Crete

LAND AND PEASANTS IN MEDIEVAL CRETE. XIIIth – XIVth c.

The conquest of Crete by the Venetians and the new state of affairs imposed by Venice soon led to a new social and economic order for the island. If, on a social level, the changes that ensued were not entirely radical, on the economic level they were decisive for the future development of Crete.
The new system of land ownership imposed by the Venetians was founded on the general principle that the land belongs to the state, and the state disposes of the land as it sees fit, always with a view to serving best its interests and maintaining security both in its overseas domain and at home. The Venetian settlement of the island was conducted on a systematic basis, and the greater part of the island was divided up among the Venetians who were sent there as the feudal, landowning cast. A portion of the land was held by the Latin Church, by monasteries and churches (both Catholic and Orthodox), while the state retained a large region for itself -Paracandia, containing numerous villages in the area around the Cretan capital, Candia. The first major changes to take place on the island were not completed until the end of the thirteenth century, mainly on account of the slow progress made in the face of resistance from the indigenous landowning classes who delayed not only the redistribution of land but also the full conquest of the island. These longestablished, noble families were to profit from their resistance by succeeding in carving out for themselves a right to the land they had fought for. Indirectly, their resistance paved the way for less well-placed Greek families to acquire property rights through various means.
By the late thirteenth century the political situation had stabilized and land distribution and ownership had become established. The island held two large social groups, the feudal lords and the peasants, bound to one another by the land. The peasant class was composed of two clearly defined groups: those who were, and those who were not, subject to their lords. The larger of the two groups was composed of villeins, the successors to the Byzantine paroikoi, subject to a rigorously defined dependency on their masters. The villeins in turn were composed of two main categories: those who were bound to the land itself, and thence to the feudal lord, and those who belonged directly to the feudal lord, regardless of the land. In contrast to the villeins, free peasants were not subject personally to their lords, farming the land while being economically dependent on its owners.
Although the land was divided into fiefs, cavallarias and serventarias, all serving to assist the state in its task of collecting taxes from the feudal lords, economic life in the countryside was based on the village, whose unity was assured irrespective of the regime of landownership. The peasants lived in the village, they cultivated the farmland roundabout, and they rendered their dues to its owners.
While many features of society and daily life in the countryside remained little changed since Byzantine times, the colonial characteristics that the Cretan economy started to acquire as a result of the Venetian conquest led to a number of important changes. More intensive exploitation of the land and the development of city ports that gradually grew into major export and transit centres of, principally, agricultural produce, were the most obvious results of these changes. During the first two centuries of Venetian rule the agrarian economy played a key role. The island's agricultural production was dominated by cereals and vines, while livestock breeding was also important, contributing to the island's export market.
Tilling the land (divided into small and medium-sized plots) was based on family-scale labour, as in Byzantine times. The direct cultivation of large areas of land owned by the feudal lords, whether by means of the system of compulsory communal labour (angarie) or by the employment of paid workers -as was the case in western Europe- does not appear to have been the practice in Crete. The Venetians interfered very little in the operations of rural life on the island; rather, their principal objective was to maximise agricultural production. Thus, all those who owned land -feudal lords, the state, the Church and monasteries- made their land available for longer or shorter lengths of time for cultivation by the peasants, under various terms, according to the kind of cultivation undertaken. Thanks to long-term grants of land-cultivation rights (gonico, renting for 29 years), peasants were able to secure practically a lifelong right to the land, to the extent that they were often able to pass on land to their inheritors. This fact was instrumental in binding the peasant to the land and in providing the feudal lord with a much needed agricultural workforce. For his part, the peasant was able to develop his farming activities to the best possible advantage. On the other hand, short term grants of land (such as rents of limited duration and "labour agreements") served, primarily, intensive cultivation of cereals, often destined for the export market. In such cases the landowner would be reluctant to commit his land for long periods with an unproductive peasant farmer or at a rental rate that might turn out to be unprofitable on account of rises in grain prices. The variety of grants of land, combined with the type of cultivation and the small plots of land in different regions gave both peasant and landowner the opportunity to choose the best possible farming solution with the best possible prospects.
Landowner, land and peasant were closely bound to one another and interdependent. Nevertheless, the individual owning the land always had a distinct advantage, however much he might depend on farm-labourers in order to turn his land into a profit-making concern. The numerous farm-labour contracts that have survived are evidence of this relationship of dependence, as well as of the landowner's decisions with respect to the best exploitation of his land, and the efforts of both sides to secure their interests by means of the terms of the agreement and by the practice of signing the contract and having it formally ratified. The large number of contracts testifies to the mutual dealings of peasants of the same land, to the increase in the cultivable land area as more and more land was granted for cultivation, and the arrival of new peasant farmers. However, one cannot determine accurately the size and extent of these phenomena, since it is not possible to establish correlations across historical periods, or, what is more, for specific regions, since the sources do not cover the entire island.
The profits deriving from the exploitation of the land of the feudal lords were chiefly in kind, as agricultural products, grain, wine and, to a lesser extent, livestock breeding. Everything was destined for the local or international market. Besides the land rent, the feudal lords also reaped various feudal revenues -all kinds of dues and rights- that the peasants paid in order to use the land and other features of the countryside. These revenues, part money, part in kind, did not entail vast sums; they did, however, serve to reaffirm the relationship of dependence, economic and personal, of the peasant on the feudal lord, and determined the position of the peasant within the social and economic system of Crete.
The two social classes -feudal lord and peasant- occupied by definition the base and the peak of the economic pyramid of medieval society, that is, the many poor and the few rich. Yet within these two classes further pyramids quickly emerged displaying significant intermediate levels. In other words, by the midfourteenth century there were a considerable number of feudal lords who were running into serious financial difficulties, and a relatively small number of peasants who, while one hesitates to describe their situation as prosperous, at least found themselves to be getting by on a satisfactory economic level. It appears to be the case, therefore, that although Cretan society had clearly defined lines separating the social classes, the level enjoyed by each group's members was not the same, however much their position in the social hierarchy provided them with differing opportunities, starting from a differing base.
The prospects and likelihood of finding an alternative livelihood were very limited for a peasant, and any attempt at breaking out of the mould entailed considerable risks. Nonetheless, small-scale trade and investment (basic characteristics of the city-ports, where large numbers of people came together from much of Europe and the Near East), served to fuel the desires and hopes for betterment of the poor of both city and countryside. At difficult moments in the island's history, the peasants turned to the cities and towns. There they hoped to find refuge, or the means by which they might leave the island to seek a better fortune elsewhere.

