Andreas Würgler
Université de Genève, History, Faculty Member
- Université de Genève, Histoire générale, Faculty Memberadd
- Media History, History, Early Modern History, Transnational History, Petitions, Petitioning, and 12 moreRevolts and protests, Social Conflict, Old Swiss Confederacy, Political communication, Early Modern Europe, Political Culture, Diplomatic History, Switzerland, Factions (Early Modern History), Swiss History, Holy Roman Empire, and European political culturesedit
- University of Geneva, History, Faculty Memberedit
This article (in German) analysis the impact of the confessional war of 1712 on the political communication among the Swiss Cantons on the occasion of their periodical assemblies (federal Diet).
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The double formulation of the title of thes article (in German) stands for the twofold approach to the topic which has not yet really been dealt with in research on rural rebellions (2013). Firstly, it is about examining how on the one... more
The double formulation of the title of thes article (in German) stands for the twofold approach to the topic which has not yet really been dealt with in research on rural rebellions (2013). Firstly, it is about examining how on the one hand, the actors in revolts used different media and, on the other hand, how the representation of the revolts changed, especially through the spread of print media. It is also about the question of what influence these changes in the media representation of revolts might have had on the structure, course, and results of the protest movements. The article deals with the peasant wars in the German-speaking area ("German" Peasant War 1525, "Austrian" Peasant Wars 1595-97 and 1626, "Swiss" Peasant War 1653) as well as some peasant revolts in the Holy Roman Empire and in the Swiss Confederacy in the 18th century.
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(Article in German) Historical research on early modern protest experienced a boom after 1968. Many studies of the 1970s and 1980s tended to analyse revolts as precursors of the late 18th century revolutions and to conclude with the... more
(Article in German) Historical research on early modern protest experienced a boom after 1968. Many studies of the 1970s and 1980s tended to analyse revolts as precursors of the late 18th century revolutions and to conclude with the result that they have been merely “reactive” protests without any revolutionary potential (C. Tilly). This article, looking at early modern rural revolts in Switzerland, shows that this approach does not match the variety and diversity of the protests. Even if almost all conflicts reacted against changes imposed by the authorities and therefore experienced as impertinent attacks on traditional privileges, most rebellions developed participatory – proactive – programs mostly based on every-day communal practices and, in rare cases, even revolutionary potential.
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Transnational history is often considered to be an approach suitable for only the last 200 years (Saunier). This article (in German), however, applies key concepts of the transnational perspective like "connections", "circulations",... more
Transnational history is often considered to be an approach suitable for only the last 200 years (Saunier). This article (in German), however, applies key concepts of the transnational perspective like "connections", "circulations", "relations" and "formations" to the early modem history of print media: Migrant craftsmen spread the art of printing across borders from Germany to Europe. Large-distance merchants connected transnational and specialized markets across political, linguistic, and confessional boundaries. Academic authors composed and translated books and thus circulated ideas via printed items. Consumers even of low social standing purchased printed products from abroad. Production techniques, ideas and practices were transformed by circulation and translation. All these processes created new relations and formations and they show that media from the Renaissance to the Enlightenment were transcending political, linguistic, confessional, and national spheres. Media culture is therefore essentially transnational long before the 19th century and the rise of the nation-state. Transnational history – not to be mistaken for "trans-nation-state history" – was therefore indispensable for research about early modem media.
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Based on petitions and egodocuments, this article traces the experience of the Swiss population with the military occupation of the area 1798-1803 on several levels. At the national level, it is about the political transformation of the... more
Based on petitions and egodocuments, this article traces the experience of the Swiss population with the military occupation of the area 1798-1803 on several levels. At the national level, it is about the political transformation of the federalist Confederation into the centralist Helvetic sister republic. At the local level, the occupation of public (urban) space by the occupying authorities and troops is addressed. Finally, it deals with the experiences of the civilian population with the quartering of officers and soldiers in private rooms.
