Hungarian Education Research Journal 10 (2020) 3, 263–279
DOI: 10.1556/063.2020.00024
Development of positive psychological capital
at a Roma Student College
ARANKA VARGA
p
, FANNI TRENDL and KITTI VITEZ
tja 6, H-7624,
University of Pecs, Faculty of Humanities, Institute of Education Sciences, Ifj
usag u
Pecs, Hungary
THEMATIC ARTICLE
Published online: October 30, 2020
© 2020 The Author(s)
ABSTRACT
The aim of our study is to present different kinds of obstacles that hindered the successful educational
progress of our Roma university student interviewees from disadvantaged backgrounds. The theme is
equality and equity, which is examined in the context of inclusion, empowerment, resilience and intersectionality (Varga, 2017), and to investigate their effect on positive power of performance, the positive
psychological capital. Our research sample consists of the community members of the diverse Roma
Student College of Pecs. The studied university students are considered resilient (Masten, Herbers, Cutuli,
& Lafavor, 2008), as they have overcome the hardships of their family background and learn in higher
education. Our study gives an analysis of 27 life-path interviews conducted in 2017. In these life-path
interviews, we have found the external sources of resilience: supportive families, models of friends and
siblings, and teachers’ support as well. The intrinsic changes of personality have been prominent in the
narratives, which could often balance out the negative effects with the positive psychological capital. The
“building blocks” of this capital (Luthans et al., 2007) can be detected at common points in walk of life
interviews, such as positive self-image, motivation, goal-orientation, and conscious planning. The positive
role of the Roma Student College community appeared in their narratives as a strikingly relevant factor,
from which we can assume that the shared development of different “capital types” results in investments
in the interiorization process of individual members.
KEYWORDS
Roma Student College, positive psychology, resilience, empowerment
p
Corresponding author. E-Mail: varga.aranka@pte.hu
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INTRODUCTION
The establishment of the Roma Student College Network1 was a key education policy for the
betterment and empowerment of the Hungarian Roma (Forray ed., 2015). The network of 11
student colleges – funded by either Higher Education or Church – spreads across the country,
supporting almost 300 disadvantaged, mainly Roma university students.2 It is important to
consider what difficulties these young adults have encountered during their career and how they
have overcome as the first generation from their families who entered higher education. Former
studies confirmed (Rayman & Varga, 2015) that accumulation and conversion of different
capitals (cultural, social, positive psychological) is essential for a successful academic path. In
this study we examine the accumulation of capitals by the analysis of life path interviews.
The establishment of Roma Student Colleges, their inclusion in the Higher Education Act
and their prominent support indicates that it must create conditions conducive to real equal
opportunity for students in order to compensate for injustices in society. The diverse service
system of colleges promote inclusion with the aim of ensuring that students from socially
disadvantaged backgrounds profit from the benefits offered by higher education (Trendl, 2015).
Some of the challenges of accessing benefits are easy to handle. Examples include the lack of
money, which can be compensated by a scholarship, or the difficulty with administrative
paperwork when entering higher education, which can be solved with the help of a more
experienced student partner. However, the lack of access to goods is often caused by a lack of
processes whose complexity requires a more complex and long-term offset (Forray, 2014, 2016).
There is an underdevelopment of learning and key competences among Roma Student College
ul}o, 2016), as well as the lack of cultural
students, a byproduct of public education (Jenei & Ker€
capital due to settlement or social disadvantage. It is also characteristic that both the learning
environment that is increasingly divergent from family socialization and the feeling of belonging
to a minority (stigmatized) group have a significant and often negative effect on the self-esteem
of students and these may ultimately hinder their successful progress. Student Colleges with fair
interventions strive to break down inequality and offset them (Jancsak, 2016; Varga, 2015a).