The gorge of Samaria dominates the area of the National Park of White Mountains in south-western Crete, at the southern part of Omalos plateau. A plethora of unique organisms (plants, animals and lower organisms) survive in a variety of biotopes found in the
Park. The plant and animal communities vary between biotopes according to the geomorphology and the climatic conditions of each area. The plant communities in Samaria gorge range from xerophytic aromatic phrygana (Pistacia, Cistus) to pine and cypress forests
and pseudoalpic and desert vegetation. Equally important but a smaller scale, are the riparian communities, the naturally reforested fields, the vegetation of almost soilless steep rocks and the vegetation at the mountain plateaus such as Omalos (outside the area of the National Park). All of them have characteristic plant species. Similarly, the animal communities of the Park are typical of the area. The varied topography combined with the difficulty in communication between areas isolated unique endemic animals and plants, characteristic of the gorge. Four hundred fifty different plant species have been
identified, seventy of them being endemic to the gorge.
On reflection, the biodiversity encountered at the gorge of the Samaria is strongly related not only to the climatological conditions of the area but also to its
geo(morpho)logical substrate, which consists of metamorphic rocks of the Plattenkalk Group, a sequence of schists, dolomitic and calcitic marbles, which include lenses, nodules and intercalations of cherts. Because of the tectonic anticlinal structure, the older rocks of this series (240-190 Ma) form one of the most beautiful mountain peaks in the National
Park, Gigilos. In this area the rocks are dolomitic marbles and contain stromatolites, which are products of primitive organisms. The lacy bands of stromatolites decorate the contemporary landscape. Most of cherts are products of biogenesis, since they are remains
of fossilised sponges. The sponges lived in a relatively shallow sea environment, forming reef colonies, which define clearly stable paleobiotopes of a paleoecosystem.

Purpose: This communication reports skeletal pathology in a Pleistocene endemic deer from the Mavromouri caves of Crete. Materials: 287 bones and bone fragments from Mavromouri caves are compared to 2986 bones from Liko Cave. Methods: Bones were evaluated macroscopically, and measurements were made of morphometric characteristics of limb long bones. Representative bone specimens were examined radiographically and histologically. Results: Macroscopic hallmarks were loss of bone mass and increased porosity. The long bones were brittle, some of them having thin cortices, and others reduction of medullary cavities that contain dense Haversian tissue. The flat bones were spongy and fragile. Erosions of the metaphyses and articular surfaces were noted. Histological findings included: sub-periosteal resorption; loss of lamellar bone; enlargement of vascular canals; and re-modeling of cortical bone. Two types of fibrous osteodystrophy were recognized in skeletal remains, subostotic and hyperostotic. Conclusions: The deer of Mavromouri caves were affected by severe metabolic bone disease, likely nutritional secondary hyperparathyroidism. We hypothesize a multifactorial cause, including overgrazing, flora senescence, soil mineral deficiencies, and a prolonged period of climate extremes, degrading the Cretan deer habitat. Value: This is the first evidence of a metabolic bone disease causing this level of destructive pathology in an insular fossil deer. Limitations: The lack of absolute chronometric dates for the site limits potential linking with the prevailing environmental conditions. Suggestions for further research: Investigation of similar skeletal pathologies at other islands or isolated habitats is advised.

