Nicholas C Thompson

Lithics and cut-marked mammal bones, excavated from the paleo-lake Marathousa 1 (MAR-1) sediments in the Megalopolis Basin, southern Greece, indicate traces of hominin activity occurring along a paleo-shoreline ca. 444,000 years (444 ka) ago. However, the local environment and climatic conditions promoting hominin activity in the area during the MIS12 glacial remain largely unknown. In order to reconstruct the paleo-environment including paleo-lake levels and governing paleo-climatic factors on a high temporal resolution, we
analyzed a 6-meter-long sediment sequence from the archeological site MAR-1 and a Bayesian age model was computed for a better age constrain of the different sedimentary units. A multiproxy approach was applied using ostracods, sponge spicules, diatoms, grain sizes, total organic carbon, total inorganic carbon and conventional X-ray fluorescence analysis. The results from the site represent a protected region surrounded by high mountains under the constant influence of water, either as a shallow partly anoxic water body surrounded by reed belts (>463–457 ka, <434–427 ka), a riverine-lake deltaic system
(∼457–448 ka), a floodplain (∼448–444 ka) or a seasonal freshwater pond (∼444–436 ka). The local changes of water levels resemble large trends and rhythms of regional records from the Mediterranean and appear to directly respond to sea surface temperature (SST)
changes of the North Atlantic. In particular, when the SSTs are high, more moisture reaches the study area and vice versa. Additional water reaches MAR-1 through melting of the surrounding glaciers after brief warm phases during MIS12 in the Mediterranean realm, which leads to the formation of smaller fresh water ponds, where also the horizon of the excavated remains is placed. Such ponds, rich in ostracods and other microorganisms, provided mammals and humans valuable resources, such as potable water, a wide range of plant species and hunting opportunities. These deposits therefore bear a high archeological potential. The results from our study suggest that the Megalopolis Basin could have served as a refugium for hominins and other organisms due to its capacity to retain freshwater bodies during glacial and interglacial periods.

This article presents a pilot experiment conducted to better
understand how Middle Pleistocene hominins might have
processed and exploited elephants using simple stone and bone
tools. The experiment was conducted in three phases: (1)
production of small, flake-based stone tools, (2) butchery of the
lower hind-leg of an Indian elephant, and (3) manufacture of
bone tools from the tibia. The experiment shows it is possible to
cut through elephant skin in under four minutes using small
chipped-stone flakes; disarticulating the astragalus from the tibia
is relatively easy, whereas disarticulating the astragalus from the
other tarsals is difficult; breaking open an elephant tibia is
possible in two minutes; the tibia of the elephant used in the
experiment lacked a hollow marrow cavity; extraction of the large
fatty cushion encased in the metatarsals and phalanges required
several hours; and elephant bone tools are useful for retouching
lithic materials of differing quality.

