Thirty Years' War

Der Dreißigjährige Krieg: Zeugnisse vom Leben mit Gewalt (The Thirty Years War: Testimonies from Living with Violence). Goettingen: Wallstein, 2018.

Historical treatments of the Thirty Years War have heretofore been mainly political and military history. These grand narratives neglect people’s perceptions and experiences of violence, survival, and remembrance, as well as how the contemporary media presented events. 

Hans Medick’s documentary micro-history provides new insights into how people lived with violence in the Thirty Years War und how this violence was perceived. By choosing an episodic non-linear approach to the history of this war, and by avoiding retelling an epic narrative, he arrives at an alternative assessment of its consequences and the uncertain peace concluded in 1648. The book uses numerous firsthand accounts, many of them never published before, as well as materials from the nascent media of the time. The experience of violence is examined from the perspective of individual women and men from all levels of society, such as mercenaries and soldiers, peasants, city dwellers, and noblemen. Medick thereby brings to light astounding, even horrifying, findings that cast new light on the complex events of the war. 

Medick has not only made accessible how contemporaries perceived and coped with the everyday experiences of the war, but he has also written a new, historical-anthropological, and medial history of the Thirty Years War. 

Hans Medick has been a pioneer of micro-history and the history of everyday life. He was a tenured fellow at the Max-Planck-Institute for History in Göttingen and Professor of History at the University of Erfurt. He also taught at the University of Göttingen, the University of California - Los Angeles, Washington University in St. Louis, Johns Hopkins University, as well as the Universities of Basel and Zurich.
His other publications include his magnum opus, Weben und Überleben in Laichingen 1650-1900: Lokalgeschichte als Allgemeine Geschichte (Göttingen 1996), the collection Selbstzeugnis und Person: Transkulturelle Perspektiven, co-edited with Claudia UIbrich and Angelika Schaser (Cologne, Weimar, Vienna 2012), and the textbook Experiencing the Thirty Years War: A Brief History with Documents, with Benjamin Marschke (Boston, New York 2013). 


Deutsches Abstract:
Der Dreißigjährige Krieg »aus der Nähe«, untersucht und erzählt aus Dokumenten.

Die historischen Abhandlungen zum Dreißigjährigen Krieg bestehen bisher überwiegend aus Großerzählungen der Politik- und Militärgeschichte. Was darin jedoch entschieden zu kurz kommt, sind die konkreten Gewalterfahrungen, Lebensbewältigungen und Erinnerungen der Menschen sowie deren Darstellung in den zeitgenössischen Medien.

Das Buch von Hans Medick bringt hier neue Einsichten. In Form einer dokumentarischen Mikro-Geschichte führt es das Leben mit Gewalt im Dreißigjährigen Krieg vor Augen. Zahlreiche, zum Teil unveröfentlichte Selbstzeugnisse und die aufkommenden Massenmedien der Zeit bringen erstaunliche, ja erschreckende Befunde zu Tage. Es ist das Erleben von Gewalt aus der Perspektive einzelner Personen aller gesellschaftlichen Schichten, wie Söldner und Soldaten, Bauern, Bürger und Adelige, das neues Licht wirft auf einen komplexen kriegerischen Ereigniszusammenhang.

Damit macht Hans Medick nicht nur die Wahrnehmungen und Verarbeitungen des Kriegsalltags zugänglich, er schreibt auch eine neue, historischanthropologisch fundierte Geschichte des Dreißigjährigen Krieges.

One of the most momentous and destructive wars in European history, the Thirty Years War has long been studied for its diplomatic, political, and military consequences. Yet the actual participants in this religiously motivated, seemingly endless conflict have largely been ignored. Hans Medick and Benjamin Marschke reveal the Thirty Years War from the perspective of those who lived it. Their introduction provides important insights into the roiling religious and political landscape from which the war emerged, as well as a thoughtful examination of the war's stages and enduring significance. An unprecedented collection of personal accounts, many of them translated for the first time into English, combine with visual sources to convey directly to students the experience of early modern warfare. Incisive document headnotes, maps and illustrations, a chronology, questions to consider, and a bibliography enrich students' understanding of this fateful war.

