Greg Kessler

Hybrid and online learning have been around for some time and many of us across educational
domains have had experience teaching and learning in these contexts. However, not
all online environments and practices are created equal. The breadth of these contexts today
requires us to carefully reflect upon our practices to better understand the various ways
that we can interact with one another in the pursuit of effective teaching and learning. There is
evidence that many factors may influence how technologies are implemented, including cultural
norms and expectations. Similarly, the educational backgrounds of teachers and learners and their
attitudes toward these approaches, and technology in general, can determine if a given technological
intervention will have any chance of success. As we learn more about these online and hybrid
contexts, we continue to develop a richer and more sophisticated understanding. The chapters in
this volume have much to contribute to this discussion. This volume in the TESOL Voices series
addresses reflective teaching practices and participant inquiry in online and hybrid teaching contexts.
The authors in this collection present a diversity of authentic TESOL teaching and learning
contexts utilizing online and hybrid instructional approaches. Each chapter is illustrated with a
rich description of participant inquiry.
This is a collection of insider perspectives that is geographically, culturally, and contextually
diverse. The collection is divided into three sections: (1) voices of participants in online and
hybrid TESOL teacher preparation contexts, (2) voices of participants in online ESL and EFL
contexts, and (3) voices of participants in hybrid ESL and EFL contexts.

This book was envisioned with the idea of merging fundamental ideas and tenets from researchers and educators who have worked and reflected on L2 writing through the use of various technologies. With this vision in mind, the authors in this monograph bring forward some of the concerns, innovations, and reflections that are voiced among many professionals in our fields. The following chapters present and take into account new explorations into a familiarly travelled territory that already pertains to our social lives, but has not been sufficiently explored in our academic environments. For this reason, even though web 2.0 technologies such as blogs, wikis, synthetic immersive environments, and virtual worlds support socioculturally rich language learning opportunities in L2 writing, we still have a lengthy path of discovery ahead of us. The full integration of technology and L2 writing bolsters the students' engagement in language use that results in high-quality language learning moving beyond the traditional classroom setting. This integration, however, should be based upon sound theoretical and research based findings as well as insights gained from pedagogical practices that consider the affordances of technology (e.g., what technology provides that pen and paper cannot). This monograph includes insights into, and reflections about, different perspectives of the relationship between  L2 writing and technology with particular emphasis on the writing process, development of linguistic skills, development of writing competencies and literacy, educational approaches to writing, as well as task creation and assessment in diverse writing contexts. In this regard, the chapters incorporate the recognition of a connection between the fields of second language writing, pedagogy, second language acquisition and emphasizing the need for technological innovation and integration to be built upon a strong pedagogical and research-based foundation.

INTRODUCTION
In the following 15 chapters in this book, the authors present a wide range of topics that move from an overall view of current studies that have integrated technology into second language writing over the last three decades to new writing environments whose potential to enhance L2 writing call for further exploration. The book is divided in 5 sections: feedback and assessment, collaborative writing, content, curricular/educational applications and implications for L2 writing and an annotated bibliography of recent research in second language writing involving technology."

The TESOL Technology Standards Framework is available as a bookmarked PDF with linked table of contents, references, and URLs. Navigation is easy for users who want to focus on one of the two major sections: Technology Standards for Language Learners and Technology Standards for Language Teachers. All standards have a strong focus on specific pedagogy for English language teaching. They are designed to be applicable to teachers and students at a range of English proficiency levels in a wide range of English language teaching and learning settings around the world.

Also presented is a discussion on the research base for the standards, as well as a handful of vignettes that help situate the standards in various English language teaching and learning contexts. Upcoming is an expanded volume of the standards illustrated by multiple vignettes that cover a range of settings, including young learners, teens, adults, EFL, ESL, intensive English programs, adult workplace English, English for Specific Purposes (academic and professional), one-computer classroom, class-lab, and fully-online.

"The TESOL Technology Standards are applicable in a wide range of contexts: foreign language, second language, child, teen, adult, higher education, vocational education, language for specific purposes, and fully online programs; and in settings with low, medium, or high resources and access to communication technologies. Students, teachers, teacher educators, administrators, and researchers will find this an easy guide through the technology standards and how they can be applied in the varied contexts in which language instruction occurs. The book is organized around two strands of standards: Technology Standards for Language Learners and Technology Standards for Language Teachers. Useful supplemental material included for the reader are a comparison of the TESOL Technology Standards with other technology-focused standards, extensive reference lists, a glossary, and an index.