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Abstract: This article (in German) links profits from the rich literature in the fields of Reformation history and book-history in order to analyse the relation between printing and the Reformation in Geneva from 1478 to 1600 in a general... more
Abstract: This article (in German) links profits from the rich literature in the fields of Reformation history and book-history in order to analyse the relation between printing and the Reformation in Geneva from 1478 to 1600 in a general historian’s perspective. Although various genres of religious and literary (illustrated) books have been printed for a local market since 1478, texts with evangelical tendency have not been produced in Geneva before 1536. Therefore, the ideas of Reformation were rather introduced by evangelical preachers than by the printing press. But after that Geneva became the centre of protestant or better: Calvinist printed propaganda in French (and Latin) until the early 1560s. Because of changing political contexts – French wars of Religion and the comeback of the Duke of Savoy as a neighbour – the emerging of reformed printing in France forced Geneva to redirect their production towards more learned and non-religious books in Latin (humanism, classical authors, science). Nethertheless, the production of (Genevan) Bibles and texts of Calvin and his followers and successors did not cease.
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The article analyses the institutionalisation of the Swiss Federal Diet as a place for negotiations between the cantons of the Swiss Confederation and, above all, the Confederation with European powers, especially since the Burgundian... more
The article analyses the institutionalisation of the Swiss Federal Diet as a place for negotiations between the cantons of the Swiss Confederation and, above all, the Confederation with European powers, especially since the Burgundian Wars. With graphics and illustrations.
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This article examines how the introduction of the freedom of the press impacts the production of periodicals during the Helvetic Republic (1798-1803). The fact that also conservative newspapers profit from the the new situation leads the... more
This article examines how the introduction of the freedom of the press impacts the production of periodicals during the Helvetic Republic (1798-1803). The fact that also conservative newspapers profit from the the new situation leads the liberal elites in power to (re)introduce forms of censorship. The parlamentary debates about these controversy as well as about other political issues are commented in the newspapers.
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This article (in German) analysis the impact of the confessional war of 1712 on the political communication among the Swiss Cantons on the occasion of their periodical assemblies (federal Diet).
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This illustrated paper (in French) discusses the various functions of oath-taking during the late medieval and early modern periods. It deals with the need of any power to be legitimized by – reciprocal but vertically asymmetric – oaths... more
This illustrated paper (in French) discusses the various functions of oath-taking during the late medieval and early modern periods. It deals with the need of any power to be legitimized by – reciprocal but vertically asymmetric – oaths of obedience, the very common form to organize protest and rebellion through – horizontal and equal – oaths of conspiracy and the very inversion of the oath by the alleged witches’ devilish pact. For the Swiss case, oath-taking gets a state-founding importance, as the Confederacy is not based on a divinely legitimated monarchical dynasty, but on the mutually sworn treaties of alliance.
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This paper (in German) deals with supplications or petitions for protection addressed by subjects, groups or communities to the powerful. This asymmetric relation knows many variations in the Holy Roman Empire and the old Swiss... more
This paper (in German) deals with supplications or petitions for protection addressed by subjects, groups or communities to the powerful. This asymmetric relation knows many variations in the Holy Roman Empire and the old Swiss Confederacy studied here. The first focus lies on the strategies used by petitioners to get the addressee’s favour by appealing to his duties, virtues or feelings. The second focus lies, the other way round, on what the supplicants do offer to the powerful as services in return. These include besides material offers as obedience, labour and tax-paying, spiritual offers as well: daily prayers, mass, and intercessions with Holy Mary and the Saints. Finally, they quite often refer to God’s clemency or punishment for earthly behaviour.
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Abstract: This contribution (in French) offers an overview about the forms of political decision-making in use in the Early Modern Swiss Confederacy. It focusses on material decisions (voting) and personal decisions (elections),... more
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This contribution (in French) offers an overview about the forms of political decision-making in use in the Early Modern Swiss Confederacy. It focusses on material decisions (voting) and personal decisions (elections), especially on voting phenomena like consultation, unanimity, majority, coercion (“Vermächtigung”) and the fait accompli. Among the elections are presented the various procedures (including sortition) to choose cantonal deputies to the Swiss Diet and the (rare) elections of staff-members made by the Diet. ----
Résumé:
Cette contribution offre un survol des procédures de prise de décisions politiques en usage dans l’ancienne Confédération suisse. Elle se focalise sur le niveau confédéral et traite des décisions matérielles (votations) et des décisions personnelles (élections). Elle aborde – dans le contexte des votations – les mécanismes de consultation, d’unanimité, de majorité, de « contrainte » (« Vermächtigung ») et du fait accompli. Les formes variées (dont le tirage au sort) d’élection des députés cantonaux à la Diète et les (rares) choix personnels faits par la Diète fédérale seront plus particulièrement discutés. -----
Zusammenfassung:
Der Beitrag bietet einen Überblick über die in der alten Eidgenossenschaft praktizierten Verfahren politischer Entscheidungsfindung. Er konzentriert sich auf Sachentscheide (Abstimmungen) und Personalentscheide (Wahlen) und thematisiert im Rahmen der Abstimmungen vorab Phänomene wie die Umfrage, die Einstimmigkeit, den Mehrheitsentscheid, die „Vermächtigung“ und die „Macht des Faktischen“. Von den Wahlverfahren werden die vielfältigen (das Los einschliessenden) Varianten zur Auslese kantonaler Gesandter an die Tagsatzung und die (seltenen) Personalwahlen durch die Tagsatzung thematisiert.