Περίληψη
Στην εργασία αυτή επιχειρείται για πρώτη φορά μια συστηματική προσέγγιση δύο πηγών που βρίσκονται στην επαρχία Σφακίων της Δ. Κρήτης. Οι δύο πηγές παρουσιάζουν ιδιαίτερα και ακραία γεωλογικά και υδροχημικά χαρακτηριστικά. Η πρώτη, η πηγή Ξινόνερο βρίσκεται εντός του Φυλλιτικού Καλύμματος, είναι καταγεγραμμένη στον κατάλογο των ιστορικών ιαματικών πηγών της Κρήτης, έχει pH 3,2 και συνδέεται με σιδηρούχες αποθέσεις. Η δεύτερη πηγή Κυραλή είναι παράκτια, δίπλα στο γνωστό Φραγκοκάστελλο της επαρχίας Σφακίων, βρίσκεται υποκείμενη ενός μεγάλων σχετικά διαστάσεων αλλουβιακού ρυπιδίου της περιοχής, είναι θερμή και συνδέεται με αποθέσεις τραβερτίνη. Πέραν των μετρήσεων των φυσικοχημικών χαρακτηριστικών των νερών των δύο αυτών πηγών και της παράθεσης των αποτελεσμάτων των υδροχημικών αναλύσεων, επιχειρείται και μια ερμηνεία και της δημιουργίας των πηγών αυτών αλλά και των ακραίων χαρακτηριστικών που τις συνοδεύουν.
Abstract
In this work we attempt, for the first time, to systematically approach two springs, located at province of Sfakia, Western Crete. These two springs present notable extreme geological and hydrochemical characteristics. The Ksinonero spring (Sour Spring), is hosted within the Phyllite Nappe of the region and is recorded to the catalogue of the historical mineral and thermal springs of Crete, has a pH equal to 3,2 and is connected with ferric depositions at its discharge. The Kyrali spring, located near to the Fragokastello fortress, is coastal and hosted under a relatively large alluvial fan. Moreover, is warm and connected with travertine depositions. Beyond the physicochemical characteristics of the waters of these two springs and the hydrochemical analysis, we attempt to interpret their origin but also their extreme characteristics. 1. Εισαγωγή Ή Ελλάς κατέχει αληθῶς προνομιοῦχον θέσιν μεταξύ των χωρῶν, αἳτινες πλουσίως ἐπροικίσθησαν ὑπό τής φύσεως ἀπό ποικίλης συστάσεως μεταλλικά ἰαματικά ὕδατα. Πρῶτον διότι εἰς τά ἐδάφη αὐτῆς ἀναβλύζει μέγας ἀριθμός μεταλλικῶν πηγῶν και δεύτερον διότι ὅλοι οἱ τύποι καί αἱ κατηγορίαι τῶν μεταλλικῶν ὑδάτων ἀπαντῶσι παρ'αὐτῇ. Ὕδατα θειούχα και ὑδροθειοῦχα, ἀλκαλικά, σιδηροῦχα, ραδιενεργά και πλουσίως ραδιενεργά, χλωριονατριοῦχα, ἀκρατοθερμαί, ἁλιπηγαί και ὀξυπηγαί, δηλαδή παντός εἲδους μεταλλικά ὕδατα, ἀναπηδῶσιν ἐκ των ἐγκάτων τῆς γῆς τῆς Χώρας ταύτης. …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. Ἡ Νῆσος Κρήτη δέν φημίζεται διά τάς ἰαματικάς αὑτής πηγάς. Καί συμβαίνει τοῦτο κυρίως διότι δέν ἒχει θερμάς πηγάς, δέ αἱ εἰς αὐτήν ἀναβλύζουσαι πλεῖσται ὅσαι ψυχραί μεταλλικαί τοιαῡται. Ἡ συγκέντρωσις τῶν στοιχείων και δημοσίευσις δια τοῦ παρόντος τεύχους τῶν αφορώντων τας

'Restoring Health: body, mind and spirit', as a new book excerpt, focuses on strengthening a new generation of healthy leaders. Drawing on examples from Titus' healthy leadership in the pirate island of Crete, it shows how we can embrace a holistically healthy life. The book is available in paperback http://www.amazon.com/gp/aw/d/097820221X/ref=redir_mdp_mobile and ebook form http://tiny.cc/xopvnx