En l’imaginari col·lectiu català hi ha alguns episodis bèl·lics
que han marcat profundament la cultura i, en conseqüència, la
literatura, per les seves pregones repercussions històriques: a
l’edat moderna les guerres dels Segadors i de Successió són
guerres de sang i de papers, en què la poesia, com altres gèneres
literaris, serveix com a vehicle per transmetre idees i explicar
fets. Amb el tricentenari, la guerra de Successió i les manifestacions
culturals i literàries que va generar s’han pogut fer
visibles per a un públic més ampli, però la literatura de la guerra
dels Segadors segueix sent, per norma general, força desconeguda
per a la majoria dels lectors, i és de justícia que no
segueixi dormint als calaixos de quatre estudiosos.

This article provides an overview of economic inequality in Germany from the fourteenth to the nineteenth century. It builds upon data produced by the German Historical School, which from the late nineteenth century pioneered inequality studies, and adds new archival information for selected areas. Inequality tended to grow during the early modern period, with an exception: the Thirty Years’ War (1618-48), together with the 1627-29 plague, seem to have caused a temporary but significant phase of inequality reduction. This is in contrast to other European areas, from Italy to the Low Countries, where during 1500-1800 inequality growth was monotonic. Some evidence of a drop in inequality is also found after the Black Death of 1348-49. Our findings contribute to deepen and nuance our knowledge of long-term inequality trends in preindustrial Europe, and offer new material to current debates on the determinants of inequality change in western societies, past and present.

A French pastor in the service of the Dutch Republic. The ministry of Samuel Des Marets in Maastricht (1632-1636).
Samuel Des Marets (1599-1673), born in France and practicing the reformed pastoral ministry in the kingdom during his early years, sees his career taking an early turn, causing him problems of confessional and political identities. It’s obvious in the controversy, but also in his use of ecclesiastical discipline. Minister and professor of theology in the independent principality of Sedan in the mid-1620s, he passes under the protection of its regent, Elizabeth of Nassau, and her son, the prince Frederic-Maurice, Duke of Bouillon, himself in the entourage of his uncle, the Stadtholder Frederick Henry. Established by the States General and on the recommendation of André Rivet in Maastricht, after the taking of the city by the Dutch Republic (1632), he exercises his ministry under conditions which are in certain aspects close to those of France at the same time (controversy, coexistence between legal confessional communities), but marked by original elements (co-sovereignty of the prince-bishop of Liège, Spanish threat, difficulties of integration of his church into the Synod). All this places him in a situation of in-between, which he skilfully knows how to play, alternately using the advantages of his status of French and those of protégé of the States General. He does so for personal reasons, but also to propose the model of a combative pastor, and to consolidate a Church he has established and which he wants to protect from Catholic attacks. Samuel Des Marets maintains both his French culture and the political service of the Dutch Republic, until he leaves Maastricht for’s-Hertogenbosch (1636). He develops an ambiguous position that reveals many aspects of the pastoral ministry in a newly established church on a confessional front during the Thirty Years’ War.

Un pasteur français au service des Provinces-Unies Le ministère de Samuel Des Marets à Maastricht (1632-1636)
Né en France et exerçant le ministère pastoral réformé dans le royaume au cours de ses jeunes années, Samuel Des Marets (1599-1673) voit sa carrière prendre un virage précoce qui lui pose des problèmes d’identités confessionnelle et politique, dans la controverse, mais aussi dans son usage de la discipline ecclésiastique. Ministre et professeur de théologie dans la principauté indépendante de Sedan au milieu des années 1620, il passe sous la protection de sa régente, Élisabeth de Nassau, et de son fils, le prince Frédéric-Maurice, duc de Bouillon, lui-même proche de son oncle, le stathouder Frédéric-Henri. Établi par les États-Généraux et sur la recommandation d’André Rivet à Maastricht après la prise de la ville par les Provinces-Unies (1632), il exerce son ministère dans des conditions par certains aspects proches de celles de la France à la même époque (controverse, coexistence entre des communautés confessionnelles légales), mais marquées par des éléments irréductibles (co-souveraineté du prince-évêque de Liège, menace espagnole, intégration heurtée de son Église au synode). Tout cela le place dans une situation d’entre-deux dont il sait habilement jouer, usant alternativement des avantages de son statut de Français et de ceux de protégé des États-Généraux. Il le fait pour des raisons personnelles, mais aussi pour proposer un modèle pastoral de combat et consolider une Église qu’il a établie et veut protéger des attaques catholiques. À la fois de culture française et au service politique des Provinces-Unies, Samuel Des Marets développe, jusqu’à son départ pour Bois-le-Duc (1636), une position ambiguë, mais qui nous révèle bien des aspects de l’exercice du ministère pastoral dans une Église fraîchement établie sur un front confessionnel durant la guerre de Trente Ans.