Two fossilized human crania (Apidima 1 and Apidima 2) from Apidima Cave, southern Greece, were discovered in the late 1970s but have remained enigmatic owing to their incomplete nature, taphonomic distortion and lack of archaeological context and chronology. Here we virtually reconstruct both crania, provide detailed comparative descriptions and analyses, and date them using U-series radiometric methods. Apidima 2 dates to more than 170 thousand years ago and has a Neanderthal-like morphological pattern. By contrast, Apidima 1 dates to more than 210 thousand years ago and presents a mixture of modern human and primitive features. These results suggest that two late Middle Pleistocene human groups were present at this site-an early Homo sapiens population, followed by a Neanderthal population. Our findings support multiple dispersals of early modern humans out of Africa, and highlight the complex demographic processes that characterized Pleistocene human evolution and modern human presence in southeast Europe. Southeast Europe is considered to be a major dispersal corridor as well as one of the principal European Mediterranean glacial refugia 1-3. As such, the human fossil record of this region has previously been proposed to be more diverse than that of more isolated and less hospitable areas of Europe, reflecting the complexities of repeated dispersals, late survivals and admixture of human groups 1,3. This hypothesis has been difficult to test, as palaeoanthropological finds from the Balkans are relatively scarce. The two fossilized human crania from Apidima, Mani (southern Greece) 4 , are among the most important finds from the region, yet remain little known. Here we applied the U-series dating method to elucidate their chronology and depositional history. We virtually reconstructed both specimens, correcting for taphonomic damage , and conducted detailed comparative description and geometric morphometric analyses. Chronology The Apidima specimens were discovered in a block of breccia wedged high between the cave walls of Apidima Cave A 2,4-6 (Extended Data Fig. 1), during research by the Museum of Anthropology, School of Medicine, National Kapodistrian University of Athens, which started in 1978. Owing to the lack of associated context, their geological age has been difficult to assess. Attempts to date the site radiometrically proved to be inconclusive 7. However, geomorphology indicates a Middle-Late Pleistocene age, and a bracket between 190 and 100 thousand years ago (ka) has been proposed as the most-probable period for the dep-osition of the 'skull breccia' 6,8. Previous work calculated a minimum age of approximately 160 ka by U-series dating of an Apidima 2 bone fragment, which suggests a most-probable time of deposition of around 190 ka (transition between Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 7 and MIS 6) 5. We analysed three samples from the 'skull breccia' , selected from fragments produced when cleaning the specimens from the matrix, using the U-series method. These included human bone fragments (subsamples 3720A and B of Apidima 2; and subsamples 3754 and 3755 of Apidima 1) and four unidentified bone subsamples (3757A-C and 3758, see Supplementary Information section 1). Our analyses show that both crania are older than the solidification of the matrix, which occurred around 150 ka. Despite their depositional proximity , Apidima 1 obtained its uranium in a considerably different environment than Apidima 2, during an accumulation event in MIS 7 (around 210 ka), whereas the uranium-uptake process of Apidima 2 took place in MIS 6 (around 170 ka) (see Methods 'Depositional con-text' , Supplementary Information section 1). The crania and associated bones were therefore probably trapped on the surface of the talus cone, Apidima 1 around 210 ka and Apidima 2 around 170 ka, and were brought to their final position before the cementation and solidification of the sedimentary matrix around 150 ka (see Methods, 'Depositional context').

The PaGE Project survey of the Megalopolis Basin (Arcadia, Greece), conducted in 2012–2013 over a period of two field seasons, was an intensive, target-oriented surface survey of Pleistocene sediments. Implementing a modified version of field methods applied in our survey of cave systems and Pleistocene cave sediments, the main goal of this systematic research focused on the identification of intact stratified remains from either stratigraphic sections or on remnants of exposed ancient surfaces. The project area consisted of the active open-cast lignite mine of Megalopolis, where access to recently exposed sections were abundant, and of the alluvial fans in the surrounding uplands, where hominins exploited the commanding views of the ancient lake. This paper presents the survey results and applied field methods for conducting archaeological research within the remnants of an Early to Middle Pleistocene ancient lake system. The project succeeded in identifying at least five surface and stratified sites, the latter including the Lower Paleolithic remains of Marathousa-1. This site is currently under investigation, but has already yielded the oldest chronometrically dated archaeological remains in Greece. Therefore, PaGE has not only managed to place mainland Greece on the Lower Paleolithic map of Europe, but has also successfully tested a methodological corpus for survey research targeting the earliest phases of the Paleolithic period in a Mediterranean landscape.

The technological systems and subsistence strategies of Middle Pleistocene hominins in SouthEast Europe are insufficiently understood due to the scarcity of well-preserved, excavated assemblages. In this paper, we present first results from the study of the lithic and bone artifacts unearthed at the Lower Palaeolithic site Marathousa 1 (MAR-1), Megalopolis, Greece. The context of the site represents a depositional environment close to a lake-shore, where rapid burial in a very fine-grained matrix ensured extraordinary conditions for preservation. Lithic artifacts occur in spatial and stratigraphic association with remains of the elephant Palaeoloxodon antiquus as well as other mammals. Bones, including those of elephants, show clear anthropogenic flaking scars, cut-marks and fracture patterns indicating deliberate breakage and modification by early humans. The MAR-1 lithic assemblage is composed of small-sized debitage, retouched tools, a few small and exhausted cores, as well as a large number of debris and retouch products, such as chips and resharpening flakes. Currently, there are no indications of Acheulean bifacial debitage, large cutting tools are missing, and a key aspect of the material refers to its 'microlithic' character. The scarcity of cores and primary flakes indicates a fragmented reduction sequence and complex discard patterns that require further investigation. On the basis of the ongoing analysis of lithic material from three field seasons, we discuss aspects of assemblage composition and the role of raw material types, the main technological and typological traits of the industry, as well as the potential contribution of the MAR-1 assemblage in broader discussions about Middle Pleistocene lithic techno-complexes and subsistence strategies in Eurasia. Finally, we briefly present a small sample of bone artifacts, which suggest that hominin exploitation of the animal carcasses was not restricted to marrow extraction and bone processing for nutritional needs, but included also the knapping of bones, potentially with the aim of using the knapped products as tools. The MAR-1 archaeological record compares well with other important Eurasian sites yielding 'small tool as-semblages', such as Ficoncella, La Polledrara, Bilzingsleben, Schöningen and Vértesszőlős, some of which, like MAR-1, have provided evidence of elephant or other mega-fauna exploitation.