Most Roma students are in a situation that is described by the literature as a phenomenon of
os, 2013; Óhidy, 2016). The complexity created by intero & Ors
intersectionality (Cserti-Csap
sectionality is caused by a combination of two types of inequality. In a permanent situation,
there are several categories of inequality that interact with each other thus creating a new social
category, in which different causes of oppression cannot be separated (Asumah & Nagel, 2014;
Sebestyen, 2016; Óhidy, 2016). Intersectionality is the sum of the various capital gaps (financial
assets, cultural, social, and symbolic capital) and negative social perceptions (latent or
discriminatory) of each student in Roma Student Colleges, which reinforce each other.
Bourdieu (1978) drew attention to the process of creating and sustaining a lack of capitals in
the 70s. According to his Theory of Capital, the school system becomes a legitimate tool for the
reproduction of social inequality by ignoring the capital transfer processes which result from the
1
The criteria and operating principles for the establishment of Roma Student Colleges are set in Section 54 of Act XIV of
2011 on the CCIV.
2
The current state of the Roma Student College Network is presented in a thematic issue of the Journal Romology,
published in Spring, 2018. Available at: http://romologiafolyoirat.pte.hu/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/romologia_15.
pdf.
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265
social situation of the family. In addition to the lack of financial capital, the difference in the
possession of cultural and symbolic capital embedded in the family’s disposition, as well as their
ability to invest this capital in the educational progress of the child, is decisive (Bourdieu, 1978).
Coleman’s Bourdieu theory was complemented by social capital, emphasizing the importance of
capital available in social network and convertible in the school system. In the recent decades,
attention has focused on positive psychological capital and it has been proven that its strength
significantly increases individual and organizational performance (Luthans et al., 2007). One of
the building blocks, based on Bandura (1998), is called self-efficacy; when an individual can
mobilize his or her motivation, abilities, and acts to successfully complete a difficult task.
Another element is “hope” when you can set goals and achieve them by hard work, you are
capable of changing the path to success. This also requires resilience (flexibility) based on
Masten (2001) and Masten, Herbers, Cutuli, and Lafavor (2008) which means not only coping
with difficulties but also the resulting positive power. Seligman (1998) completed this notion
with the ability to remain optimistic; when an individual attributes positive event to his or her
intrinsic qualities, while negative events are explained by external and unexpected reasons and at
the same time, this person realistically knows what she or he can achieve by increasing his or her
goals, actions and effectiveness. The interaction of these four building blocks of positive psychology as an internal force contributes to overcoming difficulties and to a successful life path.
Based on Yosso’s concept, Óhidy used the notion “Roma social capital” for those students who
can be successful even in a non-supportive environment because of the community cultural
wealth (2016).
Another factor that plays a role in intersectionality is the negative perception of Roma
communities which is embedded in different social cohabitation strategies and has a
fundamental impact on the attitude and identity of a person belonging to such a minority
group (Jancsak, 2016; Varga, 2015b). It is also important to know that belonging to a stigmatized group (5 judged, stigmatized by others) affects individual self-esteem, emotional
well-being. If a given group we belong to is perceived negatively, then we start doubting
ourselves, too (low self-esteem). This creates negative emotions which permeate all aspects of
life and threaten both physical and emotional well-being (Smith, Mackie, & Claypool
Heather, 2016). In other words, stigmatization resulting from prejudices also affects elements
of personal identity (e.g., self-esteem) and not just social identity. One “symptom” of this are
the form of attitudes towards social identity, which is more of a defense mechanism (e.g.,
becoming unwilling to assimilate so as to protect its self-esteem). The importance of positive
psychological capital makes it essential to counteract negative external effects and strengthen
self-esteem.