Therefore, the Czech Ore Mountains, represented an area where means of early modern
wartime logistics had been fully applied. The collected contributions were subject to
strict supervision and inventory on the side of the city or state officials, for which the
documentary evidence is provided by the increasing bureaucratization of the early modern
state. At that time the Ore Mountains as a link between Saxony and Bohemia were
carrying a considerable (definitely not negligeable) degree of the war load.

Julius Henry, Duke of Saxe-Lauenburg was among those who obtained a domini-on in Bohemia during the Thirty Years’ War. He and his son belong to the richest aristocrats in the land what was reflected in their representation and building activity. This paper is trying to introduce some interesting moments to motivate further research about this family which should be included in the early modern aristocracy discussion.

A closely-researched and detailed study of the operations and tactics of early modern armies, it uses the French and Savoyard invasion of Spanish Lombardy in 1636 to explore warfare through a neo-Darwinian lens. This emphasizes the universal features of human behavior and psychology as they relate to violence and war. Oxford University Press, January 2016, Paperback version 2018; Italian translation LEG 2018.

This essays looks for to trace a panorama of 17th century during the Thirty Years' War, whose stage was the Holy Roman Empire. Simultaneous to the bloody religious conflicts, the Europe knew the meaning of the economic crises that occurred in the continent at this moment of transition for the sprouting of the modern State.

This article traces the plight of the widows of Scottish soldiers who participated in the Thirty Years' War. Contrasting a number of strategies the women used in two main contrasting legal systems (Dutch & Swedish), this article offers an alternative to the usual worn narrative that women were abandoned or had no agency. Indeed from the wives of generals to the common soldiers it is clear that women could rely on a combination of kith and kin structures and state and crown intervention to recover pensions and property. Some widows made the long journey to the state they petitioned to claim their rights, others returned home from abroad.

This is a pilot project for a much larger survey on the topic and the authors welcome feedback on it.

This is an excerpt from a draft version of my book A God of Our Invention: How Religion Shaped the Western World (Apocryphile Press, 2023). I've extracted just a few sections here so as to present some of my ideas on how the idea of God has driven war, and how, even when God is supposedly not involved, other ideologies replace him. The key to reducing war, I submit, lies only partly in removing God; the true solution requires minimizing all ideologies. While I cite sources and scholarly works, the book this note is extracted from is intended for a general audience, not an academic one. Comments welcome, especially on whether I've accurately reported the historical details.

The aim of the paper is to introduce the instructions related to the build-up of redoubts, which were published in fortification manuals from the time of the Thirty Years’ War and from a few preceding and following years. The reason for writing this text is the planned recreation of a redoubt near Rakovník in the spring of 2021, shortly after the 400th anniversary of the Battle of Rakovník was commemorated. The redoubt will be built in accordance with the theoretical knowledge of that time, using the authentic methods.

This is a long-term study concerned with the 350-year history of recollecting the fending-off, in 1645, of the Swedish forces which besieged Brünn (Brno). The author demonstrates that various groupings sought to capitalize on this event, be it for engendering loyalities or for building and stabilizing cultural identities or enemy images. Wheras for a long time it was mainly the Church which sought to instil with believers eternal gratitude to the Virgin Mary, around 1800 the citizen as a new player came increasingly to the fore. Citizens used recollections of 1645 as a legitimation for their demands that they be granted political participation. Starting at the end of the 19th century, interethnic tensions resulted in the image of the historic enemy being epplied to the contemporary opponent. This nationalization of memory led to the topic being almost forgotten in the 20th century within Chech inhabitants of Brünn. Only after 1995, 350 years after the Swedes had been repelled, did ceremonies slowly restart which were devotes to the memory of the 1645 events. However, large parts of the memory of the Swedes are being overlooked in this attempt to construe and strengthen a more local outlook on history.