We here report the first results from a systematic research project in Mani (Southern Greece), which includes
survey and test excavations. Forty-six caves, rockshelters and open-air sites in lowland settings were
surveyed. Geomorphological data were collected in order to assess how geological processes affect the
preservation of sites and bias site distribution patterns. Artifacts manufactured from non-local rock indicate
potential raw material transfers and suggest links among the different regions of Mani, related to mobility
patterns. Our research in the Mani has nearly doubled the number of known Middle Palaeolithic sites from
the region and confirmed that the peninsula has the strongest ‘Neanderthal signal’ identified to date in
Greece. Almost all sites are located at coastal areas. Despite the influence of Pleistocene landscape
dynamics, this distribution emerges as a persistent pattern, perhaps indicating a preference for coastal
locations. The Neanderthal occupation of Mani can illuminate important aspects of Middle Palaeolithic
adaptation in one of the southernmost coastal regions of Europe.

The present study describes the sedimentology and formation processes of the archaeological site Marathousa 1, part of a Pleistocene lignite-bearing succession at the Megalopolis basin (Southern Greece). The sedimentary sequence of the site comprises about 4e5 m lacustrine and fluviolacustrine clastic deposits found between Lignite Seam II and III. The lower part of this sequence is characterized by relatively high rate subaqueous sedimentation of bedded sands and silts with local evidence of slumping and liquefaction attributed to a seismic event. This part of the sequence contains fluctuating but generally low organic and carbonate content probably associated with cold and arid conditions of a glacial period. The upper part of the sequence follows a major hiatus attributed to exposure and erosion. A series of erosional bounded depositional units are observed in this sequence suggesting important water-level fluctuations. The subaqueous emplacement of the deposits is attributed to subaerial flood-generated, organic-and carbonate-rich dilute mudflows and hyperconcentrated flows. Organic-rich sedimentation culminates with the formation of the overlying lignite seam. This change is interpreted as a gradual return to warmer and humid conditions of an interglacial period. The fossiliferous and cultural levels at Marathousa 1 are associated with the major erosional and exposed surface found in the upper part of the sequence. This surface was part of an extensive mudflat surrounding the lake shore at that time. The overlying mudflows have locally redistributed and buried the archaeological remains, thus preserving this very important butchering site.

In this article, we present the first results on the large mammal fauna from the new open-air Lower Palaeolithic locality Marathousa 1 (MAR-1) (Megalopolis Basin, Peloponnesus, Greece). MAR-1 belongs to the Marathousa Member of the Choremi Formation and its large mammal faunal list (collection 2013-2016) includes the castorid Castor fiber, the mustelids Mustela sp. and Lutra simplicidens, the felid Felis sp., the canids Vulpes sp. and Canis sp., the elephantid Palaeoloxodon antiquus, the hippopotamid Hippopotamus antiquus, the bovid Bison sp., and the cervids Dama sp. and Cervus elaphus. This faunal association is common in the Galerian (Middle Pleistocene) mammal communities of Europe (ca. 0.9-0.4 Ma). The MAR-1 fauna is consistent with a temperate climate and is indicative of a landscape with substantial woodland components with more open areas, close to permanent and large freshwater bodies. Of particular interest are an elephant cranium and numerous postcranial elements, which were found in close anatomical association and are attributed to a single individual of the straight-tusked elephant Palaeoloxodon antiquus. The skeleton belonged to a male individual in its late adulthood close to or in its sixties, with live skeletal height around 3.7 m at the shoulder and body mass around 9.0 tonnes. The good state of preservation of the MAR-1 bones allows the identification of taphonomic modifications. Cut marks on the elephant skeleton, and on other elephant and mammal bones, indicate human exploitation by means of butchering activities, in accordance with the traits of the lithic assemblage and its spatial association with the bones. Carnivore activity is also recorded on some elephant and cervid bones. Marathousa 1 is among the oldest elephant butchering sites in Europe and the only one known in Southeastern Europe.