Ηράκλειο 1998 ΤΟ ΑΜΠΕΛΙ KAI ΤΟ ΚΡΑΣΙ ΣΤΟ ΠΡΟΪΣΤΟΡΙΚΟ ΑΙΓΑΙΟ* ΚΑΤΕΡΙΝΑ ΚΟΠΑΚΑ ΑΡΧΑΙΟΛΟΓΟΣ-ΕΠΙΚ. ΚΑΘΗΓΗΤΡΙΑ ΠΑΝ/ΜΙΟΥ ΚΡΗΤΗΣ Στη μεγάλη οικογένεια των περί τον οίνον ειδικών -βοτανολόγων, χημι¬ κών, γιατρών, γεωγράφων, φιλολόγων, φιλοσόφων, ποιητών...-εγγράφονται και οι αρχαιολόγοι, που, μαζί με τους ιστορικούς, ενδιαφέρονται ολο¬ ένα και περισσότερο για τον "πολιτισμό του κρασιού". Πώς εμπλέκονται οι αρχαιολόγοι στην ιστορία του κρασιού; Αντί εισα¬ γωγής, να αναφερθώ σύντομα, στις βασικές κατηγορίες των δεδομένων από τον κύκλο του αμπελιού και του κρασιού των περασμένων κοινω¬ νιών, τα οποία επιβιώνουν μέσα στο χρόνο και είναι, συνεπώς, αρχαιολο¬ γικά "ανιχνεύσιμα". Η πρώτη κατηγορία περιλαμβάνει τα αμεσότερα τεκμήρια, τα ίδια, δη¬ λαδή, τα αρχαία οικοδεδομένα. Τα βιοκατάλοιπα, όπως αυτά διασώζονται στις γεωλογικές και τις ανθρωπογενείς στρωματογραφίες, συλλέγονται στο πεδίο και αναλύονται στο εργαστήριο. Αλλοτε πρόκειται για μικροοκοπικά υπολείμματα, αόρατα στο γυμνό μάτι, όπως οι κόκκοι γύρης στα δείγματα των παλυνολόγων και τα κατάλοιπα κρασιού, που ανιχνεύουν οι αρχαιομέτρες στα τοιχώματα των αγγείων1. Ταρταρικό οξύ, πιθανόν κρα¬ σί, ανιχνεύθηκε, πρόσφατα, στο εσωτερικό αμφορέα του τέλους της 4ης π.Χ. χιλιετίας, από το Godin Tepe, στο Ιράν2. Στην ανασκαφή εντοπίζο¬ νται, τις περισσότερες φορές, μεγαλύτερα, μακροσκοπικά οργανικά κατάλοιπα, τα οποία μελετούν οι παλαιοεθνοβοτανολόγοι. Στην ενότητα αυτή συγκαταλέγονται τα -απανθρακωμένα, απολιθωμένα ή διατηρημένα σε υγρά περιβάλλοντα-υπολείμματα σταφυλιών, και σπανιότερα στην Ελλάδα, κομμάτια από το ξύλο των κλημάτων3. Σημαντικούς, τέλος, μάρ¬ τυρες αποτελούν τα αποτυπώματα αμπελόφυλλων ή γιγάρτων σε αρ¬ χαία νωπά υλικά. * Ευχαριστώ την Ένωση Χημικών για την πρόσκληση στο Συμπόσιο αυτό και την ευκαιρία μιας ανταλλαγής εμπειριών που προέρχονται, επιτέλους, από διαφορετικές ερευνητικές κατευθύνσεις.

Le mythe de l’Atlantide et l’Égypte antique sont étroitement imbriqués si l’on en croit les dires du philosophe Platon. Il est le premier à évoquer le récit d’une île-continent, dont les orgueilleux et puissants habitants furent défaits par les Athéniens et engloutis sous les eaux, en même temps que l’Atlantide, juste après leur cuisant revers militaire. Or si Platon fait abondamment référence à l’Égypte antique, utilisant ses prêtres comme garants de la véracité d’un récit dont il a largement falsifié les faits, il existe bel et bien une source égyptienne, autrement plus ancienne que les textes du philosophe athénien, qui évoque l’histoire d’une île merveilleuse, aux ressources abondantes et riches, propriété d’une divinité, brusquement disparue sous les flots de la Méditerranée. Quelle est la part de véracité dans le récit de Platon et à quel point l’Égypte antique influença-t-elle son récit ?

