ae  t   Ki 
Determining the value of A at boundary conditions,
i.e. When, t = 0,  0 0
0  A  Ki 
 A = - Ki
Thus,  0  Kie  t   Ki  , which simplifies to
 0  Ki (1  e  t /  )
Where k is the system gain, so
0
t   i 1  e t /

k
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
Figure below shows first order lag step input

Figure: First Order Lag Step Input

Note:
The response curve is that of exponential function which approaches the
steady state values  i for t  
0
When t is equal to one time constant,   0.632i
k
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE

a
 Time constant:
This is the measure of response to arrive at 63.2% of any step change.

1. When t =5 ,  0 0.99 i and the system is said to have completely

responded at a response time equal to t = 4 , and reaches a tolerance
band of 2%
2. This type of response may be found when:
(a) a thermometer is plunged into hot fluid
(b) a condenser is being changed from a d.c supply
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE

Exercise 1:
In a servo control to control the angular
position of a rotor a step input results in
an output of 0.5 radians after 4 sec. and
0.7 radians after a further 4 sec.
Calculate:
a.the system time constant
b.the magnitude of the step rotation
c.the time to rotate through 0.8 rad
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
Solution:

 0 k i 1  e  t /   Divide 1 by 2
Where  0 output (response) 0 .5 1  e  4 /  4 /
 , let e  x
K= system sensitivity gain, k = 1 0.7 1  e  8 /

 
 0  i 1  e t /  0 .5 1  x
 2
0.7 1  x
0.51  x2 0.71  x 
For t = 4sec and t=4+4=8sec
0.5 x 2  0.7 x  0.2 0
 
0.5  i 1  e  4 /  ..............1
Either x= 1 or x = 0.4
0.7  1  e  ..............2
i
8 /
But x e  4 / 
1 e  4 / 2  Take log. Both sides
4 4
Log 1  log e  0  discard
2 2
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
And 0.4 e  4 / 2 Take log both sides
4 0 .5
log 0.4  log e  i   4 / 4.4 0.833rad
2 1 e
log0.4  4 2  The magnitude of step rotation,  i 0.833rad
 4.4 sec 
(c) 0.8 0.833 1  e  t / 4.4 
0.8
1  e  t / 4.4
(a) The time constant, 4.4 sec 0.833
(b) 
Using 0.5  i 1  e  4 / 2  e  t / 4.4 1  0.8 , 
t 4.4 ln 1  0.8 14.1sec
0.833 0.833

0.5  i 1  e  4 / 4.4 
The time, t = 14.1sec
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE

Response of 1st order system to a

Ramp input
For a ramp input,  i t   t , where  is a constant
Then from the previous binomial expansion,
 
 0 .ss = 1  D  terms..in..D 2 and ..higher Kt
Then,  0 . ss = Kt  K , (since D 2 t 0 )
Then, the complete response is
 o  o .t   0 .ss
t
i.e.  o  Ae   Kt  K
Applying initial conditions, t = 0, and  0 0
0  A  K , A K
t
Thus,  o  Ke   Kt  K , which gives;

 0  Kt   1  e  t /  
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE

Figure: First Order Lag Ramp Input

N.B:
(1) When, t   , the response is approaching value, Kt   
represented by an asymptote  or a
(2) The response may, be found when:-
(a) A component is heated in a furnace at a constant rate.
(b) A body is being pulled through a viscous medium by an elastic
member, the other end is moving with uniform velocity.
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE

Example : A shaft carries a motor of moment

of inertia 5 Kgm2 and dashpot which provides
a torsional resistance of 2 Nm per rad/sec as
shown in figure below. If a steadily increasing
torque, given by T=1.2t Nm is applied to
the rotor, calculate the speed of the rotor after
3s (: )
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
Solution:
Torque on the rotor, T  I  Id 
dt
Resisting torque in the dashpot, Td 2
d
Total torque accelerating the rotor = I  2
dt
d d
T 5  2 , put D
dt dt
T 5 D  2  T  2  5 D 
 1  0.5 
   
T 2  5D  T 1  2.5 D 
 2.5Sec and Gain, k=0.5
For T 1.2t Nm
0.5
 1.2t
1  2.5 D
 
 ak t   1  e  t / 
Where a=1.2, k=0.5,  2.5 sec, t 3 sec
 1.2 0.53  2.51  e  3 / 2.5 
 0.752rad / s
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
 Response of 1st order system to a
sinusoidal function