Recent excavations at the Middle Pleistocene open-air site of Marathousa 1 have unearthed in one of the two investigated areas (Area A) a partial skeleton of a single individual of Palaeoloxodon antiquus and other faunal remains in spatial and stratigraphic association with lithic artefacts. In Area B, a much higher number of lithic artefacts was collected, spatially and stratigraphically associated also with faunal remains. The two areas are stratigraphically correlated, the main fossiliferous layers representing an en mass depositional process in a lake margin context. Evidence of butchering (cut-marks) has been identified on bones of the elephant skeleton, as well on elephant and other mammal bones from Area B. However, due to the secondary deposition of the main find-bearing units, it is of primary importance to evaluate the degree and reliability of the spatial association of the lithic artefacts with the faunal remains. Indeed, spatial association does not necessarily imply causation, since natural syn-and post-depositional processes may equally produce spatial association. Assessing the degree and extent of post-depositional reworking processes is crucial to fully comprehend the archaeological record, and therefore to reliably interpret past human behaviours. The present study uses a comprehensive set of spatial statistics in order to disentangle the depositional processes behind the distribution of the archaeological and palaeontological record at Marathousa 1. Preliminary results of our analyses suggest that a high-energy erosional process, attributed to a hyperconcentrated flow deposited at the margin of a swamp, reworked an autochthonous, exposed or slightly buried, scatter of lithic artefacts and faunal remains. Minor reworking and substantial spatial association of the lithic and faunal assemblages support the current interpretation of Marathousa 1 as a butchering site.

A B S T R A C T Post-infrared infrared stimulated luminescence (pIRIR) measurements are reported for multiple aliquots of potassium rich feldspar grains from sedimentary deposits at Marathousa 1 and Choremi Mine in the Megalopolis Basin in southern Greece. Ages were obtained for 9 samples from the deposits that over-and underlie as well as include the archaeological and palaeontological deposits at Marathousa 1. These sediments are sandwiched between lignite seams II and III and thought to represent sediment deposition during a single glacial period. A single age was obtained for a sample from Choremi mine. The equivalent dose estimates are based on a newly developed method presented elsewhere, and environmental dose rate determinations followed standard procedures. A specific focus of this paper is the determination of a representative estimate of time-averaged palaeo-water content of the organic and sand-rich deposits and the impact of porosity and compaction on these estimates. Ages are presented using two water content scenarios. These final ages have relatively large uncertainties, making it difficult to accurately assign deposition to a single oxygen isotope stage (OIS). Taking uncertainty into account, sediment deposition at Marathousa 1 occur sometime during OIS 12 and 11 and at Choremi mine during MIS 8. When combined with other proxy information, these results support the interpretation that the peat deposits (represented by lignite seams II and III) were deposited during warm interglacial periods, and that the intervening clastic materials were deposited during glacial periods. In this case, the ages are best interpreted as supporting deposition of sediments during MIS12. This is consistent with one of the proposed age models, but younger than the other.

Two new vertebrate fossiliferous localities from the Pleistocene of the Mygdonia Basin (Macedonia, Greece), Tsiotra Vryssi (TSR) and Platanochori-1 (PLN), are presented in this article. TSR belongs to the Gerakarou Formation and its preliminary faunal list includes the corvid Corvus pliocaenus, the hyaenid Pachycrocuta brevirostris, the canid Canis etruscus, the rhinoceros Stephanorhinus sp., two species of Equus, the bovid Bison sp., the cervid Metacervocerus rhenanus and the giraffid Palaeotragus sp. PLN belongs to the Platanochori Formation (overlying Gerakarou Formation) and its fauna includes the following taxa: Stephanorhinus hundsheimensis, Equus apolloniensis, Bison sp. and Pontoceros ambiguus. The preliminary comparison of these faunal assemblages with the already known localities from the Mygdonia Basin and the wider region, combined with the geological data, suggest a Late Villafranchian age for TSR, chronologically intermediate between the localities Gerakarou-1 and Apollonia-1, while the fauna from PLN is indicative of a Latest Villafranchian age, similar to that of Apollonia-1. These new localities will enhance our understanding of the crucial time period of the earliest dispersal of hominins into Europe.