Amandine Marshall est Docteur en Égyptologie et travaille actuellement à une thèse d’habilitation sur le cheval dans les mythes grecs. C’est en confrontant ses connaissances sur ces deux civilisations ancestrales qu’elle a pu établir l’existence de cette source égyptienne. Son ouvrage remet en perspective l’invention tout aussi mensongère que géniale de Platon, et, à la lueur de ce nouveau document égyptien, pose une autre question : et s’il n’y avait pas eu une mais deux Atlantides ?

nov. 1988, eerste jaargang nr. 2 prijs losse nrs. fl 12,95 / bfr 240 TMA is een onafhankelijk tijdschrift dat aandacht besteedt aan het actuele archeolo gische onderzoek, in het bijzonder dat van Nederland en België in de Mediterrane wereld. Het overnemen van artikelen is toegestaan onder bronvermelding. Bijdragen van lezers zijn welkom en kunnen al dan niet verkort . door de redactie worden gepubliceerd. Deze uitgave kwam tot stand met steun van SOOO, de Stichting ter Ondersteuning van Oudheidkundig Onderzoek. abonnementen TMA verschijnt twee keer per jaar. Opgave kan schriftelijk of door storting van fl. 25, of bfr. 450 op girorekening 5859344. Studenten betalen fl. 22,50 of bfr. 410 (onder vermelding van studienummer). De abon nementen lopen van 1 januari tot 31 decem ber en worden automatisch verlengd, tenzij een maand van tevoren is opgezegd. redactie en administratieadres Tijdschrift voor Mediterrane Archeologie Postbus 7030 9701 JA Groningen redactie .

Το παρόν αποτελεί μία εισαγωγή στο ζήτημα του προτεινόμενου νέου αεροσταθμού στο Καστέλλι Κρήτης, το οποίο πρόκειται να αντικαταστήσει τον υφιστάμενο αερολιμένα Νίκος Καζαντζάκης του Ηρακλείου. Εξετάζονται οι υφιστάμενες συνθήκες αερομεταφορών στο νησί της Κρήτης με έμφαση στο Ηράκλειο, η πρόταση του νέου αερολιμένα, και οι προοπτικές συνδυασμένων μεταφορών για την εξυπηρέτηση της, κυρίως εποχιακής, ζήτησης.

Technological developments in participatory web (Web 2.0) have led to
significant changes in the way information is searched and in travel planning by
travelers. Active participation in social media can act autonomously as a means of
advertising of a business, by spreading the message (word-of-mouth) or on the
contrary acts as a deterrent. Agritourism is considered one of the fastest growing
sectors of tourism and is related to the convergence of two different sectors of the
economy, tourism and agriculture, creating a new form of economic development that
allows the inhabitants of a region to combine rural engagement with tourism as a
complementary activity. For agritourism businesses there is an urgent need for them
to integrate the marketing tools offered by Social Media in order to have effective
visibility as well as opportunities for interaction and feedback with customers. This
paper seeks to cover part of the research gap by focusing on exploring the use and
penetration of social media in agritourism units of Crete. The literature review of the
paper presents Web 2.0 and the Social Media as tools for promoting tourism, and then
agritourism and its characteristics are presented, with particular reference to the
situation in Greece and Crete. The initial survey was at first carried out with the
registration of the agritourist units in Crete and then it was investigated which of them
are present in Social Media. In the second part of the survey, the presence of
Facebook was recorded, recording the kind of presence and if there was full use of the
means (direct booking, ability to evaluate the company). Then, the year of first
posting was examined and, with the method of observing the Facebook page, the
posts of February and June 2017 were recorded. The findings showed that out of the
196 units, 98 are present in at least one Social Media (50%), while 93 choose
Facebook as a means of presence in social media with 94.90%, followed by
TripAdvisor with 46, 94%, Twitter with 16.33%, Google+ with 16.33%, YouTube
with 14.29%, Instagram with 11.22%, Pinterest with 9.18%, Foursquare with 5.10%
and last Flickr with 4.08%. The overview of Facebook pages revealed a nonsystematic
use of the tool, while many pages presented no activity for the period in
question (25% in Lassithi, 36.67% in Heraklion, 27.27% in Rethymnon and 64%
Chania).

It is suggested that Epimenides of Crete, a well-known Greek prophet, poet and politician (7th– 6th century BC), placed Zeus' birthplace near the Cretan city of Arcadia (now Arkalochori). Callimachus' Hymn to Zeus seems to have been modelled on Epimenides' version of the birth-story of the principal god. It not only contains an exact imitation of the prophet's words " the Cretans are always liars " (Κρῆτες ἀεὶ ψεῦσται) and the same arguments, but also records some of Epimenides' aetiological tales, e.g. on the Omphalian plain and the Mountain Panacra. Cal-limachus of Cyrene partially changed the original legend of Zeus' birth, transferring Arcadia from Crete to Peloponnese. However, some contradictions and inconsistencies which appear in Callimachus' Hymn to Zeus provide credible evidence for establishing Epimenides' version of the myth.