Based on the aforementioned researches our study focuses on how Roma Student College
members accumulated different forms of capitals during their life-paths. The establishment of
Roma Student College and the identification of its target group were fundamentally influenced
by the fact that social disadvantages and belonging to a Roma community in Hungary form
often one in the same. Several researches have shown in the past decades that social disadvantages in Hungary are exacerbated by the negative social prejudice associated with the Roma
minority group (Forray & Heged€
us, 2003; Forray & Palmaine, 2010; Cserti-Csapo & Orsos,
2013). Educational focus studies have provided data that failure at school is a common
phenomenon amongst disadvantaged and Roma students, so educational issues related to
these characteristics cannot be separated (Fehervari, 2015; Hıves, 2015). When discussing the
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educational situation of the Roma, the researchers have been reporting gradual improvements,
but it was also found that the gap has not narrowed from the non-Roma population (Havas,
o, 2002; Kemeny, Janky, & Lengyel, 2004; Zolnay, 2015). This is also reinKemeny, & Lisk
forced by the fact that Roma students are more likely to be early school leavers or to choose
o, 2003; Martonfi, 2013, 2015) Today, more research has pointed
shorter education paths. (Lisk
out that the deterioration of Roma/Gypsy students’ school performance is exacerbated most by
the coexistence of poverty and ethnic segregation (Kertesi & Kezdi, 2012).
Research questions and method
All members of the Roma Student College members (32 people) were interviewed in the autumn
of 2017, and 27 interviews were used for the analysis presented in the study. The in-depth
interview includes the Roma Student College members’ life history, family and school memories,
as well as their plans. The interview questions were aimed at exploring the external and internal
effects and factors of the students’ lives that can be linked to their successful educational
progress. The interviews were processed qualitatively, with narrative content analysis – using a
pre-defined code system. We used the variable data of the interviewed students for the analysis
of the interviews: their age, place of residence, their undertaken identity, their social status, time
of their college membership, their higher education degree, and their grades, which were treated
as independent and dependent variables in the analysis.
The following questions were in focus:
1. How did Roma Student College members’ accumulation of capitals change?
2. Which capitals are essential for building and sustaining resilience – against difficulties – for
elaborating successful life-paths?
Our hypothesis is that typical life situations will be presumably found in the life-paths of the
Roma Student College members, which influenced their accumulation of capitals and resilience.
The examined group
Almost half (11 persons) of the Roma Student College students who were interviewed are
characterized by intersectionality. A further eight people identified themselves as Roma, but
there were not any documents related to the legal criteria for the disadvantaged status.
Overall, 70% of the respondents are Roma. Six College students confirmed their social
disadvantaged status but did not classify themselves as Roma. Two members of the community do not belong to any of the aforementioned categories but have joined the Student
College because of their different disadvantages (e.g., broken home) seeking a supportive
background.
The residency of the college students is also varied: six of them come from Pecs, 9 from small
towns and 11 from small settlements; this distribution also signals social disadvantages. The
examined college community is diverse in terms of their family background.
Their common feature is that, without exception, they have disadvantages which have made
their school career more difficult. Two thirds of the respondents (18 people) live in a dormitory.
Students are from five faculties of the University, doing five types of higher education (Table 1).
We hope to find forms of support which could apply to all participating students in this
seemingly diverse community on their way to a successful academic path.
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Table 1. Differences in training levels among the members of the study group (N: 27)
Faculty
Faculty
Faculty
Faculty
Faculty
Faculty
a
of
of
of
of
of
Persons
Medicine
Humanities
Information Technology
Arts
Sciences
Level
Persons
a
1
11
4
1
10
2
9
1
1
14
VET
BA /BSc
MA
Undivided Training
Teacher training
Higher Level Vocational Training – A two-year form of Higher Education.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The development of resilience and positive psychology
Interviews have been conducted previously among the students of the examined Roma Student
College and were analyzed in comparison with a control group of high social status (Rayman &
Varga, 2015). The focus of the analysis was on the difficulties that surround schooling and on
coping strategies that could address them. However, the supporting family background managed
to solve most of these difficulties. Roma students who came from disadvantaged backgrounds to
higher education highlighted significantly more difficulties in connection with their school
career. The school and external organizations primarily compensated for these difficulties.