This contribution (in French) offers an overview about the forms of political decision-making in use in the Early Modern Swiss Confederacy. It focusses on material decisions (voting) and personal decisions (elections), especially on voting phenomena like consultation, unanimity, majority, coercion (“Vermächtigung”) and the fait accompli. Among the elections are presented the various procedures (including sortition) to choose cantonal deputies to the Swiss Diet and the (rare) elections of staff-members made by the Diet. ----
Résumé:
Cette contribution offre un survol des procédures de prise de décisions politiques en usage dans l’ancienne Confédération suisse. Elle se focalise sur le niveau confédéral et traite des décisions matérielles (votations) et des décisions personnelles (élections). Elle aborde – dans le contexte des votations – les mécanismes de consultation, d’unanimité, de majorité, de « contrainte » (« Vermächtigung ») et du fait accompli. Les formes variées (dont le tirage au sort) d’élection des députés cantonaux à la Diète et les (rares) choix personnels faits par la Diète fédérale seront plus particulièrement discutés. -----
Zusammenfassung:
Der Beitrag bietet einen Überblick über die in der alten Eidgenossenschaft praktizierten Verfahren politischer Entscheidungsfindung. Er konzentriert sich auf Sachentscheide (Abstimmungen) und Personalentscheide (Wahlen) und thematisiert im Rahmen der Abstimmungen vorab Phänomene wie die Umfrage, die Einstimmigkeit, den Mehrheitsentscheid, die „Vermächtigung“ und die „Macht des Faktischen“. Von den Wahlverfahren werden die vielfältigen (das Los einschliessenden) Varianten zur Auslese kantonaler Gesandter an die Tagsatzung und die (seltenen) Personalwahlen durch die Tagsatzung thematisiert.
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This joint article (in German) compares the practices of petitioning of rural and urban communities in Early Modern England, Württemberg and Hessen-Kassel.
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By analysing supplications, grievances and petitions authored by rural and urban communities and Estates represented at the Diet, the article reconstructs the political influence from below on the legislation of the princely state of... more
By analysing supplications, grievances and petitions authored by rural and urban communities and Estates represented at the Diet, the article reconstructs the political influence from below on the legislation of the princely state of Hessen-Kassel (Germany) from 1650 to 1800.
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This article (in German) analyses the effects of the Burgundian Wars (1474-1477) to the Swiss Confederation. The Wars and the diplomatic activities around it promotee the emergence of more intensive forms of communication and cooperation... more
This article (in German) analyses the effects of the Burgundian Wars (1474-1477) to the Swiss Confederation. The Wars and the diplomatic activities around it promotee the emergence of more intensive forms of communication and cooperation among the Swiss Cantons at the Swiss Diet, an regular political assembly of the Confederacy's members, the cantons. The number of meetings increased dramatically since the 1470 and throughout the 15th century. So we can observe the institutionalisation of political cooperation.
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This article (in German) follows the activities of a leading politician of the Bernese Republic during the first half of the 17th century. How to combine the function of major (Schultheiss) of Bern implying daily meetings with the Small... more
This article (in German) follows the activities of a leading politician of the Bernese Republic during the first half of the 17th century. How to combine the function of major (Schultheiss) of Bern implying daily meetings with the Small Council and frequent journeys to meetings with the members of the Old Swiss Confederacy. How to keep the "work-life-balance" by spending every year months the saddle or at political assemblies and being at the same time the head of a family with around 30 children?
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The article (in German) examines the perception and representation of political and social equality/unequality in the early modern Swiss Confederacy with respect to the relations between the cantons (members of the Confederacy) and their... more
The article (in German) examines the perception and representation of political and social equality/unequality in the early modern Swiss Confederacy with respect to the relations between the cantons (members of the Confederacy) and their representatives. Topis include, amon others, majority rule, rankings, ceremonial and symbolic performance of equality/inequality.