Mit der Landung des schwedischen Königs Gustav Adolf (1594–1632) auf der norddeutschen Insel Usedom am 6. Juli 1630 intensivierten sich die publizistischen Bemühungen des (pro)schwedischen Publikationswesens illustrierte Flugblätter herauszubringen. In diesen wurde der schwedische König unter anderem als militärisch-potenter Feldherr, als antike oder alttestamentarische Heldengestalt, als »Löwe aus Mitternacht« oder gar als Arzt inszeniert. Diese publizistischen Inszenierungen Gustav Adolfs wurden zumeist mit der Miles christianus-Thematik in Verbindung gebracht. Basierend auf einem ausgewählten Bestand zeitgenössischer illustrierter Flugblätter, die allesamt der Flugblatt-Sammlung der Königlichen Bibliothek zu Stockholm entnommen sind, soll der Wandel des publizistischen Bildes des schwedischen Königs zwischen der Landung auf Usedom am 6. Juli 1630 bis zu seinem Tod im Zuge der Schlacht bei Lützen am 16. November 1632 – und auch darüber hinaus – dargestellt werden. In der Flugblatt-Forschung herrscht darüber Konsens, dass Gustav Adolf ab 1634 – spätestens ab 1635 – nicht mehr Teil der protestantischen Publizistik war. In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird jedoch diskutiert, ob das publizistische Bild des schwedischen Königs nicht noch länger Eingang in die protestantische Publizistik fand, als bisher vermutet wurde. So ist bemerkbar, dass die schwedische Fraktion bzw. das schwedische Königreich in der (pro)schwedischen Publizistik mit dem Jahr 1633 oft in Form eines Löwen dargestellt wurde. Dies hängt sicherlich zum Teil mit der heraldischen Übereinstimmung des schwedischen Wappens zusammen, kann aber auch auf einen bewusst gewählten Rückgriff auf die Löwendarstellung des schwedischen Königs, beruhend auf der paracelsischen Prophezeiung rund um den »Löwen aus Mitternacht«, zurückgeführt werden. Auf die Analyse folgt ein Katalog, der die in dieser Arbeit analysierten Flugblätter abbildet. Hierbei werden einerseits die Scans der ausgewählten Flugblätter dargestellt, während andererseits wortgetreue Transkriptionen angeführt werden. Die Wichtigkeit der Anlegung dieses Kataloges ergibt sich auf zwei Ebenen. Zum einen wurde dieser Flugblatt-Bestand noch nie in einem eigenständigen Katalog aufgearbeitet. Zum anderen wurde mit dem Katalog auf methodischer Ebene komplettes Neuland betreten. Hierbei wäre es im Sinne der Flugblatt-Forschung wünschenswert, dass die verschiedenen Nationalbibliotheken künftig die Transkriptionen der illustrierten Flugblätter online zur Verfügung stellen, um den interessierten NutzerInnen ein detailliertes und schnelleres Quellenstudium zu ermöglichen.
https://www.buechner-verlag.de/buch/flugblatt-propaganda-zu-gustav-adolf-von-schweden/

From the moment on the Swedish king Gustavus Adolphus (1594–1632) landed with his troops on the northern German island of Usedom on July 6th 1630 the pro-Swedish and Swedish publicists and propagandists started to intensify the publication of illustrated broadsheets. The Swedish king was above all depicted as a militarily strong general, an ancient and Old Testament hero figure, as the Lion of the North and even as a physician. These graphic accounts of Gustavus Adolphus were often combined with the publicistic stylistic device of the Miles Christianus.
Based on the broadsheet-collection of the National library of Sweden (Kungliga biblioteket; literally translated as The Royal Library) the change of the publicistic image of the Swedish king, between his landing at Usedom on July 6th 1630 and his death on November 16th 1632 at the battlefield of Lützen and later, will be discussed. Many modern historians who work with illustrated broadsheets maintain that Gustavus Adolphus was only present in protestant popular press until around 1634/35. Thereafter, protestant authors and propagandists didn’t refer to him in their broadsheets. However, in this paper it is posited that the Swedish king was indeed present in protestant propaganda for a longer period than has been heretofore assumed.
In addition to an analysis of the illustrated broadsheets, an original catalogue depicting the illustrated broadsheets was created. The importance of this new kind of catalogue is twofold. Firstly, the collection of illustrated broadsheets of the National library of Sweden has not yet been analysed and published as an independent catalogue. Secondly, this catalogue contains verbatim transcriptions of the illustrated broadsheets and has thereby broken new ground. It would be worthwhile for national libraries to provide these verbatim transcriptions of their collections of illustrated broadsheets. This would facilitate future research of illustrated broadsheets and even make more detailed analysis possible.

