The document provides information on measuring and analyzing geological structures like bedding, folds, faults, and joints. It discusses strike and dip, which describe the orientation of bedding planes, and how they are measured. It also covers different types of folds, faults, and joints. The document discusses the importance of strike and dip for determining relative rock ages and classifying geological structures. Finally, it discusses physical and mechanical rock properties like porosity, permeability, hardness, strength, elasticity, and plasticity as well as how elastic wave velocities relate to interpreting rock properties.
1. Strike is the direction of the intersection of a geologic structure with a horizontal plane, while dip is the angle of inclination from horizontal.
2. A Brunton compass is used to measure the strike and dip of geologic structures in the field.
3. An outcrop is an exposure of a rock formation at the surface, and its pattern depends on factors like the structure's orientation and the topography.
Geological structures- التراكيب الجيولوجيه
Geological Structures
What are Geologic Structures?
إيه هيا التراكيب الجيولوجيه؟
Division of Structures
تقسيم للتراكيب الجيولوجيه
A- Primary structures
Ripple marks
Mud cracks
Cross bedding
Graded bedding
Burrows
B- Secondary Structures
Folds
Faults
Joints
Unconformities
What are Geologic Structures?
إيه هيا التراكيب الجيولوجيه؟
Geologic structure is any feature in rocks that results from deformation, such as folds, joints, and faults.
اى شكل فى الصخر ينتج من خلال عملية التشويه مثل : الصدوع والطيات
هى التشققات والتصدعات الضخمة والالتواءات العنيفة التى تشوه صخور القشرة الارضية .
Geologic structures are usually the result of the powerful tectonic forces that occur within the earth. These forces fold and break rocks, form deep faults, and build mountains .
Division of Structures
• Primary (or sedimentary) structures: such as ripple marks, cross-bedding, and mud cracks form in sediments during or shortly after deposition.
هى التراكيب الناتجة من تدخل العمليات الخارجية أثناء الترسيب
• Secondary structures: is that structures formed after the formations of any kind of rocks, such as folds, faults, or unconformities.
Primary structures
They are any structures in sedimentary rock formed at or shortly after the time of deposition: such as:
هى الاشكال التى تتخلف بالصخور تحت تأثير عوامل مناخية وبيئية خاصة مثل الجفاف والحرارة وتأثير الرياح والتيارات المائية وغيرها وبدون أى تدخل من جانب القوى والحركات الارضية أمثلة ذلك:
Ripple marks
علامات النيم: هي تموجات رملية صغيرة تنشأ على سطح الطبقات الرسوبية بواسطة حركة الماء أو الهواء و تكون حروف علامات النيم متعامدة على اتجاه الحركة.
They are wavelike (undulating) structures produced in granular sediment such as sand by unidirectional wind and water currents or by oscillating wave currents.
Wind and current ripples. (Asymmetric
Wave ripples. (Symmetric
Mud cracks
التشققات فى الرواسب الطينية : حيث ينكمش سطح الرسوبيات الطينية مخلفة شقوقا مميزة فى فترات الجفاف
Mud crack is a crack in clay-rich sediment that has dried out.
Cross bedding
التطبق المتقاطع هو النمط الذي تسلكه الرسوبيات الجديدة المتراكمة عند تأثرها بأي من التيارات المائية أو الهوائية. عندما تستق
This document provides information on sieve analysis testing of soils based on IS 2720 Part 4. It discusses the objectives of classification of soils, coefficient of curvature, uniformity coefficient, and fineness modulus. Sieve analysis is used to determine gradation of soils, mix design proportions, and filter design. The test involves sieving soil samples through a series of sieves and weighing the material retained on each sieve. Calculations are made to determine coefficients and fineness modulus.
The document discusses considerations for selecting dam and reservoir sites from a geological perspective. It defines different dam types including gravity, buttress, arch, and earth dams. Key factors for dam site selection include the underlying rock and soil composition and structure, with impermeable and stable foundations being important. Dams should avoid faults, fractures, and areas prone to erosion or earthquakes. The reservoir site selection process also aims to minimize land usage and sediment intake while ensuring adequate storage capacity.
Glaciers form from accumulated snow that undergoes recrystallization into ice. They flow via gravity from accumulation zones where snowfall exceeds melting to ablation zones where melting exceeds snowfall. Glaciers powerfully erode, transport, and deposit sediment. They carve U-shaped valleys and leave behind landforms like moraines, drumlins, eskers and kettle lakes. Glaciers shape mountain and coastal landscapes through erosion and deposition.
This document discusses sedimentary structures, which are geological features formed during or just after sediment deposition. There are two types of sedimentary structures: primary and secondary. Primary structures form during deposition and include graded bedding, ripple marks, rip-ups, pebble imbrication, and mud cracks. Secondary structures form after deposition through chemical or physical processes, such as Liesegang rings, cone-in-cone structures, flame structures, raindrop impressions, and slump structures. Examples of each type of structure are provided along with brief descriptions.