Even practitioners with little access to technology resources can apply the standards in their contexts, while those with a great deal of access to technology are encouraged to do as much as their resources will allow. Vignettes provide detail-specific resources, and attempt to offer free and open-source technology alternatives where possible, and in some instances they suggest technology for the physically disabled. Although the vignettes tend to focus on English language learning and teaching, the technology standards can be applied to languages other than English."

This article expands upon themes addressed in the 2012 CALICO opening plenary that I delivered at the University of Notre Dame. This extended interpretation allows me the opportunity to further explore the nature of participatory human communication and collaboration and offer some clarification of the proposed instructional model for promoting collaborative autonomous language learning abilities. In particular, this article focuses upon the hyper-collaborative participatory culture that has become ubiquitous across the Internet. This collaborative culture has transformed the frequency and manner of our communication with one another as well as the way we co-construct reality. The potential for incorporating the opportunities presented by this participatory culture into language teaching and learning is enormous, but we must recognize and avoid a variety of threats. This article addresses these realities while suggesting ways to promote collaborative autonomous language learning abilities. I discuss the potential for a pedagogical paradigm shift in response to this dramatically altered communication landscape and share some practical suggestions for classroom practice.

This article explores the emerging pedagogical potential offered by today’s technologies and how understanding the relationship between emerging technology and emerging pedagogy can enhance the teaching of English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL). The author begins with an overview of recent developments in the field, focused upon pedagogical practice and computer-assisted language learning (CALL), and then describes suggestions for incorporating various forms of social and new media within collaborative learning practices. By incorporating these forms of popular communication into language teaching, teachers can promote participation and engagement. They are also able to raise awareness of the benefits of various forms of literacy. The essay concludes with some thoughts about pedagogical and technological developments that teachers might anticipate in the future.
doi: 10.1002/tesj.106

This study reports on student initiated attention to form within the collaborative construction of a wiki among pre-service Non-Native Speaker (NNS) English teachers. Forty NNS pre-service teachers from a large Mexican university were observed over a period of a sixteen week semester in an online content-based course aimed at improving their language skills while studying about the cultures of the English-speaking world. A core element of the course was a wiki that was collaboratively created, developed, and revised throughout the course. Students were encouraged to focus on language accuracy while actively participating and interacting with their peers in varied ways. This article explores the degree to which these NNS EFL teacher candidates attempt to correct their own and others’ grammar errors in a long-term collaborative task. The article also addresses the level of accuracy these participants achieve and the attention they pay to grammar revision versus content revision. Follow-up interviews with participants provided insight into the perception of the importance of grammar in the context of collaborative technologies among these NNS pre-service teachers.

This chapter addresses the technology preparation of future second language (L2) writing teachers. Particular attention is paid to issues associated with the integration of technology based writing tools and their role in the writing classroom. In spite of a wealth of research into the increasing variety of writing activities in language classrooms, there has been little written about the role of technology in the preparation of language teachers focused upon varied forms of writing using new and emerging tools. This chapter addresses the CALL preparation of teachers who specialize in second language writing, CALL writing specialists, and those teachers who teach writing as well as other skills. In attempt to align this preparation with appropriate expectations for language teachers, this discussion is presented in the context of the TESOL technology standards. Suggestions for varied writing activities, practices and opportunities within new and emerging writing contexts are presented.

This paper examines the relationship between confidence and CALL – specifically the use of audio and video technology among language teachers. Through logged usage of CALL, the authors tracked seven teachers at two large universities in the United States over a term. These teachers were also interviewed periodically in order to gain insight into their confidence with and use of CALL.

 Upon data analysis, the authors identified the teachers as less confident, contextually confident and highly confident. Highly confident teachers used technology less often with less integration than the contextually confident teachers. Less confident teachers integrated CALL only in prescribed ways. The authors conclude that CALL teacher preparation may benefit from a focus on developing contextualized confidence within certain teaching domains or types of technology rather than expecting teachers to develop a high level of confidence with technology across domains.