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This article (in German) focusses on the problem of travelling to political meetings in the early modern or Old Swiss Confederacy. As meetings were frequent in this federally organised system, the politicians often had to ride and walk... more
This article (in German) focusses on the problem of travelling to political meetings in the early modern or Old Swiss Confederacy. As meetings were frequent in this federally organised system, the politicians often had to ride and walk from two to seven days, eventually even accross the Alps, to reach the meeting places. The text deals with horse riding, walking, shipping and spending the nights on the way as well as with lodging at the meeting places.
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This article (in German) deals with corporate rules and structures regulating the access to political functions in early modern Swiss towns such as Basel, Bern and Zurich.
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The human need for news and communication about news has been fulfilled in various ways in different eras and cultures by diverse technical means. Beginning with local dissemination by means of word-of-mouth information from person to... more
The human need for news and communication about news has been fulfilled in various ways in different eras and cultures by diverse technical means. Beginning with local dissemination by means of word-of-mouth information from person to person about events near and far, the news made its way via random lines of communication and sporadically organized messenger routes or permanently institutionalized postal networks. These had varying degrees of exclusiveness as well as increasingly shorter intervals and delivered the news in ever greater intermittency to reading publics of differing size. The news ranged from covert intelligence for the king to printed newspapers for the nation. The increasing regularity and frequency of news reporting, as well as its growing public nature, are especially notable features of its development.
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The article offers an overview of the role of petitioning across early modern Europe, focusing in particular on how they can reveal both the microhistories of individual lives and the broader history of the emergence of early modern... more
The article offers an overview of the role of petitioning across early modern Europe, focusing in particular on how they can reveal both the microhistories of individual lives and the broader history of the emergence of early modern states.
https://manyheadedmonster.com/2016/11/03/shaping-the-i-and-the-state-petitions-in-early-modern-europe/
https://manyheadedmonster.com/2016/11/03/shaping-the-i-and-the-state-petitions-in-early-modern-europe/
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In this article Beat Kümin and Andreas Würgler make a comparative study of how the peoples in early modern England and Hesse (Germany) used their acknowledged rights to present petitions and grievances to exercise a real influence on the... more
In this article Beat Kümin and Andreas Würgler make a comparative study of how the peoples in early modern England and Hesse (Germany) used their acknowledged rights to present petitions and grievances to exercise a real influence on the process of legislation, and even over administration in general. They could on occasion, virtually initiate legislation from below. The article illustrates the unusually wide scope and usage of the petition in England, helped by the early recognition of the subjects' right to petition both houses of Parliament as well as the monarch. It is suggested that this could result in a broad popular participation in the work of government. But even in Hesse, where the rulers asserted their sovereign rights as sole legislators and where, from the seventeenth century, they were attempting to develop an effective bureaucratic administration to sustain their aspirations, the method of petitioning the ruler, either through the Estates, Gravamina or directly, enabled ordinary people to have a part in promoting legislation and to participate in, and even effectively restrain, the princely administration.
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This article gives (in English) an overview on how social groups and individuals articulated their interests by means of petitions, supplications and grievances. It underlines the potential of these sources to track biographies of all... more
This article gives (in English) an overview on how social groups and individuals articulated their interests by means of petitions, supplications and grievances. It underlines the potential of these sources to track biographies of all sort of individuals. For everyone was able to voice or draft (with a little help from a scribe) a petition, regardless to its age, sex, class, ethnicity, social and legal status. On the other hand, collective petitions reveal much about social movements’ goals, motivations and ideology. In short, social and political communication may be analyzed through these sources and the authorities’ reactions to them.
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Practices of resistance in a wide variety of European contexts form the subject of this collective volume (with contributions in Italian (3), German (2), English (2) and French (2). Verbal and actional forms of resistance are not played... more
Practices of resistance in a wide variety of European contexts form the subject of this collective volume (with contributions in Italian (3), German (2), English (2) and French (2). Verbal and actional forms of resistance are not played off against each other, but rather considered as variants of political communication, as complementary instruments, or stages of radicalisation. The focus is on the texts used to initiate, accompany, and justify acts of resistance - from the timid delivery of submissive supplications to violent attempts at revolution.
