Marco Pacciarelli

The present work is the result of a geo-archaeological collaboration for the study and classification of beads and pendants in lithic materials from Bronze Age sites of Sicily and Aeolian Islands. An authoptic examination allowed to identify the rock types and in some cases their probable supply area. The study of stone materials is supported by a chrono-typological examination of the objects, and a graphic and photographic documentation has also been created. The comparisons research was carried out throughout the Mediterranean area and made it possible to distinguish between groups of local beads and pendants (of local production and distribution) and groups of aegean objects. This work has made possible a chronological classification of these objects, some of which arrived in Sicily through oversease trade routes. This study has allowed to solve some issues related to the Aegean imports in Italy and the socio-economic role played by ornamental in the indigenous communities of the Bronze Age.

This study presents the results of an archaeometrical investigation of Bronze Age vitreous materials from the archaeological
site of Punta di Zambrone (Calabria, southern Italy). The analyses of a set of samples (9 faience beads, 1 glassy bead) from
approximately 1200 BCE (Recent Bronze Age) were carried out with an environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM) and
LA-ICPMS (for the glassy bead) following a non-destructive protocol. Only very small chips of faience were sampled for X-ray
powder diffraction (XRPD) and preparation of thin sections for ESEM analysis.
The glassy bead is an opaque light-blue silica-soda-lime type with an uncommon chemical composition, comparable to some
coeval Italian and Mycenaean glassy faience artefacts. These are called LMLK (low magnesium low potassium) glassy faience, but
the flux used for their production has not yet been identified. The trace-element analysis allows exclusion of a Mesopotamian or
Egyptian provenance for this sample, suggesting it was produced with rather impure raw materials.
The nine faience beads have suffered from extensive weathering. The microstructural examinations carried out with the ESEM
enabled definition of three different groups: (1) light beads consisting almost entirely of quartz crystals without any original
interparticle glass, which could be due to the heavy weathering; (2) dark beads with a high content of manganese and iron oxide
and scarce presence of interparticle glass in the body, suggesting the original presence of Mn/Fe-rich interparticle glass; this presence
indicates that a glazing mixture containing alkalis and colorants was mixed with quartz, therefore the efflorescence method could
have been used for glazing, in combination with either cementation or application glazing (hybrid glazing methods); and (3) one green
sample exhibiting an heterogeneous body rich in Mg, K, Ti, and Fe but not containing Mn. The XRPD analysis of a faience bead of
group 1 confirmed the exclusive presence of quartz, whereas for group 2, an additional small peak compatible with Mn oxide
(poosibly hausmannite) was observed. Considering the colorant used for the dark beads, the Zambrone faience beads can be compared
to Mesopotamian and Minoan faience beads. They belong to a type widespread in north-central Italy between the Middle and Late
Bronze Age, and in southern Italy between the Early and Late Bronze Age. The same type of faience is found in the Aegean from the
middle of the 3rd millennium BCE to the 12th century BCE.

Questions: Pollen data for Abies alba Mill., a key European tree species, show broad occurrence in the Italian peninsula in the early to mid-Holocene diffusion (until ca. 6000 yr ago) along the Italian peninsula and a strong decline/local extinction starting ca. 5000 yr ago. This decline has been attributed to climate
change. Recently, high-resolution pollen studies,mainly in northern Italian sites claim that A. alba disappearance was mainly due to human impact. We examined the presence of A. alba in archaeological sites of southern and central Italy in order to trace the late Holocene history (last 3000 yr) of this tree and enhance understanding of its role in pre-anthropic vegetation and of human involvement in its decline.
Location: Central and southern Italy.
Methods: Anthracological analysis was conducted in six archaeological layers at the archaeological site of Trebbio-Spinellina (800–600 BC, Sansepolcro, Tuscany). A critical analysis of wood/charcoal literature relevant to Abies in central
and southern Italy was used to corroborate the results of Trebbio-Spinellina. Charcoal records fromarchaeological sites have been compared with the current distribution of A. alba.
Results: At Trebbio-Spinellina, A. alba charcoal is present in all contexts examined, together with mesophilous broad-leaf taxa (Quercus deciduous, Carpinus betulus, Ostrya carpinifolia, Corylus avellana). A low charcoal percentage of Fagus sylvatica and Taxus baccata is also found; evergreen taxa are mainly represented by Quercus ilex with occasional shrubs (i.e. Viburnum, Cistus, Erica). In the literature, we identified several peninsular and insular Italian archaeological sites showing charcoal evidence of Abies, accompanied by deciduous oaks, mainly Q. cerris, and other broad-leafmesophilous trees, dating from the Iron Age to the Middle Ages. All sites, except one, lie at less than 600 m a.s.l., and far from present- day A. alba communities.
Conclusion: Results call for a reworking of the prevailing paradigmof A. alba as a relic mountain species. Indeed, A. alba once grew at lower altitudes than currently and was associated with deciduous oaks, mainly Q. cerris, and other mesophilous broad-leaf trees. This evidence calls into question the suitability of the Potential Natural Vegetation (PNV) concept usually applied in the floristic approach. The recent population decline is attributable to human activity rather than to climate change. Finally, the persistence of A. alba until the late Holocene calls into question the assumptions that it is a relic species with no potential to expand its spatial range.