„Forms of War 1600-1815“ is the title of the Bavarian Army Museum’s latest permanent exhibition, opened in 2019 and housed in the New  Castle of Ingolstadt. With exhibits from the museum‘s own collection and some important loans, it illustrates the forms of warlike violence in the early modern period. Focal points are the fighting in the major battles on open fields, the siege and defence of fortresses, and the so-called “small war”, which placed a heavy burden on the countryside and the population in the vicinity of the major conflicts.
The book is an introduction to the subject and also provides some information about the redesign of the museum rooms. All the exhibited items are documented in text and pictures, most of them are published here for the first time.

This thesis is an attempt to present modern earth fortifications from the area of the Polish Sudetes,
including their time of origin, history, current state of research and preservation,
as well as the presentation of author's research results - conducted by the researcher in 2014-2016,
whose aim was to inventorise remains of former redoubts and other defensive devices in the Sudetes. There are of course some minor and major mistakes and things that need to be added. Nevertheless,
in future articles by the author they have been corrected and completed.

Diese Magisterarbeit ist ein Versuch, moderne Erdbefestigungen aus dem Gebiet der polnischen Sudeten vorzustellen, einschließlich ihrer Entstehungszeit, Geschichte, des aktuellen Forschungs- und Erhaltungsstandes sowie einer Präsentation der Forschungsergebnisse des Autors, durchgeführt vom Forscher in den Jahren 2014-2016, dessen Ziel die Inventarisierung der Überreste alter Schanzen und anderer
Verteidigungsanlagen in den Sudeten war. Es gibt natürlich einige kleinere und größere Fehler und Dinge, die ergänzt werden müssen, aber in zukünftigen Artikeln des Autors wurden sie korrigiert und vervollständigt.

Niniejsza praca jest próbą przedstawienia nowożytnych fortyfikacji ziemnych z obszaru polskich Sudetów, z uwzględnieniem ich czasu powstania, historii, obecnego stanu badań i zachowania, a także prezentacją autorskich wyników badań – prowadzonych przez badacza w latach 2014-2016, których celem było zinwentaryzowanie pozostałości dawnych szańców i innych urządzeń obronnych w Sudetach. Jest oczywiście kilka mniejszych i większych błędów i rzeczy wymagających uzupełnienia, nie mniej w przyszłych artykułach autora zostały one poprawione i uzupełnione.

In recent years, the growing corpus of modern scholarship on the history of Spanish Italy has challenged and often overturned most of the profoundly biased (but highly successful) narratives established on the topic by nineteenth-century Italian historiography. Still, to this day the memory of the massive Italian military involvement in the series of conflicts that shaped the history of the Spanish Low Countries still hinges almost solely upon that of the two iconic Italian generals of the Army of Flanders: Alessandro Farnese and Ambrogio Spinola. In beginning to address this lacuna, the present article will offer an overview of the history of the Italian natione of the Army of Flanders based on the complex historical and historiographical trajectory followed by its longest-lived infantry unit—its terzo vecchio.

This essay seeks to further our understanding of the assembling of Charles I's art collections, establishing a connection to the plunder of art during the Thirty Years' War. An encounter between Archibald Rankin, a Scottish diplomat, and the news-gatherer, John Pory, confirms the early establishment of Charles I's reputation abroad as an art collector. Rankin is the first to recognise that the Swedish king, Gustav II Adolf's (Gustavus Adolphus's) military ambitions and Charles I's collecting ambitions might converge on Munich, the seat of Maximilian I of Bavaria. It is shown, however, that artworks taken from Munich eventually reached Whitehall not through Rankin's agency but through the separate efforts of two of Charles I's courtiers who witnessed the city's capture in May 1632: James, Marquess of Hamilton, and Sir Henry Vane.

The transformation of war is a major problem in the study of Early Modern military history. This history dissertation addresses the pace and nature of military transformation in a war between Sweden and Denmark in 1643-1645. The focus of this investigation is on insurgency and small war between soldiers, armed peasants, and hybrid contingents of both in Scania, Norway, Jutland, and Holstein during the final years of the Thirty Years War.