It superficially discusses the impact that urbanisation have on quality, quantity, recharge, and discharge of, water from subsurface aquifers, groundwater.
The document provides information about the sedimentary basins in Nigeria, focusing on the Benue Trough. It describes the Benue Trough as a major geological formation underlying a large part of Nigeria. It formed as part of the Central African Rift System during the breakup of the supercontinent Gondwana. The trough contains up to 6000m of Cretaceous sediments and is divided into the Lower, Middle, and Upper Benue basins. While exploration has focused on the adjacent Niger Delta Basin, the Benue Trough shows potential for oil and gas discoveries.
Seismic surveys use seismic waves to image the subsurface. There are two main types: refraction surveys use refracted waves to determine shallow layer velocities, while reflection surveys use reflected waves to image deeper geological structures and boundaries between rock layers. Reflection surveys require more receivers and sources to adequately image the subsurface, making the data acquisition and processing more complex but able to image deeper targets compared to refraction surveys.
Geological surveys are normally undertaken by private agencies, state government departs of mines and geology, and national geological survey organizations. They maintain the geological inventory of various formations, mineral deposits and resources. They keep all records for the advancement of knowledge of geosciences for the benefit of the nation. Geological mapping are parts of a geological survey. It involves certain procedures. This lesson highlights the methods and procedures of geological mapping.
Techniques for measuring insitu stressesZeeshan Afzal
There are some methods that tells about insitu stresses and these are very important methods in Geology as well as well coring and also digging of well as well as in mining these methods are very helpful. So, main idea about is to information about these methods.
The document provides an introduction to the geo-chemistry of the atmosphere. It discusses the composition and structure of the atmosphere. The atmosphere is divided into major layers including the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere and thermosphere. It describes the major and minor components of the atmosphere, including nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, ozone and others. The document also discusses atmospheric processes like the greenhouse effect and how human activities have increased carbon dioxide levels, impacting the climate.
This document discusses rock slope stability analysis and engineering. It describes a rock slope in Hong Kong supported with tensioned rock anchors and shotcrete. The principles of rock slope design concern the orientation and characteristics of discontinuities like joints and faults. Slope stability analysis requires determining the friction angle and cohesion of potential sliding surfaces. Shear strength testing is used to define the cohesion and friction angle parameters in the Coulomb failure criterion for analyzing rock slope stability.
Rock mass classification or rock mass rating of rock materials in civil and m...Ulimella Siva Sankar
1. Rock mass classification systems provide a methodology to characterize rock mass strength using simple measurements and allow geologic data to be converted into quantitative engineering parameters.
2. The most widely used systems are RQD, RMR, and Q-system which evaluate factors like rock quality, joint conditions, and groundwater to determine an overall classification.
3. Classification systems estimate the rock mass strength and deformability, which can then be input into numerical models to design underground mine openings and support requirements.
Highway engineering is an engineering discipline branching out from civil engineering. This subject involves the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of people and goods. There are certain geological conditions which should be considered while laying the highways. This module give those details in general.
- The document provides information about tunnels and tunneling, including background on some of the earliest tunnels constructed by ancient Egyptians and Babylonians.
- Tunnels can be classified based on their purpose, geological location/condition, and cross-sectional shape. Examples of different tunnel types and shapes are given.
- Key geological conditions that influence tunnel planning and construction are discussed, including rock properties, groundwater conditions, and fault zones. The importance of site investigations is emphasized.
- Methods of tunnel construction in soft ground, dealing with water and gases in tunnels, and controlling temperature are outlined. Excavation methods like cut-and-cover, sequential excavation (drill-and-blast), and tunnel boring
This document discusses key properties and concepts related to aquifers and groundwater flow. It defines terms like porosity, permeability, hydraulic conductivity, specific yield, and water table. It describes different types of aquifers such as unconfined, confined, and perched aquifers. Pumping from confined aquifers can create a cone of depression. Storativity describes how much water an aquifer can gain or lose from storage. Aquifer units can be homogeneous, heterogeneous, isotropic, or anisotropic depending on their properties.
UNIT-V Slope Stability - Land Slides.pptmythili spd
This document provides information on landslides, slope stability, retaining structures, and major disasters in India. It defines landslides as permanent downward and outward movements of soil and rock under gravitational forces. Slope stability is analyzed using factors of safety to determine if a slope is safe or unstable. Methods to stabilize slopes include regrading, drainage, incorporating structures, and loading the toe. Retaining structures help ensure slope stability but are difficult to construct on moving slopes. Major disasters in India include earthquakes, floods, droughts, and cyclones that have caused thousands of deaths and widespread damage.