In recent years in CALL, there has been much anecdotal evidence to suggest that language teachers who wish to learn more about the uses of technology in lan- guage learning are not able to locate the appropriate formal courses or programs to help them. As a result, language teachers are often compelled to take one of two alternatives, or both, to acquire some of the requisite skills. The first alternative is to attend short, generic courses on new learning technologies, or introductory courses on a particular piece of software, for example a new or upgraded e-mail application, or a learner management system (LMS) that the institution has cho- sen to adopt, such as a Blackboard. The second alternative is to “do it yourself ”, for example through asking colleagues, through attending workshops at CALL con- ferences, or by joining a discussion group where more experienced members of the group answer specific questions. Though these alternatives have their place and value, they have their limitations too. To explore this problem, Greg Kessler collected data from practicing teachers, teacher trainers, and teacher education Program coordinators through an online survey, focus groups and interviews. In analyzing the findings, he sheds light on trends and patterns of activity in teacher education and CALL. He also provides more detail on how motivated language teachers respond to prevailing conditions, how they compensate for the lack of formal courses, and the many ways in which they seek to educate themselves. On the basis of the data collected, he concludes the chapter with a series of recom- mendations for both pre-service and in-service teacher training and support.

In the field of CALL research, the term digital feedback has been used in a variety of ways. In some cases, feedback refers to individualized computer-based tutorials programmed to offer information about a targeted set of discrete language skills such as grammar or pronunciation. Other research has viewed technology not as a tutor, but as the mode by which human feedback is delivered (c.f., Kern, Ware, & Warschauer, 2004; Ware & Warschauer, 2006). Such research focuses on the various ways that synchronous and asynchronous forms of interaction provide language users with information on their language and content. In this chapter, we examine recent research across these various definitions of digital feedback with a specific focus on the promotion of the skills of writing and speaking.

Teacher training in computer-assisted language learning (CALL) is an emergent area of increasing interest and varied influences. As CALL has evolved in recent decades, it has resulted in a complex and diverse array of instructional opportunities. Teachers are faced with a multitude of choices involving environments, resources, student abilities, mobility, automation, and access. Teachers are often overwhelmed by the technology that is avail- able to them and feel unprepared to make informed decisions about the selection, creation, and use of a particular technology-based tool or resource. They are also generally uninformed about the potential assistance that technology can provide them with in their language- teaching pursuits, even when extensive resources are available to them (Ertmer, 2005; Kessler, 2007). It is clear that teachers are likely to use CALL when they appreciate the value it can add to the classroom, and they are likely to make better decisions about using CALL when they are properly prepared. Consequently, two important goals of training include raising awareness of CALL potential and reflecting on the decision-making process.

Authoring tools include a wide array of software specifically designed to create material for the internet. These tools are ubiquitous throughout the web development world, including broad use in language education. Language assessment authoring tools allow language teachers, material developers and language department administrators to create a variety of interactive computer based materials. These can include embedded media, automated scoring, feedback and database archival storage of performance. Over the past two decades a number of authoring tools have been developed to allow teachers to easily prepare evaluation and assessment materials for their unique needs. Many of these have become commonplace in individual classrooms while they may be unfamiliar at departmental or institutional levels of assessment. Of course the assessment needs are different at the classroom and institutional level as some have identified (Fulcher & Davidson, 2007). These authoring tools are most common, and perhaps most appropriate, in classroom assessment contexts. An examination of the types of authoring tools should help readers better understand their potential role in assessment.

This study reports on attention to meaning among 40 NNS pre-service EFL teachers as they collaboratively constructed a wiki in a 16-week online course. Focus is placed upon the nature of individual and group behavior when attending to meaning in a long-term wiki-based collaborative activity as well as the students’ collaborative autonomous language learning abilities. Phases of group collaboration as well as individual language acts were analyzed. Student interaction and language use appear to benefit from flexible learning environ- ments although student use of these spaces may not be consistent with instructor expectations. More important than the quality of the final wiki is the process students engage in as they write collaboratively. The paper concludes with a proposed framework for CALL research and practice.

Competency-based instruction is becoming more prevalent across many learning contexts, and teachers across the globe are seeking ways to align their courses in ways that meet these standards.  In particular, the growth of new technologies has given rise to competencies outlining ways for teachers to integrate technology into their teaching.  The International Society for Technology in Education (ISTE), for example, has defined standards for the use of technology from pre-kindergarten through higher education, and the Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) has released technology standards for both teachers and students with a specific eye on how technology intersects with language instruction.  The European Higher Education Area (EHEA) also includes a focus on technology across the general and discipline-specific competency frameworks.  In this chapter, we will focus specifically on how competencies within the EHEA can be implemented using technology-based instruction with a focus on the examples of telecollaboration and local collaboration.

As the Internet has matured we find ourselves immersed in a multiplicity of content, communities and communication tools. These developments offer new possibilities and challenge us to reflect upon our language teaching pedagogy. Many technologies have found their way into ubiquitous use in our daily lives, yet they are often overlooked, or even avoided, in the classroom. Maintaining a focus upon the role of teachers and students, the presenter explores how we might proceed to rethink pedagogy in an era of ubiquitous computing.