This paper, first presented at the Aegaeum 'Potnia' conference in 2001,  put forward new evidence for the importance of the sun in Minoan religion. At the Mesara-type tombs of the Early—Middle Minoan period, the doorways are aligned to dawn at specific times of year, suggesting seasonal activities associated with the dead. Later, at the Knossos 'Throne Room', each of the polythyron doorways admits the rising sun at a different time of year — echoing those favoured at the Mesara-type tombs — creating dramatic lighting effects focused on the 'throne', the 'Lustral Basin' and the inner doorway respectively, which would have enhanced the impact of any rituals enacted there.

The paper deals with the prosopography of the greek military commander in the venetian fleet Antonio Eudemonogiannis through his presence in Crete. Behind his efforts to obtain a fief in the region of Souda, emerge the process of new social allies' recruitment followed by the Venetian rulers as well as the terms of a simmering social tension on the island, during the last decades of the 16th century.

Charalambos Gasparis assesses the implications of the dissolution of the Orthodox ecclesiastical hierarchy in Venetian Crete and the influence this had on the imagery of Hell. He offers an overview of the continuities and novelties in the political, administrative, economical and ecclesiastical realm that shaped a society that produced numerous images of Hell. The study of the Cretan images of Hell has become essential for our understanding of social norms as well as the enforcement of Venetian penal law and the survival of Byzantine law on the island. By providing a detailed analysis of the organisation of the local Orthodox Church as well as a comparative analysis of offences, presented in both pictorial and textual form, as found in hitherto unpublished documents from the Venetian archives, where the social, economic and religious profile of the donors is also reflected, Gasparis correlates iconography to its social background and demonstrates how images can mirror aspects of the society that depicted Hell in their churches.
The parts of the Chapter are:
2.1 The Political, Social and Economic Context
2.2 The Religious Context: Greek Orthodox Priests and Churches
2.2.1 The Orthodox Priests
2.2.2 The Churches
2.3 Earthly and Heavenly Justice: From Sin to Crime, from Crime to Sin
2.3.1 Murder, Theft and Robbery
2.3.2 Professional Transgressions (Millers, Tailors, etc.)
2.3.3 Usurers and Notaries
2.3.4 Sins of a Social/Moral Nature
2.3.5 The Sins of the farmers
2.3.6 Religious Sins
2.4 Documents

Τα τελευταία χρόνια έχουν δημοσιευτεί αρκετά βιβλία, άρθρα και ανακοινώσεις για το Κρητικό Ζήτημα, αλλά σπάνια η ενασχόληση των ερευνητών και των ιστορικών φτάνει μέχρι την εξωτερική πολιτική των πιο «άγνωστων» ευρωπαϊκών δυνάμεων που ενεπλάκησαν και έπαιξαν ρόλο σε αυτό. Το παρόν κείμενο φιλοδοξεί να καλύψει εν μέρει αυτό το «κενό», αναζητώντας εάν και κατά πόσο η Αυστροουγγαρία είχε κάποια συγκεκριμένη πολιτική ως προς τα ζητήματα της Κρήτης στα τέλη του 19ου αιώνα, πως αυτή προέκυψε και πως εφαρμόστηκε.

This paper represents my first attempt to make sense of the dearth of data relating to prehistoric earthquakes in Crete. The title explains: Defining Earthquakes and identifying their consequences in North Central Crete during the Old and New Palace Periods. There is still a good deal of work to be done in this field.

Regarding traditional beekeeping in Crete, based on the beekeeping methods and hives that have been recorded in recent centuries, we can distinguish two areas: central-western Crete, where vertical hives with movable combs were in use, and the eastern part of the island, where a horizontal hive with fixed combs was used. Hives with movable combs (or top-bar hives) were constructed from various materials such as clay, woven wicker branches or more rarely from wooden boards. The clay ones were the most widely used and were usually constructed by travelling potters, who organized artisanal groups (guilds) and travelled around the island selling their wares. The wicker top-bar hives, which usually did not have a base, were used in western Crete, mostly for migratory beekeeping, while the rectangular wooden top-bar hives were used only rarely in certain areas such as Sphakia. In eastern Crete a horizontal, ceramic beehive open at both ends with a truncated-cone shape was in use, usually placed in rows. All the hives in Crete were covered with various materials for protection from the elements and were often placed inside bee enclosures. The knowledge of traditional Cretan beekeepers regarding bees was limited. Despite this fact, however, the users of hives with movable combs practiced beekeeping in the most rational and effective way that has been recorded prior to the invention of the modern hive. In doing so, they executed a series of beekeeping tasks that were not possible for users of other types of hive. But even the beekeepers in the eastern part of the island, where a horizontal hive with fixed combs was used, applied certain unique methods, which are a testament to the advanced level of beekeeping knowledge they possessed.