Exploration geophysics uses seismic, gravity, magnetic, electrical, and electromagnetic methods to search for oil, gas, minerals, and water underground. Seismic data is collected using vibrator trucks on land or seismic vessels at sea, and reflected waves are received by geophones or hydrophones. The data is processed to create 2D and 3D images of underground strata. Wells are drilled using a rig and drill string to further explore promising areas identified on seismic maps. If hydrocarbons are found, economic analysis is conducted to determine if developing the reservoir will cover costs and be profitable.
The document provides information on measuring and describing the orientation and structures of geological features. It discusses the importance of measuring the strike and dip of bedding planes, as they can indicate the geological history of folding and tilting in a region. Strike is defined as the compass orientation of a horizontal line on a bed's surface, while dip is the angle at which the bed dips from horizontal. Folds, faults, and joints are also described, along with how to measure strike and dip using a Brunton compass. Finally, characteristics such as porosity, permeability, and strength are discussed as important physical and mechanical properties of rocks.
Structural Geology for petroleum Egineering GeologyKamal Abdurahman
Structural geology is the study of geological structures like faults, folds, and joints. It provides important information for fields like engineering geology, economic geology, and plate tectonics. Folds form when rock layers bend under pressure and heat. The limbs of folds dip inward or outward forming anticlines and synclines. Faults form when rocks break under stress, producing displacement along a fracture. The hanging wall moves relative to the footwall. Joints are fractures without displacement that form to relieve stress. Unconformities represent gaps in the geological record due to erosion. They provide evidence about past environmental conditions. Structural features must be considered for engineering projects due to their effects on rock strength and fluid flow. Plate t
This document provides an overview of structural geology, including different types of geological structures such as folds, faults, and joints. It defines key terms used in structural geology like strike, dip, limbs, and plunge. It describes different types of folds like anticlines and synclines. It also explains faults, describing components like the hanging wall and footwall, and types of faults including normal, reverse, thrust, strike-slip, and oblique slip faults. Finally, it briefly discusses joints and types like columnar and sheet joints. The study of structural geology is important for understanding rock deformation and identifying structures that can form traps for resources like oil and gas.
Structural geology is the study of rock deformation and structures caused by tectonic forces within the Earth. Key concepts include strike and dip of geological features, the three main types of faults, and different kinds of folds and joints that form due to compression and tension. Structural geology provides important information for engineering projects, mineral and petroleum exploration, environmental assessments, and understanding earthquake hazards and groundwater flow. Proper interpretation of geological structures relies on understanding principles of stress, strain, and plate tectonics.
This document discusses structural geology, which studies the configuration and deformation of rocks in the Earth's crust. It defines key concepts like outcrops, bedding planes, strike and dip, conformable and unconformable rock sequences, faults, and fault elements. Specifically, it describes how to measure strike and dip, the different types of unconformities (angular, disconformity, nonconformity), and classifications of faults based on their orientation and mechanism (normal, reverse, strike, dip, oblique). Horsts and grabens are described as structures formed by combinations of normal faults.
GEOHAZARDS03 - Earthquakes Causes and Measurements.pdfraincabcaban
This document discusses earthquakes, their causes, and how they are measured. It begins by explaining that most earthquakes occur along faults in the earth's crust where tectonic forces cause deformation. It then describes how rocks deform under stress, the different types of stresses that can occur, and how materials respond as either brittle or ductile. Evidence of past deformation is discussed, including how the orientation of inclined rock layers is defined and measured. The document concludes by describing the different types of faults like normal, reverse, strike-slip and transform faults, and explains that earthquakes are caused by a sudden release of elastic strain energy built up along fault zones.
Faults and rock deformation occur due to stress placed on rock layers from tectonic forces. There are three main types of rock response to stress: brittle, elastic, and plastic. Brittle response results in fracturing and faulting, elastic response allows the rock to return to its original shape, and plastic response involves permanent folding and flowing of the rock. Different rock types have different strengths and responses to compression, tension and shear stresses. Folds form from plastic rock deformation and include anticlines, synclines, domes and basins. Brittle deformation results in joints and faults, with normal, reverse, thrust, and strike-slip faults recognized based on the direction of displacement. Fault movement and folding can create
1) Geological structures such as folds, faults, joints and unconformities form in rocks due to tectonic plate forces and deformation of the earth's crust.
2) These structures can change the physical properties of rocks, making them more or less suitable for civil engineering projects. For example, sedimentary rocks with an upstream dip are more suitable for dam sites than the same rocks with a downstream dip.
3) Folds, faults, unconformities and other structures are investigated in detail when evaluating sites for major construction due to the weaknesses and hazards they may pose.
Structural geology deals with the geometry, distribution, and formation of rock structures within the Earth. Rocks can deform in either brittle or ductile manners depending on factors like temperature, pressure, strain rate, and composition. Brittle deformation results in fractures and faults while ductile deformation forms folds. Folds and faults provide evidence of past deformation events. Strike and dip are used to describe the orientation of planar geological features. Unconformities represent gaps in the geologic record due to periods of erosion or non-deposition between rock layers.