Recent research suggests that there is a general lack of a computer-assisted language learning (CALL) presence in teacher preparation programs. There is also evidence that teachers obtain a majority of their CALL knowledge from informal sources and personal experience rather than through formalized preparation. Further, graduates of these programs are generally dissatisfied with the little training that they do receive. The literature suggests that reliance upon this kind of preparation may not best serve pedagogical needs due to distinctions between personal and pedagogical uses of technology. Conse- quently, it is important for us to gain more insight into the role of CALL within teacher preparation.
A web-based survey was completed by 108 graduates of Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL) masters degree programs. The study concluded that informal CALL preparation is closely linked to teachers’ attitude toward technology while formal CALL teaching preparation is not. Additional observations are discussed. Among these, TESOL professionals appear to be confident about CALL overall, but they are not confident when creating CALL-based materials. They are also less confident when making decisions regarding the integration of CALL, particularly in addressing aural/ oral skills.

This study investigates preservice teachers’ discourse about CALL in a required CALL class which combines theory and practice. Thirty-three students in a Linguistics MA program CALL course were observed over a 10-week quarter. For all of these students, it was their first formal exposure to CALL as a discipline. Communication in the class consisted of student-led in-class discussions, web-based wiki, chat, and discussion fora. All communication during the course was recorded for the purpose of investigating teachers’ emerging perceptions of CALL and the role it plays in language teaching and learning. All the preservice teachers were new to CALL and consequently had a lack of awareness of the breadth of the topic. They were initially apprehensive about the notion of CALL. A lack of awareness of the potential for CALL and negative experiences with poorly designed technology accounted for much of this apprehension. There was also an overwhelming sense that CALL threatened the teacher in myriad ways. Competent with technology for personal purposes, these teachers did not easily transfer skills to CALL contexts. When faced with the opportunity to discuss CALL in depth they began to ap- preciate the potential for technology use in language teaching. However, they expressed sustained concern over a potential loss of control over the teaching environment and students. Suggestions for cultivating a student-centered CALL classroom address these concerns.

The word virtual is an exceptional technology oriented neologism deserving explanation. It is commonly accepted as referring to computer simulation or indicating lack of authenticity. However, the increasing polysemic nature of the word virtual has resulted in a much broader range of use within natural language. Many of these meanings appear to increasingly conflict with previously recognized meanings. The author explores contemporary natural language use of the word virtual in the context of the Enron email dataset. This dataset has been selected for three reasons: it represents the largest authentic collection of email available to date, Enron was a tech savvy company with high proclivity for use of neologisms, and Enron has been referred to by some as a virtual company.
Examples of virtual in this study indicate broad reference to nearly anything computer related, including computer business, computer based simulation and varied forms of computer mediated communication. It is also observed illustrating inauthenticity, hyperbole and potential deception. This study demonstrates a lack of confidence that suggests an underlying concern about the potential ambiguity of the word virtual, resulting from the increasing polysemic nature of this word.

This study compares characteristics of fluency in student audio journals recorded in a laboratory setting with those recorded using mobile audio devices. Forty graduate students enrolled in four oral communication courses at an American university recorded weekly audio journals for a 10-week term. Students chose the environment in which they recorded these journals, provided that they recorded at least once in the audio laboratory and at least once using the mobile audio devices. The frequency of preferred recording environment was observed. Two independent raters assigned rank scores to the students’ volume, pausing, utterance length, and rate in relation to the observable influence of anxiety upon fluency in order to determine if there is a significant difference between fluency in these two environments. Implications for language learning are discussed.

We live in a world with varied emerging contexts for practicing writing. This is evident in the breadth of topics covered in this CALICO monograph. We are also witnessing a dramatic change in the nature of writing itself, including the emer-gence of netspeak and a merging of written and spoken discourse in web contexts (Crystal, 2001, 2008).

International TESOL (Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages) is currently developing sets of standards related to using digital technology in language teaching. The standards are designed to clarify appropriate uses of technology and support best practices in CALL in diverse settings around the world. We begin by describing the process through which the current versions of the standards have been developed since the project was initiated in early 2006.

• So6llo (2000) Students in ACMC devoted 49% of their pos6ngs to responding to the teacher.• Student responses to each other,“suggested agreement and disagreement in indirect ways”(p. 104).• Anecdotal observa6on of superficial ACMC• No explicit previous research into agreement and disagreement in online language learning