Although there were plenty of issues on campus, supporters neutralized their impact, and were
able to outweigh the disadvantages. All this proved that in each institution and space the right
amount of inclusiveness helped the disadvantaged to become even more resilient in each
institution and space.
It is also remarkable that, in addition to financial difficulties, three quarters of students
mentioned that they have a highly motivating family background. Parents, relatives who tried to
create the conditions even if they were unable to help with studies and considered further education important. The results confirmed the importance of school collaboration with the
family, which is essential for joint efforts to motivate learning. There is an apparent pattern
amongst families of Roma Student College members – older siblings or parents – whose
following shows an extraordinary support in their narratives (Table 2).
Table 2. The details of the study group’s life paths (N: 27)
Individual
disadvantage
Family disadvantage
Family advantage
Topic
(e.g.,
dyslexia,
etc.)
Traumatizing
Event (Deviance/
Family Tragedy)
Poor, orphan,
many brothers,
uneducated/
illiterate parents,
foster children
Persons
6
12
22
Family member(s)
helping with
studying,
continuous
motivation coming
from home
Siblings as
role
models
20
9
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One of the reasons behind this is that the family pattern has enhanced their self-efficiency as
a role model; they have seen someone in a similar position to them and despite hardships
achieved success through their efforts.“I have a bigger brother who went to the University of Pecs
and has done the masters in Pest. So there is a relative tying me to the university, because I have a
brother 5 years older than me, but our parents did not go to school and I think somehow that
generation created a gap, but now we do enjoy studying” (Roma Student College member). All of
this was a motivational force, which helped to build confidence (elements of positive psychology
and self-efficiency) in their own abilities (Bandura, 2008). It is also important to see that social
comparison in the minority group works in the opposite way as comparison to a majority group.
Self-esteem of those belonging to a minority group is not reduced, but rather increases by
personal comparison to those with outstanding performances in their own group. In the case of
a minority group, the individual shares the success of another – counterbalancing the selfconfidence-reducing effect of stigmatization (Brewer & Weber, 1994).
Based on researches resilient students are often limited by their disadvantages that hinder
their success, but they still manage to be successful in their school careers. To do this, it is
essential to have protective conditions that can counterbalance risk factors in order to successfully adapt to difficult conditions develop resilience and helped to accumulate different
forms of capitals. Low socio-economic status (social disadvantage, negative social perception)
and traumatic life events are all external risk factors. The external protective conditions (family,
school, peer group) are available in the system of agencies of socialization (Homoki, 2016;
Masten et al., 2008; Cegledi, 2012).
The members of the examined group in our study can be considered resilient, as they have
successfully moved forward in public education and are currently studying in higher education.
Based on macro statistical data, disadvantaged mostly Roma students in Hungary are underrepresented in Higher Education (Arat
o & Varga, 2015). Traumatizing life events like for
instance, are dominant (12 person) in the interviews, and even if they are processed to some
extent, our students still carry them like packages.
One of the students mentioned the following:
“Then I told her that my mother was drunk, I woke up at five in the morning, so that is why I did not
do good on the test.... However, when the Professor asked for the class money, I lied because I was
like, I can save up that much money somehow, I will give you the money eventually. I did not want
to tell you why I didn’t have the money because I didn’t want to tell you what was going on at
home.” (Roma Student College member)
Their life stories also include possible coping strategies, which shows immense internal
strength, struggle, perseverance, and willingness. External supporters appeared who were able to
establish confidential relationship with these young students in almost every case examined. The
number of those who did not talk about their difficult financial circumstances – such as parents’
lack of education, unemployment or orphanage – was small (Table 2).
Based on the interviews of the Roma Student College members, this community is similar to
a family relationship or friendship and as a reference group provides obtainable patterns for
learning motivation. So being part of a community such as a Roma Student College can also
contribute to the strengthening of positive psychological capital. This supportive inner – personal and communal – force is complemented by the cultural and social capital available in the
services and network of the Student College. “You can turn to the community and their members
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with anything. And the core that has developed within the community is, I think, so precious and
that it is very, very important. And this has become a fix point in my life, at least for a while.”