Κατά τον πρώτο χρόνο της χούντας των συνταγματαρχών στην Κρήτη δραστηριοποιείται η ΔΕΚΑ αποτελούμενη από αγωνιστές του κεντρώου χώρου. Περιφερειακή ομάδα της ΔΕΚΑ στο Θραψανό δρά τον Αύγουστο του 1967 και συλλαμβάνεται τον Νοέμβριο μετά από διαρροές της οργάνωσης στο Ηράκλειο, δικάζεται και καταδικάζεται τον Φεβρουάριο του 1968.

A temple too good to be true? The so‐called ‘Temple A’ of Prinias reconsidered

In 1907, the excavations conducted by Luigi Pernier at Prinias in Crete brought to light two buildings, laid out side by side and characterized by a central hearth. These buildings were immediately identified as temples. But, although this function has been dismissed since then for ‘Temple B’, ‘Temple A’ is still considered as one of the earliest examples of temple architectural sculpture in the Greek world, despite falling outside the Greek architec‐ tural orders. Recent studies at Prinias show that a critical re‐examination of this issue is sorely needed. This paper goes back over the criteria for the identification of a Greek temple, even more complex in the Cretan context, before reconsidering the building in its archaeological context. This study aims to cross‐examine the architectural, arte‐ factual, iconographic and osteological data with a view to proposing a new identification for this edifice.

Αναμφισβήτητα, η οικογένεια των Νιώτηδων κατατάσσεται μεταξύ των πρώτων σε εθνική προσφορά και συμμετοχή, σε όλους του απελευθερωτικούς αγώνες της Κρήτης καθ'όλη τη διάρκεια του 19ου αιώνα.....  Η Κρήτη, με το δικό της τρόπο, αποτέλεσε ένα εθνικό κέντρο του ελληνισμού εκφράζοντας την ανάγκη για απελευθέρωση των υπόδουλων Ελλήνων, τόσο στη Βαλκανική χερσόνησο όσο και στη Μικρά Ασία. Δεν είναι τυχαίο ότι οι κρητικές αντάρτικες ομάδες στήριξαν το Μακεδονικό Αγώνα, ούτε ότι οι Βορειοηπειρώτες απευθύνθηκαν σ' αυτούς για υποστήριξη του δικού τους απελευθερωτικού αγώνα. Η άμεση επιρροή επί της εξωτερικής πολιτικής του ελληνικού κράτους έγινε μετά το στρατιωτικό πραξικόπημα του 1909 -την Επανάσταση στο Γουδί. Η κρητική ομάδα αρχίζει να πρωτοστατεί από τότε στη διαμόρφωση της εθνικής πολιτικής, συγκρουόμενη με το συντηρητικό παλάτι.

Between 1988 and 1993, the French School at Athens excavated a part of the LM III settlement at Malia 1 . This area, given the name Quartier Nu, is located immediately to the northeast of Protopalatial Quartier Mu and about 300 m northwest of the Palace. LM III occupation was identified at several spots within the old town of Malia, in Quartier Gamma, Lambda and Epsilon as well as sporadically in the Palace area but the extent and state of conservation had never allowed a proper contextual study. Quartier Nu allows for the first time the appreciation of LM III occupation, comparable to that studied by the honorand in the Messara.

Στοιχεία για την ελληνική γαιοκτησία στη μεσαιωνική Κρήτη Η παρουσία των Ελλήνων στο πλαίσιο του γαιοκτητικού συστήματος που εφάρμο σε η Βενετία στην Κρήτη είναι αδιαμφισβήτητη σχεδόν από την έναρξη της βενε τικής κυριαρχίας στο νησί 1 . Απομένει ωστόσο να εξεταστούν τα χαρακτηριστικά της ομάδας αυτής, το μέγεθος της δηλαδή σε συνάρτηση με το μέγεθος της αντίστοι χης κυρίαρχης ομάδας των Βενετών και άλλων Λατίνων φεουδαρχών κατά χρονι κές περιόδους και κατά περιοχές της Κρήτης, η έκταση της γης που αντιστοιχούσε σ' αυτήν, η διάρκεια της ιδιοκτησίας, η θέση της ομάδας στο πλαίσιο του πολιτικού καθεστώτος της αποικίας, καθώς και σε εκείνο της τοπικής κοινωνίας, ο τρόπος με τον οποίο αποκτήθηκε η γη, η ομοιογένεια της, οι αντιθέσεις δηλαδή, οι τυχόν συ νεκτικοί δεσμοί και τα οικονομικά στρώματα στο εσωτερικό της-πρέπει να εξετα-1. Το ζήτημα της γαιοκτησίας στην Κρήτη παραμένει ακόμη ανοικτό για πολλά επιμέρους θέματα, μεταξύ των οποίων και η ελληνική γαιοκτησία. Ωστόσο, έχει επαρκώς αναπτυχθεί το γενικό πλαίσιο που έθεσε η Βενετία και το οποίο ρύθμιζε το ζήτημα της ιδιοκτησίας και της εκμετάλλευσης της γης, καθώς και τη σχέση κατόχου γης και βενετικού δημοσίου. Βλ. σχετικά, S. BORSARI, // dominio veneziano a Creta nel XIII secolo, Νάπολη 1963, 74-87, ειδικά 76-77' Elisabeth SANTSCHI, La notion de «feudum» en Crète vénitienne. (XlIIe-XVe siècles), Montreux 1976 S. COSENTINO, Aspetti e problemi del feudo veneto-cretese (sec. XIII-XIV), Μπολόνια 1987 [Quaderni della Rivista di Studi Bizantini e Slavi 3]' X.