When responds to a sinusoidal, response becomes

Zik
 0 me  t /   Sin t   
1  2 2

Boundary conditions: when t 0,  0 0

Zik Zik
0  m  , m Sin 
1  2 2
1  2 2

Zik
The Output Expression, 0  Sin t   ,
1   2 2

Zik
Where,   tan  1   , Steady state amplitude,  0 
1   2 2
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
 RECALL: Mechanical
comparator
It has three floating pivots, and
sometimes it’s also called FLOATING
LEVER
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
For a control system that employs a negative
feedback, the input and output are applied in
opposite direction. The aim is to determine the
control
From Q  K ratio
VA, 0

K

1
 K  2 AD 2A
 b i a 0  d 0 i 1 D
Q K    A K
 a  b a  b dt 0 1 1 2A
  , for  , and K 1
For equal arms of the floating lever a b  i 2A
1 D
1  D K
K
1
  i   o 
2 Assumptions:
k
 i   0   AD 0 , forD  d
2 dt In order that Q  K VA, ,the following assumptions are made.
K i  K 0 2 AD 0
(i) Leakage of oil in the system is neglected.
K i  0 K  2 AD 
(ii) Also the compressibility of the oil is neglected
(iii) The inertia of the moving parts is neglected.
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
Example :
The hydraulic ram is used to control the flow of oil to
and from the cylinder by a spool valve, when the valve
is mid-position it blocks off the flow from both ends of
the cylinder. The cross sectional area of the ram is
0.003m2 and when the value is displaced from the mid-
position the rate of flow of oil in the cylinder is 0.01m3/s
per meter of valve measurement. If for the floating
lever a = b and also when a = 40mm, b =60mm
(a)show that the transfer operator is of the form
stating any assumption made and the value of and K
(b)Find the steady state amplitude and magnitude of the
lag angle if the input is 6Cos 5t (mm)
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE

Solution: (a) Thus, the gain, K=1, and the time constant  0.6 sec
d 0 (b)  i 6 Cos 5t mm
Q  K  A
dt For a Sinusoidal function
1 i k
For a b ,  i   0 , Thus 0  Sin wt   , Where  5rad / s , K=1,   0.6 sec
2 1    
2

K
 i   0   AD 0 , forD d / dt 6 1
2  Sin 5t   
1  5 0.6
2
K  i   0  2 AD 0
K i  0 K  2 AD  The steady state amplitude is given by
i k 6 1
0 K 1 0  
  1   
2
1  5 0.6
2
 i K  2 AD 2A
1 D
K 6 6
0s   1.89mm
0 1 1 1  9 10
 
i 2 0.003 1  0.6 D  0 , s 1.89mm
1 D
0.01
(c) The lag angle,  is given by
0 1 K
   arctan   arctan 5 0.6 arctan 3 , 71.6 0
 i 1  0.6 D 1  D
The lag angle 71.6 0
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
Example 3:
The hydraulic ram is controlled by a spool valve. When the
valve is its mid-position it blocks off the flow to and from
both ends of the cylinder. The cross sectional area of the
ram is 0.003m2 and when the value is displaced from the
mid-position the rate of flow of oil into the cylinder is
0.01m3/s per meter of valve measurement. If for the
floating lever a = 40mm, b =80mm
(a)show that the transfer operator is of the form stating
any assumption made and the value of and K
(b)If the end of the lever is suddenly moved 20mm from the
mid-position , determine the limiting displacement of the
ram and time taken to move through 85% of this
displacement.
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE
d 0
Q  K  A
dt
For From Q  K VA,
 80 i 40 0 
Q 0.01
40  80

40  80  0.003D o
 

2 i   0 0.9 D 0

0 2
 , this is the required form.
 i 1  0.9 D
 0.9 sec , and K 2
Assumptions made are,
 Moving parts inertia is negligible,
 Leakage and compressibility of oil are ignored
 SYSTEMS RESPONSE

When x = 20mm, the limiting displacement can be determined from

a step input or function formula,
 
 0 k i 1  e  t /  ,
Substituting the values of  i 20mm ,  0.9 sec , K 2 and time ,t
= infinity into this equation, gives
 
 0 20 x 2 1  e  t / 0.9 =20x2 =40mm
Thus, When  0 40 x0.85 34
 0 20 x 21  e  t / 0.9  =40mm
401  e  t / 0.9  =34mm
t = 1.71sec