This document discusses rock mass structure and characterization. It defines rock material, rock mass, and rock structure. It describes major structural features like bedding planes, folds, faults, shear zones, dykes, joints, and veins. It discusses important geomechanical properties of discontinuities such as spacing, persistence, orientation, roughness, aperture, and filling. It covers approaches for collecting structural data through mapping exposures and geotechnical drilling and core logging. It also discusses presenting structural data.
Structural geology is the study of rock structures and their deformation histories. The goal is to understand the stress fields that caused the observed strain and geometries in rocks. Structural features like faults and folds are important in fields like economic geology because they can form traps that concentrate resources like petroleum and metals. Geologists study these features by measuring the orientations and relationships of rock structures at outcrops.
presentation on geological structure.pptxAlMamun560346
This presentation summarizes a structural geology study of the Bandarban Hill Range. The major structures observed were an anticlinal plunging fold and faults. The anticlinal fold axis was not horizontal and dips of the oldest strata in the center and youngest strata on the edges were measured. Strike-slip and thrust faults were also identified. Minor structures like joints, fractures, drag folds, and a local unconformity were found. Fieldwork involved measuring dips along the anticline from west to east. In conclusion, the anticline was determined to be a plunging structure with a hinge not parallel to the earth's surface.
Joints are fractures in rocks that divide the rock mass into blocks. There are three main types of joints based on their orientation: strike joints parallel to bedding, dip joints parallel to slope, and oblique joints with other orientations. Joints are classified based on their pattern, geometry, and origin. Unconformities represent gaps or erosional surfaces in the geological record where rock layers are missing. The main types are angular, disconformity, and nonconformity. Both joints and unconformities are important in engineering projects as they can impact stability, water flow, and excavation difficulties.
Fractures are weaknesses in rock where separation can occur. They form due to stress from tectonic and other geological forces. There are two main types of fractures: faults where adjacent blocks are displaced parallel to the fracture surface from shearing; and joints where blocks move perpendicular with no displacement. Fractures are important for fluid migration, understanding geology and tectonics, and engineering projects. They are classified based on displacement and can be identified through field evidence like offset strata, slickensides and fault rocks.
This document provides an overview of geological structures and the forces that cause them. It discusses stress, strain and rock strength, and how rocks deform through elastic, plastic and brittle mechanisms. The main types of stresses are described as tensional, compressional and shear. Geological structures include folds, fractures, joints and faults, which form through buckling or fracturing of rocks in response to these stresses. Specific fold types like anticlines and synclines are defined. Fractures include joints and faults, with joints involving no displacement and faults involving relative displacement of rock layers.
The document discusses faults in terms of geology. It begins by defining a fault as a fracture between rock blocks that have moved relative to each other parallel to the fracture plane. It then discusses different types of faults including normal faults, strike-slip faults, and oblique slip faults. It provides examples of key features associated with different fault types, such as horsts and grabens associated with normal faults, and flower structures associated with strike-slip faults. The document also discusses methods for recognizing faults based on geological, fault plane, and physiographic evidence observed in the field.
Geological structures folds faults joints types of folds jointsAmjad Ali Soomro
This document discusses different types of geological structures including folds, faults, and joints. It defines key terms related to these structures and provides examples. Specifically, it describes:
1) Different types of folds such as anticlines, synclines, symmetrical, asymmetrical, overturned, and recumbent folds.
2) Fault types including normal, reverse, strike-slip, oblique-slip, and blind faults. It explains the movement and features of each.
3) Joints as fractures with no displacement that form due to stresses and rock movements, and classifies them as tension or shear joints.
The document summarizes a geological field study conducted in Malekhu, Nepal. Key points:
- The study aimed to familiarize students with geological structures, engineering significance, and different rock and soil types. Measurements of dip, strike, and attitudes of bedding planes were taken.
- Engineering geology is important for civil engineering projects to understand subsurface conditions and design earthworks and foundations. Site investigations assess natural hazards.
- The field study location was selected for its accessible rocks, river morphology, natural topography, and mass movements. Objectives included learning identification and mapping techniques.
- Field observations and measurements of planar features like bedding, foliation, and joints were made using a Brunt
The document discusses the use of dipmeter logging tools to identify subsurface geological structures. It provides details on how dipmeter tools measure dip angles and directions to reveal features like faults, folds, and stratigraphic boundaries. Structural interpretation of dipmeter data involves analyzing characteristic dip patterns and comparing them to patterns associated with different structures. As an example, the document analyzes dipmeter log data from a well in India. The data is interpreted to indicate a minor normal drag fault and angular unconformity based on observed red and blue dip patterns matching expected patterns for those features. Integrating dipmeter and seismic data improves structural resolution near wells.