The contributions range from the investigation of the transformation of harmless petitions into political transgressions in the Netherlands (16th and 18th centuries) to the problem of the criminalization of "lawful" resistance in 17th-century Piedmont; from the change in the handling of complaints in the Swiss Confederacy, which tended from mediation in the 15th century to repression in the 18th century, to revolutionary pamphleteering in the English Civil War. From pleas for relief from burdens in 18th century East Friesland to various verbal and brute protests against occupying armies in France and Germany in the 17th century, from the discourse of resistance in the journalism of the Paris Fronde of 1649 to the reconstruction of the local emergence of the cahiers de doléances of 1789.
The contributions range from the investigation of the transformation of harmless petitions into political transgressions in the Netherlands (16th and 18th centuries) to the problem of the criminalization of "lawful" resistance in 17th-century Piedmont; from the change in the handling of complaints in the Swiss Confederacy, which tended from mediation in the 15th century to repression in the 18th century, to revolutionary pamphleteering in the English Civil War. From pleas for relief from burdens in 18th century East Friesland to various verbal and brute protests against occupying armies in France and Germany in the 17th century, from the discourse of resistance in the journalism of the Paris Fronde of 1649 to the reconstruction of the local emergence of the cahiers de doléances of 1789.
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Contrary to the trend, the articles (written in Italien, German and 1 in English) of this anthology "Forms of Political Communication in Europe from the 15th to the 18th Century" does not focus on the (rediscovered) early modern mass... more
Contrary to the trend, the articles (written in Italien, German and 1 in English) of this anthology "Forms of Political Communication in Europe from the 15th to the 18th Century" does not focus on the (rediscovered) early modern mass media. Rather, political communication stands for how individuals, groups and estates articulated their interests to secular and ecclesiastical rulers and how they reacted to them. The forms of dialogue ranged from massive complaints from rebellious peasants to humble pleas for clemency from convicts to personal pleas in private letters, from the gracious fulfilment of extensive requests to the brutal repression of far-reaching demands. The Europe-wide spread of these forms of political communication in estates-based society, as well as the contemporary discourse on the correct way to "supplicate", points to the mode of petitioning, which is often underestimated in the age of social discipline and absolutism, of command and obedience.
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(All articles in Italian) 'Writing to the authorities', sending petitions and supplications, is a practice that is still widespread today because it responds to the need to establish an immediate and direct relationship with those in... more
(All articles in Italian) 'Writing to the authorities', sending petitions and supplications, is a practice that is still widespread today because it responds to the need to establish an immediate and direct relationship with those in authority. This form of communication, in fact, has its roots in long-standing conceptions of power, in 'political languages'. Petitioning is the instrument through which, in the centuries of the formation of the modern state, communities and social classes negotiate and defend spaces of autonomy, respect for statutes and laws, customs and local privileges against central powers and authorities. In the same way, through the 'via supplicationis', individuals and groups ask for, and often obtain, poverty subsidies, tax exemptions or deferments, extensions for the execution of laws or regulations, pardons from prison or banishment, and even the granting of pardons for capital crimes. The articles in this volume aim to investigate, starting from supplications, the differentiated forms of personal, political and institutional relations between rulers and the ruled in the field of institutions, administration and justice.
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The monograph on the Federal Diet, published by bibliotheca academica Verlag in 2013, had been out of print since 2018. Now it is available again as an e-book from Wallstein Verlag:... more
The monograph on the Federal Diet, published by bibliotheca academica Verlag in 2013, had been out of print since 2018. Now it is available again as an e-book from Wallstein Verlag: https://www.wallstein-verlag.de/9783835351141-die-tagsatzung-der-eidgenossen.html .
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Review of Marco Polli-Schönborn's case-study, written in German, about the German-speaking rural Swiss Canton’s domination over an Italian-speaking valley from the 15th to the 18th Centuries and especially the revolt of 1755.
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This review in German language sums up and comments (most of) the 22 contributions in French and German of the large volume containing the papers or two conferences (Paris and Fribourg) and an edition of the Latin and German originals of... more
This review in German language sums up and comments (most of) the 22 contributions in French and German of the large volume containing the papers or two conferences (Paris and Fribourg) and an edition of the Latin and German originals of the peace treaty from 1516 between king Francis I of France and the thirteen Cantons of the Swiss Confederacy. This peace shaped the political, economic and cultural relations between the two countries until the French Revolution.