(Roma Student College member).
External influences such as fellow students and teachers appeared in the 2017 narratives of
Student College member interviews (Rayman & Varga, 2015), who either hindered or strongly
supported the examined members during their years at school. Table 3 shows that students
recalled equal proportions of persons who supported them and those who hindered them at the
time that they were in elementary school.
However, during high school, the cases of persons who hindered progress were significantly
reduced while all the participants were able to recall predominantly positive experiences. There
are many explanations behind this change: the temporal distance of remembrance, age characteristics, homogeneous studying environments in primary school, etc. It is important to
emphasize that the personal level and the longer – often-permanent – effects were the decisive
ones in the supportive relationships mentioned during high school education. This statement is
of particular importance to teachers who have also become a role model for the supported
student – even in terms of career choice.
Every fifth student spoke of an exclusionary event related to poverty or being Roma during
primary school. The recalled stories left a profound negative effect on Roma Student College
members’ self-confidence and dignity (One of the turning points in elementary school was when
one of the PE teachers called me“ little black”, “We couldn’t play with toys in pre-school because
we were Gypsies”, “There teachers told me that nothing would become of me, I will become a con,
yes”). These narratives represent different ways of recalls “minimizing”, exemption, shame,
identification, anger, and the burden of proof.
Table 4 depicts the advancement in higher education, when the Student College members
mostly talked about how they made their own decisions, spite their preliminary fears. We can
see the strengths of psychological capital in this: these traits: self-efficacy (setting goals and
investing in the paths towards the goal), optimism (in spite of external difficulties, the
achievement of success – entering into higher education – is associated with one’s own personal
decisions, features and actions).
Table 3. The details of the Roma Student College members’ life paths (N: 27)
Primary school
Secondary school
Topic
Disadvantage –
Bullying teacher and/
or student
Advantage – Support
teacher and/or
student
Disadvantage –
Bullying teacher and/
or student
Advantage –
Support teacher
and/or student
Persons
15
15
2
23
Table 4. Progress in Higher Education (N: 27)
Motivation for entering Higher Education
Topic
Support from
a teacher
Parental
support
Encouragement coming
from a friend
Intrinsic
motivation
Following in a
Sibling’s Footsteps
Persons
10
12
5
18
6
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Students also expressed their prior fears about further education. This consisted primarily of
material burden, higher education being unimaginable, which was the result of the lack of
cultural and social capital in an uneducated family environment. This kind of fear did not
appear in narratives where there was a sibling role model in the family or, to a lesser extent, to
those who received strong friend or teacher support. In other words, role models that enhance
personal identity (self-efficiency) became an important supportive force (My goal is to become a
teacher because I really like to deal with kids and people. And not only to give them academic
knowledge, but I’m also thinking about kids wanting to break out and give them spiritual support.
Just like Mrs. Gabi.” (Roma Student College member). It is also important that around half of the
Roma Student College members have stressed that their family has done their best to help
further education; “I have a bigger brother who went to the University of Pecs and has done the
masters in Pest. So, there is a relative tying me to the university” (Roma Student College member).
Our study specifically focused on the internal factors that influence the life of the Roma
Student College members and the personal side of coping with difficulties. We have seen that
almost half of the students recalled traumatic events at some stage in their life, in addition to
their social disadvantage. In addition to external support, the internal factors of their resilience
are essential for successful coping with difficulties, which several narratives have exemplified.
These included conscious and long-term career planning, motivation, self-confidence and a
positive perception of the future, which all appeared in the interviews at an extremely high rate.