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In this slide, we'll explore how to leverage internal notes within Odoo 17 POS to enhance communication and streamline operations. Internal notes provide a platform for staff to exchange crucial information regarding orders, customers, or specific tasks, all while remaining invisible to the customer. This fosters improved collaboration and ensures everyone on the team is on the same page.
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Introduction to Project Management: Introduction, Project and Importance of Project Management, Contract Management, Activities Covered by Software Project Management, Plans, Methods and Methodologies, some ways of categorizing Software Projects, Stakeholders, Setting Objectives, Business Case, Project Success and Failure, Management and Management Control, Project Management life cycle, Traditional versus Modern Project Management Practices.
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Introduction and Definition
History of Information Design
Need of Information Design
Types of Information Design
Identifying audience
Defining the audience and their needs
Inclusivity and Visual impairment
Case study.
Literature Reivew of Student Center DesignPriyankaKarn3
It was back in 2020, during the COVID-19 lockdown Period when we were introduced to an Online learning system and had to carry out our Design studio work. The students of the Institute of Engineering, Purwanchal Campus, Dharan did the literature study and research. The team was of Prakash Roka Magar, Priyanka Karn (me), Riwaz Upreti, Sandip Seth, and Ujjwal Dev from the Department of Architecture. It was just a scratch draft made out of the initial phase of study just after the topic was introduced. It was one of the best teams I had worked with, shared lots of memories, and learned a lot.
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Talk covering Guardrails , Jailbreak, What is an alignment problem? RLHF, EU AI Act, Machine & Graph unlearning, Bias, Inconsistency, Probing, Interpretability, Bias
OCS Training Institute is pleased to co-operate with
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A vernier caliper is a precision instrument used to measure dimensions with high accuracy. It can measure internal and external dimensions, as well as depths.
Here is a detailed description of its parts and how to use it.
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1. GROUP 4 GEOLOGY
REPORT
Prepared by: Kristine Claire Surilla
Researchers:
John Rafael Lopez
Febie Garlit
Maria Guevara
Jeremiah Barcelona
Seth Francis Jawod
Von Ryan Beltran
Ohara Sophia Javier
2. ATTITUDE OF BEDS
• Geologists take great pains to measure and record geological structures
because they are critically important to understanding the geological
history of a region. One of the key features to measure is the orientation,
or attitude, of bedding. We know that sedimentary beds are deposited in
horizontal layers, so if the layers are no longer horizontal, then we can
infer that they have been affected by tectonic forces and have become
either tilted, or folded. We can express the orientation of a bed (or any
other planar feature) with two values: first, the compass orientation of a
horizontal line on the surface—the strike —and second, the angle at which
the surface dips from the horizontal, (perpendicular to the strike)—the dip
3. DIP – IT IS DEFINED AS THE AMOUNT OF INCLINATION OF A BED WITH RESPECT TO A
HORIZONATAL PLANE. THIS IS MEASURED ON A VERTICAL PLANE LYING AT RIGHT
ANGLED TO THE STRIKE OF THE BEDDING.
4. TYPES OF DIP
True Dip – It is the maximum amount of slope along a line perpendicular to
the strike, in other words, it is the maximum slope with respect to the
horizontal. It may also be stated as the geographical direction along which
the line of quickest descent slopesdown.
Apparent Dip – Along any direction other than that of the true dip, the
gradient is scheduled to be much less and therefore it is defined as the
apparent dip. The apparent dip of any bed towards any direction must
always be less than its true dip.
5. STRIKE
Strike is generally defined as the line of intersection between a
horizontal plane and the planar surface being measured. It is found by
measuring the compass direction of a horizontal line on the surface.
6. Strike and dip are often easier to see on an
exposure of rock than on a map, as the above
photograph shows. Geologists use strike and
dip symbols on geologic maps to show strikes
and dips measured in the field. The geologic
map (left) shows many strike and dip symbols.
A GEOLOGIC MAP is used to show rock units or geologic strata that
are exposed at the surface. Bedding planes and structural features
such as faults, folds, foliations, and lineations are shown with strike
and dip or trend and plunge symbols which give these features' three-
dimensional orientations.
7. IMPORTANCE OF DIP AND STRIKE
- To determine the younger bed of formation. It is well known that younger
beds will always be found in the direction of dip. If we go in the direction
of dip, relatively beds of younger age will be found to out-crop and older
rocks in the opposite direction.
- In the classification, and nomenclature of folds, faults, joints and
unconformities, the nature of dip and strike is of paramount significance.
Thus the attitude, which refers to the three dimensional orientation of
some geological structures, is defined by their dip and strike
8. MEASURING STRIKE AND DIP
The strike and dip of
planar geologic structures,
such as bedding, faults,
joints and foliations, can
be determined by several
methods with the Brunton
compass.