Το Σεπτέμβριο του 1991, ιδρύθηκε στο Ηράκλειο η Περιφερειακή Υπηρεσία των Γενικών Αρχείων του Κράτους, με την ονομασία Γ.Α.Κ.-Αρχεία Νομού Ηρα-κλείου, η οποία αποτελεί αυτοτελή δη-μόσια υπηρεσία, υπαγόμενη απευθείας στον Υπουργό Παιδείας και Θρησκευ-μάτων, Πολιτισμού και Αθλητισμού. Σκοπός και κύρια μέριμνα των Αρ-χείων Ηρακλείου είναι η διάσωση, η επο-πτεία, η συγκέντρωση, η ταξινόμηση και ευρετηρίαση όλων των δημόσιων και ιδιωτικών αρχείων, τα οποία αναφέρον-ται στην ιστορία και στην πολιτιστική κληρονομιά του Νομού. Μέχρι σήμερα έχουν εισαχθεί στα Γ.A.K. Ν. Ηρακλείου 324 αρχειακά σύ-νολα, από τα οποία 81 συμβολαιογρα-φικά, 8 αρχεία υποθηκοφυλακείων, 182 εκπαιδευτικά, 30 διοικητικά, 14 δικα-στικά, 3 δημοτικά και 6 ιδιωτικά. Τα αρ-χεία αυτά είναι στη διάθεση των πολιτών, στις συναλλαγές τους με τη δημόσια δι-οίκηση, αλλά και των επιστημόνων-ερευ-νητών που ασχολούνται με την Κρητική Ιστορία. Επίσης, τα Γ.Α.Κ. Ηρακλείου σε συ-νεργασία με τις Διευθύνσεις Εκπαίδευ-σης και τις σχολικές μονάδες, διοργανώ-νουν εκπαιδευτικά προγράμματα, για τους μαθητές της Πρωτοβάθμιας και Δευ-τεροβάθμιας Εκπαίδευσης και συμμετέ-χουν σε τοπικά και διεθνή συνέδρια για την ανάδειξη και προβολή της ιστορίας του τόπου μας.

The article presents the results of preliminary geological investigations in the western plain of the Mesara in Crete, and evidence for a possible dam of Protopalatial period at the old estuary of the Geropotamos river. A reconstruction of the Minoan landscape of this period is proposed, and some considerations are made on the interconnection between Landscape and Mythos. The ancient town of Phaistos overlooked to the east the artificial (sacred) lake, to the North the Psiloritis mountains, the profile of which, when covered by snow, was similar to a white bull, and to the South and SouthWest the Asterousia mountains. A ritual landscape was created in this way, bringing to the construction of the Minoan mythology. I-Τα γεωγραφικά δεδομένα και η αρχαιογεωλογία της περιοχής Φαιστού Η Κρήτη δεσπόζει στην Ανατολική Μεσόγειο, εκτεινόμενη κατά μήκος του νοητού άξονα Ανατολή-Δύση. Τον ίδιο προσανατολισμό εμφανίζει και το βουνό του Ψηλορείτη, όπως φαίνεται από τη Φαιστό, με την κορυφή του γνωστή ως «η Σέλα του Διγενή» ή «Φοινίκια». Κάτω από τους νότιους πρόποδες του, η πεδιάδα της Μεσσαράς έχει επίσης προσανατολισμό Ανατολή-Δύση. Καθώς οι διαρκείς γεωλογικοί μετασχηματισμοί συνιστούν ουσιώδες

Jusseret S., Sintubin M. (2017). Earthquakes and Minoan Crete: breaking the myth through interdisciplinarity. In Minoan Earthquakes: Breaking the Myth through Interdisciplinarity, Jusseret S., Sintubin M. (eds). Studies in Archaeological Sciences 5. Leuven University Press: Leuven, 385-395.