The Megalopolis Basin (Peloponnesus, Greece) has long been known for its Middle Pleistocene mammal fossils (see [1] and references therein). In 2013 a palaeolithic/palaeoanthropological survey, conducted by a joint team from the Ephorate of Palaeoanthropology Speleology of the Greek Ministry of Culture and the University of Tübingen, led to the discovery of a new open-air locality, Marathousa-1 (MAR-1), when stratified bones and lithic artefacts were identified in a section of the Marathousa Member, Choremi Formation [2]. The preliminary ESR analysis dates the locality at 0.5-0.4 Ma [3]. The large mammal faunal material collected so far (2013-2016) includes the castorid Castor fiber, the mustelids Lutra simplicidens and Mustela sp., the felid Felis sp., the canids Vulpes sp. and Canis sp., the elephantid Elephas (Palaeoloxodon) antiquus, the hippopotamid Hippopotamus antiquus, the bovid Bison sp., and the cervids Dama sp. and Cervus elaphus. This faunal association is common in the Galerian mammal communities of Europe (ca. 0.9-0.4 Ma). Furthermore, it is consistent with a temperate climate, and is indicative of a landscape with substantial woodland components and more open areas, close to permanent and large freshwater bodies. Of particular interest are an elephant cranium and numerous postcranial elements, which were found in close anatomical association and are attributed to a single individual of the straight-tusked elephant Elephas (P.) antiquus. The skeleton belonged to an old male in its sixties, with live skeletal height around 3.7 meters and body mass around 9.0 tones. The good state of preservation of the MAR-1 bones allows the identification of taphonomic modifications. Three-dimensional virtual reconstructions of marks with the use of a confocal microscope enabled the identification of cut marks and their micromorphological characteristics. Cut marks and percussion damage indicate hominin exploitation of the elephant carcass and other mammal bones by means of butchering activities, which is in accordance
with the lithic assemblage and its spatial association with the bones. Carnivore gnawing is also evident on some specimens, suggesting a certain degree of carnivore competition with humans for early access to the animal carcasses. Marathousa-1 is among the oldest elephant butchering sites in Europe and the only one known in Southeastern Europe.

The Megalopolis Basin (Peloponnesus, Greece) has long been known for its Middle Pleistocene mammal fossils (see Melentis, 1961). In 2013 a palaeolithic/palaeoanthropological survey, conducted by a joint team of the Ephorate of Palaeoanthropology-Speleology of the Greek Ministry of Culture and the University of Tübingen in the frame of the ERC project PaGE, led to the discovery of a new locality –Marathousa 1 (MAR)–, when stratified bones and lithic artefacts were identified in a section of the Marathousa Member, Choremi Formation (Panagopoulou et al., 2015). The large mammal faunal material collected so far (2013–2016) includes the castorid Castor fiber, the mustelids Lutra simplicidens and Mustela sp., the felid Felis sp., the canid Canis sp., the elephantid Elephas (Palaeoloxodon) antiquus, the hippopotamid Hippopotamus antiquus, the bovid Bison sp., and the cervids Dama sp. and Cervus elaphus. This faunal association is common in the Galerian mammal communities of Europe (ca. 0.9–0.4 Ma). Furthermore, it is consistent with a temperate climate, and is indicative of a landscape with substantial woodland components and more open areas, close to permanent and large freshwater bodies.
Of particular interest are an elephant cranium and several postcranial elements, which were found in close anatomical association and are attributed to a single individual of the straight-tusked elephant Elephas (P.) antiquus. The good state of preservation of the MAR bones allows to identify taphonomic modifications. Cut marks and percussion damage indicate hominin exploitation of elephant and other mammal bones by means of butchering activities. Carnivore gnawing is also evident on some specimens, suggesting a certain degree of carnivore competition with humans for early access to the animal carcasses.