MEASURING
STRIKE MEASURING
DIP
10. FAULT A fault is a break in the rocks that make up the earth's crust, along
which on either side rocks move pass eachother. Larger faults are
mostly from action occuring in earth's plates. A fault line is the trace
of a fault, or the line of intersection between the fault line and the
earth's surface
Stike-slip faults are vertical (or nearly vertical)
fractures where the blocks have mostly moved
horizontally. If the block opposite an observer
looking across the fault moves to the right, the slip
style is termed right lateral; if the block moves to
the left, the motion is termed left lateral.
11. Dip-slip faults are inclined fractures where
the blocks have mostly shifted vertically. If the
rock mass above an inclined fault moves
down, the fault is termed normal, whereas if
the rock above the fault moves up, the fault is
termed reverse
A transform fault is a special variety of
strike-slip fault that accommodates
relative horizontal slip between other
tectonic elements, such as oceanic
crustal plates. Often extend from
oceanic ridges.
12. FOLD
S
A fold is when one or more originally bent
surfaces are bent or curved as the result of
permanent deformation.
Folding and Warping
Syncline and anticline are
terms used to describe folds
based on the relative ages of
folded rock layers. A syncline is
a fold in which the youngest
rocks occur in the core of a fold
(i.e. closest to the fold axis),
whereas the oldest rocks occur
in the core of an anticline.
13. TYPES OF FOLDS
Anticline: Linear with dip away from the center
Syncline: Linear with dip towards the center
Monocline: Linear with dip in one direction between horizontal layers
on each side.
Basin: Non-Linear with dip towards all center directions.
Dome: Non-Linear with dip away from center in all directions.
14. JOINT
S
a joint is a fracture dividing rock into two sections that moved away from
each other. A joint does not involve shear displacement, and forms when
tensile stress breaches its threshold. In other kinds of fracturing, like in a
fault, the rock is parted by a visible crack that forms a gap in the rock.
15. TYPES OF JOINTS
SYSTEMATIC JOINTS: have a
subparallel orientation and regular
spacing
JOINT SET: joints that share a
similar orientation in same area
JOINT SYSTEM: two or more joints
sets in the same area
NONSYSTEMATIC JOINTS: joints
that do not share a common
orientation and those highly curved
and irregular fracture surfaces.
16. Bedding planes are of great importance to Civil engineers. They are planes of structural
weakness in sedimentary rocks, and masses of rock can move along them causing rock
slides. Since over 75 percent of the earth’s surface is made up of sedimentary rocks,
civil engineers can expect to frequently encounter these rocks during construction.
Undisturbed sedimentary rocks may be relatively uniform, continuous, and predictable
across a site. These types of rocks offer certain advantages to civil engineers in
completing horizontal and vertical construction missions. They are relatively stable rock
bodies that allow for ease of rock excavation, as they will normally support steep rock faces.
Sedimentary rocks are frequently oriented at angles to the earth’s “horizontal” surface;
therefore, movements in the earth’s crust may tilt, fold, or break sedimentary layers.
Structurally deformed rocks add complexity to the site geology and may adversely affect
construction projects by contributing to rock excavation and slope stability problems.
Engineering Construction and The Study of Beds
18. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
a. POROSITY- is the percentage of void space
in a rock. It is defined as the ratio of the
volume of the voids or pore space divided by
the total volume. It is written as either a
decimal fraction between 0 and 1 or as a
percentage. For most rocks, porosity varies
from less than 1% to 40%
19. b. PERMEABILITY is the property of rocks that is an
indication of the ability for fluids (gas or liquid) to flow
through rocks. High permeability will allow fluids to
move rapidly through rocks. Permeability is affected by
the pressure in a rock.
DENSITY varies significantly among
different rock types because of
differences in mineralogy and porosity.
Knowledge of the distribution of
underground rock densities can assist in
interpreting subsurface geologic
structure and rock type. Rocks are
generally between 1600 kg/m3
(sediments) and 3500 kg/m3 (gabbro).
20. CLASSIFICATION OF ROCK HARDNESS
CLASSIFICATION FIELD TEST RANGE OF COMPRESSSIVE
STRENGTH (MPa)
Very soft rock Can be peeled with a knife, material
crumbles under firm blows
with the sharp end of a geological
pick.
1-3
Soft rock Cannot be scraped with a knife,
indentations of 2-4 mm with firm
blows of the pick point.
3-10
Medium hard rock Cannot be scraped or peeled with a
knife, hand held specimen
breaks with firm blows of the pick.
10-25
Hard rock Point load tests must be carried out in
order to distinguish
between these classifications. These
results may be verified by
uniaxial compressive strength tests on
selected samples
25-70
Very hard rock 70-200
Extremely hard
rock
>200
c. HARDNESS is the subjective description of the resistance of an earth material to permanent
deformation, particularly by indentation (impact) or abrasion (scratching) .