This text is a translation of the Czech paper "Polní opevnění v období třicetileté války v dobových vojenských plánech" presented on June 10, 2019 in Prachatice at the "Polní vojenská opevnění od třicetileté války" conference, organised by the Prachatice museum.
Summary: Manuscript military plans from the period of the Thirty Years' War represent a very interesting, but so far relatively little researched authentic source of information about the contemporary military. The authors of these plans were not only specialized military engineers, but in some cases also skilled army officers. The aim of this paper is to present this topic through examples depicting the most common types of field fortifications on selected contemporary military plans from the collections of Czech and European archives.

This paper gives an overview of the emergence and development of mobile light field artillery in selected European countries during the first half of the Thirty Years' War. In the final part of the paper, the importance of the collection of four field bronze cannons from the period of the Thirty Years' War at the Opočno Castle in East Bohemia is also discussed.

"So in an unexpected twist, it is now possible to confirm that many soldiers in the later Thirty Years’ War were, in fact, veterans of the English Civil War."

This article gives an overview for the arrival and motivations of soldiers from Great Britain who served in the Thirty Years' War. While highlighting the well understood service of Scots, it especially adds to our understanding of English recruits. It will surprise many that from both kingdoms, the 1640s saw large scale recruitment particularly to the Dutch and French armies.

Archäologische Untersuchungen auf dem Schlachtfeld einer der bekanntesten Schlachten des Dreißigjährigen Krieges in Norddeutschland. Der genaue Schauplatz des historischen Ereignisses wurde im Laufe der Zeit vergessen. Das laufende Projekt "Lutter" der Bezirksarchäologie Braunschweig hat zum Ziel, der schriftlichen Überlieferung archäologische Fakten an die Seite zu stellen. Seit 2011 wurden ausgedehnte Flächen mit Metallsuchgeräten auf Relikte der Kämpfe von 1626 hin untersucht. Mitglieder der IG Ostfalensucher bargen und dokumentierten bislang 561 Metallobjekte, darunter 451 Bleigeschosse für Handfeuerwaffen. Über Fundstellenkartierungen konnte die wahrscheinliche Lage des Kernschlachtfelds ebenso ermittelt werden, wie Zonen weiterer Gefechte und Rückzugsbewegungen des geschlagenen protestantischen Heeres.

Abstract One of the best known battles of the Thirty-Year War in Northern Germany took place in Lutter near Barenberge on 27th August 1626. Nevertheless, the exact location of the historical events was forgotten over the course of time. The ongoing project, "Lutter", carried out by the regional archaeological unit Braunschweig aims to provide archaological evidence to back up the written sources. Since 2011 metal detectorists have investigated extensive areas in search of artefacts relating to the fighting in 1626. Members of the IG Ostfalensucher have so far retrieved and documented 561 metal objects, including 451 lead bullets for small firearms. The likely location of the main battle area could also be shown through the mapping of finds, as could locations of further skirmishes and the defeated Protestant army's line of retreat.

Recherches archéologiques sur le champ de bataille du guerre de trente ans (1618-1648) de "Lutter am Barenberge", 1626. Les résultats fournissent de nouveaux aperçus des combats.

ÖZET Orta Avrupa'da Katolikler ve Protestanlar arasında din temelli olarak başlayıp uzun yıllar devam eden ve bu coğrafyada büyük bir yıkıma neden olan Otuz Yıl Savaşları 1648 yılında Westphalia Barışı ile sona ermiştir. Daha sonra kendisine özel bir anlam yüklenen bu barış, modern devletlerin ortaya çıkışı ve egemen devletlerin eşitliği ilkesine dayanan yeni bir uluslararası düzenin kuruluşuyla ilişkilendirilmiştir. Büyük oranda kabul gören bu yaklaşım son yıllarda "mit" olarak değerlendirilerek tartışılmaya başlanmıştır. Fransa, İsveç ve Kutsal Roma İmparatorluğu arasında yapılan bir barışa böyle bir anlamın yüklenmesinin yanıltıcı olduğu, bunun antlaşma metinleri tarafından doğrulanmadığı, tarih-sel gerçeklerle örtüşmediği ve modern devletin ortaya çıkışını bir "an"a indirgeyerek, uzun bir "sürecin" ürünü olduğu gerçeğini görmezden geldiği ileri sürülmüştür.