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This review (in German) comments: Raphaël Barat, »Les élections que fait le peuple«. République de Genève, vers 1680-1707, Genève (Librairie Droz) 2018.
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Die periodische Presse in der Schweiz im medialen Kontext Europas Tagung der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für die Erforschung des 18. Jahrhunderts (SGEAJ) / La presse périodique suisse dans le contexte médiatique européen Colloque de la... more
Die periodische Presse in der Schweiz im medialen Kontext Europas
Tagung der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für die Erforschung des 18. Jahrhunderts (SGEAJ) /
La presse périodique suisse dans le contexte médiatique européen
Colloque de la Société Suisse pour l’Étude du XVIIIe siècle (SSEDS)
Tagung der Schweizerischen Gesellschaft für die Erforschung des 18. Jahrhunderts (SGEAJ) /
La presse périodique suisse dans le contexte médiatique européen
Colloque de la Société Suisse pour l’Étude du XVIIIe siècle (SSEDS)
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Occasions de consommation et de sociabilité, les banquets ont également souvent été des outils diplomatiques. Nous aborderons les pratiques et les représentations des banquets organisés en Suisses ou par des Suisses-esses à l’étranger... more
Occasions de consommation et de sociabilité, les banquets ont également souvent été des outils diplomatiques. Nous aborderons les pratiques et les représentations des banquets organisés en Suisses ou par des Suisses-esses à l’étranger entre le XVIe et XXe siècle.
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Multiple disciplines such as gender, historical, or literary studies have been using different approaches to the body as a heuristic instrument. Bringing them together, improves our skills in analyzing the influence of the body on several... more
Multiple disciplines such as gender, historical, or literary studies have been using different approaches to the body as a heuristic instrument. Bringing them together, improves our skills in analyzing the influence of the body on several levels, ranging from content and materiality to writing practices and formations of subjectivity.
This interdisciplinary symposium invites scholars to reflect upon the intersections of corporeality and narrativity. Which role did the body play when writing? How did this materialize? How did the body influence the narrative about the body and the author? Which tropes about the body were typical for the early modern period? Furthermore, in which ways did people not only write with but on their bodies? How did such signs alter the ways in which a body was read?
Then on a methodological level, we ask, how we can trace the physical in the sources. Additionally, what approaches are most apt to grasp the ways in which the author's body forms the text and its narrative and how the latter shapes the author's body and/or the image it draws thereof? In short, the symposium aims at examining the interplay between the corporeal and the textual.
This interdisciplinary symposium invites scholars to reflect upon the intersections of corporeality and narrativity. Which role did the body play when writing? How did this materialize? How did the body influence the narrative about the body and the author? Which tropes about the body were typical for the early modern period? Furthermore, in which ways did people not only write with but on their bodies? How did such signs alter the ways in which a body was read?
Then on a methodological level, we ask, how we can trace the physical in the sources. Additionally, what approaches are most apt to grasp the ways in which the author's body forms the text and its narrative and how the latter shapes the author's body and/or the image it draws thereof? In short, the symposium aims at examining the interplay between the corporeal and the textual.
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La presse périodique suisse dans le contexte médiatique européen / Die periodische Presse in der Schweiz im medialen Kontext Europas Le colloque aura lieu à l'université de Fribourg les 18-19.04.2024. Lorsque le premier journal imprimé... more
La presse périodique suisse dans le contexte médiatique européen / Die periodische Presse in der Schweiz im medialen Kontext Europas Le colloque aura lieu à l'université de Fribourg les 18-19.04.2024. Lorsque le premier journal imprimé parait à Strasbourg en 1605, il ne dispose pas d'un programme de publication nouveau. Pour l'éditeur, l'imprimeur Johann Carolus, il s'agit simplement d'économiser les frais afférents à la diffusion d'un journal manuscrit et d'optimiser sa diffusion. Pourtant, malgré ce début peu spectaculaire et un contenu fait de la compilation de nouvelles sans commentaire éditorial, la presse imprimée a un succès décisif. Désormais, une information régulière sur ce qui se passe dans le monde est disponible. Un nouveau système de communication et d'information se met en place, qui a l'ambition d'être en prise sur l'actualité. Très tôt, ces publications sont collationnées par les organes de gouvernement des princes et des villes, mais se diversifient aussi rapidement selon le lectorat visé. Des journaux savants, des revues mondaines, des périodiques spécialisés ou généralistes sont ainsi diffusés.