21. d. STRENGTH-Strength is the ability of a material to resist deformation induced by external forces. The
strength of a material is the amount of applied stress at failure (ASTM
D653). The laboratory uniaxial (unconfined) compressive strength is the standard strength parameter of
intact rock material.
• Tensile strength- is extremely
difficult to measure: It is direction-
dependent, flaw-dependent, sample
size-dependent,…
• An indirect method , the Brazilian
disk test is used. The Brazilian test is
a technique used to evaluate the
tensile strength of brittle materials
like concrete or rocks. The
experiment consists in compressing
a circular disk along its vertical
diameter in order to induce tensile
failure at the center of the disk
22. Compressive strength-
Compressive strength or
compression strength is the
capacity of a material or
structure to withstand loads
tending to reduce size, as
opposed to tensile strength,
which withstands loads
tending to elongate.
The Uniaxial
Compressive Strength of
Soft Rock. Soft rock is a
term that usually refers to a
rock material with a uniaxial
compressive strength (UCS)
less than 20 MPa.
Uniaxial compressive test equipment
23. Shear strength- shear strength is the strength of a material or component against the type of
yield or structural failure when the material or component fails in shear. A shear load is a
force that tends to produce a sliding failure on a material along a plane that is parallel to the
direction of the force. When a paper is cut with scissors, the paper fails in shea
24. e. ELASTICITY- Elasticity is the property of matter that causes it to resist deformation in
volume or shape. Some of the deformation of a rock under stress will be recovered when
the load is removed. The recoverable deformation is called elastic and the non-recoverable
part is called plastic deformation.
Commonly, the elastic deformation of rock is directly proportional to the applied
load. The ratio of the stress and the strain is called modulus elasticity.
25. f. PLASTICITY - ability of certain solids to flow or to change shape permanently when
subjected to stresses of intermediate magnitude between those producing temporary
deformation, or elastic behavior, and those causing failure of the material, or rupture
(see yield point).
Plasticity enables a solid under the action of external forces to undergo
permanent deformation without rupture. Elasticity, in comparison, enables a
solid to return to its original shape after the load is removed. Plastic
deformation occurs in many metal-forming processes (rolling, pressing, forging)
and in geologic processes (rock folding and rock flow within the earth under
extremely high pressures and at elevated temperatures).
26. For example, a solid piece of metal being bent or pounded into a new shape
displays plasticity as permanent changes occur within the material itself. In
engineering, the transition from elastic behavior to plastic behavior is called
yield.
Plastic deformation is observed in most materials, particularly metals,
soils, rocks, concrete, foams, bone and skin.
28. Stress is force per unit area. Imagine a particle represented by an infinitesimally small
volume around a point within a solid body with dimensions (dx, dy, dz)
Strain is deformation measured as the fractional change in dimension or volume induced
by stress. Strain is a dimensionless quantity.
Static -concerned with bodies at rest or forces in equilibrium.
Dynamic- a force that stimulates change or progress within a system or process.
Terminology
29. DETERMINING DYNAMIC ROCK
PROPERTIES
I-Typical Rock Properties
• Modulus of Deformation –
Young’s Modulus - E
• Modulus of Rigidity – Shear
Modulus – G
• Modulus of Volume
Expansion – Bulk Modulus - K
• Poisson’s Ratio - μ
• Bulk Density – ρ
• Compressive Strength – σC
• Tensile Strength – σT
II-Rock Properties Referenced to Blasting Actions
• Young’s Modulus is a measure of the resistance of a solid to transmit
load
allows transmission of longitudinal stress from shock wave impact
• Bulk Modulus is a measure of the resistance of a solid to change in
volume
allows transmission of transverse stress resulting from shock wave
impact
• Poissons’ ratio defines the amount of borehole expansion that can occur
under dynamic loading just before rock/ore failure
maximum amount of ‘hoop’ stress that can be tolerated before cracks
are generated
• Compressive strength dictates the level of crushing that will occur at the
borehole wall
• Tensile strength dictates the level of tensile stress when crack formation
will occur
Can have supersonic cracking as well as interstitial cracking
30. III- Dynamic or Static
• Fragmentation of rock/ore is a dynamic process, not a static one
• Rock/ore appears to be much stronger in the dynamic case, than the static one (rule
of thumb is to assume that dynamic such as compressive and tensile strength are
twice the values of static properties)
• Degree of fit (correlation with measurement properties) is better with dynamic
rock/ore parameters
• Easier and less expensive getting dynamic rock properties using dynamic loading
such as detonating explosive charges
• Rock/ore core strength values do not appear to correlate well with dynamic values
• Dynamic properties are preferred in computer models relating the dynamic
processes of blasting action to dynamic properties of the material being blasted
31. Wave velocities in a rock are computed from wave propagation
travel times from sonic logs. Elastic wave velocity is a powerful
parameter used to interpret the physical properties underlying the
rock. However, a range of geological rock properties affect wave
velocities. Understanding the microstructural, fluid, stress, and
mineralogical controls on elastic wave velocities is at the center of
laboratory experiments on the rock core.
WAVE VELOCITIES IN A ROCK
32. SEISMIC WAVES TYPES
Seismic waves--- are elastic waves that propagate in the earth.
P-waves ---(or equivalently, compressional waves, longitudinal waves, or
dilatational waves) are waves with particle motion in the direction of wave
propagation.
S-waves--- (or equivalently, shear waves, transverse waves, or rotational waves)
are waves with particle motion in the direction perpendicular to the direction of
wave propagation.
33. Seismic wave
velocities change over
a wide range in
nature, even for the
same rock type, since
several factors control
the velocity of a
specified medium.
This phenomenon
generally prevents
defining the
subsurface lithology
by seismic velocities
only.
Velocity Analysis
34. For instance, measured P wave velocities of sandstones
range from 1.8 to 4.8 km/s depending on several factors,
including
• Lithology
• Saturation and fluid type
• Porosity
• Cementation, grain size and pore shape
• Age of the rock
• Pressure/compaction or depth
• Density of the medium
• Temperature
• Frequency of the seismic signal
• Anisotropy and fractures
• Clay content
• Consolidation
35. From the definitions of the P- and S-wave
velocities , note that both are inversely
proportional to density ρ. At first thought,
this means that the lower the rock density
the higher the wave velocity. A good
example is halite which has low density
(1.8 gr/cm3) and high P-wave velocity
(4500 m/s). In most cases, however, the
higher the density the higher the velocity
This is because an increase in density
usually is accompanied by an increase in
the ability of the rock to resist
compressional and shear stresses.
36. So an increase in density usually implies an increase in bulk
modulus and modulus of rigidity. Note that the greater the bulk
modulus or the modulus of rigidity, the higher the velocity.
37. Based on field and laboratory measurements, Gardner [1] established an empirical
relationship between density ρ and P-wave velocity α. Known as Gardner’s formula
for density, this relationship given by ρ = cα0.25, where c is a constant that depends
on the rock type, is useful to estimate density from velocity when the former is
unknown. With the exception of anhydrites, most rock types — sandstones, shales,
and carbonates, tend to obey Gardner’s equation for density.
38. THREE INDIRECT WAYS TO ESTIMATE THE
S-WAVE VELOCITIES
The first approach is to perform prestack amplitude
inversion to estimate the P- and S-wave reflectivities and
thus compute the corresponding acoustic impedances
(analysis of amplitude variation with offset).
The second approach is to record multicomponent seismic
data and estimate the S-wave velocities from the P-to-S
converted-wave component (4-C seismic method).
The third approach is to generate and record S-waves
themselves.
39. STATIC AND DYNAMIC MODULI OF ELASTICITY
-The dynamic moduli of rock are those calculated from the elastic- wave velocity
and density. Usually refers to the elastic stiffness that can be derived from elastic
wave velocities in combination with density.
-The static moduli are those directly measured in a deformational experiment.
Also refers to the elastic stiffness that relates deformation to applied stress in a
quasi-static loading situation, that is the slope of the stress–strain curve.
40. Modulus of elasticity :
The ratio of the stress in a body to the
corresponding strain (as in bulk modulus, shear
modulus, and Young's modulus) — called also
coefficient of elasticity, elastic modulus. An elastic
modulus is a quantity that measures an object or
substance's resistance to being deformed
elastically when a stress is applied to it. The elastic
modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its
stress–strain curve in the elastic deformation
region: A stiffer material will have a higher elastic
modulus.
The three types of elastic constants are:
Modulus of elasticity or Young's modulus (E), Bulk
modulus (K) and. Modulus of rigidity or shear
modulus
41. GROUTING
WHAT IT IS:
Rock grouting is the injection
of specially formulated
cement-based mixes into the
ground to improve its
strength or reduce
permeability. The principle of
grouting is to fill the open
voids existing in a rock mass
in introducing, by pressure
through boreholes, a certain
amount of a "liquid" matter,
in fact a suspension, that will
harden later on. The
properties of the grouted
rock complex should be
modified in the desired way.
42. HOW IT WORKS:
It’s most commonly performed by drilling holes into the underlying rock to intercept open cracks, joints,
fissures or cavities, then pumping under pressure balanced and stabilized grout mixes using a combination
of cement, water, and additives. For larger, more complex projects, enhanced quality control is available
through real-time computer monitored grouting software called GROUT I.T.
WHY YOU NEED IT:
Rock grouting can be used to decrease water flow through fractured rock, plus it can be performed in areas
with space constraints. It is mostly used for dams, tunnels, reservoirs and shafts.