All the above-mentioned internal features constitute the positive psychological capital characteristic of Roma Student College members. Self-confidence, which increases self-efficiency, was
prominent in the interviews. Decisively the “hope” for changing their difficult circumstances is
the positive motivational force that we could grasped in most interviews, which motivates
college students to accomplish their goals (willpower), and which were accompanied by
achieving goals (waypower) in their narratives (Luthans, Luthans, & Luthans, 2004). It is
important to note that some of these attributes were assigned to an external support person
(parent, friend, and teacher) at an earlier stage of students’ life but most of them became
internalized by now.
“Although it would feel good to get back at them, look at me now, who became what. Because there
is a classmate from that time who is not a Gypsy, and they all had high hopes for him and now he is
in prison. And now I’ would just get back at them, who ended up in jail and who has gone how far”
(Roma Student College member). These lines can serve as an example for the standardization of
sequence of events, which appeared in many interviews. In several interviews, we could see how the
narrators had chosen various strategies against different difficulties, most of which were exclusion or
failure at school. However, the conscious will to change and the intention of proving themselves to
the social environment is a common point.
In most cases, Roma Student College members say a change, best described as an internal
impulse, happened in the beginning of their senior year, but there is always a person in school
who has provided decisive support in this process. The external person usually had some kind of
talent-development activity to reinforce their confidence (self-reinforcing mechanism) through
direct feedback of his or her personal value (talent), direct and immediate success in an environment (school) where socially disadvantaged students are usually lagging behind.
Talent management in this sense has a positive Pygmalion effect. The Pygmalion effect or
“self-fulfilling prophecy” phenomenon was first discovered in classroom relations (Rosenthal &
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271
Jacobson, 1968). Studies have shown that a teacher’s negative or positive attitude towards a
student, regardless of the student’s ability, motivation, knowledge, etc. – has a decisive impact on
student performance. Talent management – in contrast to a “catching-up" approach for
disadvantaged students – strengthened the personal elements of emotional intelligence in Student College members. Enhanced the self-consciousness (knowledge of our own internal state,
preference, resource and intuition) and the ability to self-regulate and motivation (Goleman,
2002). The personal elements of emotional intelligence can recognize the elements that are
essential for the development and maintenance of resilience and are part of the positive psychological capital. That is why it is important to build on talent development in Roma Student
Colleges (Trendl & Varga, 2018).
Interviews confirmed that an equitable environmental support with a positive pedagogical
focus had an impact on individual development. They managed to achieve long-term results if
they were able to reinforce the values inherent in the individual with external influences and
develop the ability to shape their own fate. One of the important characteristics of resilient
students is that they have played an active role in the development of their own lives.
Possibilities of developing empowerment
The interrelations of resilience and positive psychology capital multiplies the strengthening effect of
the two processes when the individuals become more and more active and in addition to his/her
own interest, he or she also considers the interests of the community. Empowerment, identified in
the field of social policy and social psychology, is the process of gaining power, during which the
individual and later the community becomes capable of self-determination and formulation of their
common objectives. The individuals recognize their position of power and have the courage to use
this power for the sake of the community. They also have the power to change their own and their
community’s social inequality situation and turn their life around for the better (Adams, 2003;
Lakatos, 2010). During the development of empowerment, the individuals gradually recognize how
power structures affect their circumstances in a negative way and how they can use support tools to
bring about change, acquire elements of competence and organize community activities.
The phenomenon of empowerment in educational context, linked to the concept of inclusivity and resilience, creates a new perspective. This more complex approach highlights the
necessity of the conscious development of individual empowerment. With the aim of developing
empowerment, the inclusive environment becomes more interactive, thus providing supportive
conditions for the individual. The inclusive environment that builds upon self-creation and
cooperation, presupposes the goal of achieving the resilience of people within it. The positive
experiences of cooperation (gaining motivation and competence), contribute to the inner
integration and maintenance of empowerment on a personal level (Varga, 2017).
Consequently, empowerment is a process (Fig. 1), the first stage of which takes place on the
individual level and extends from self-respect to the formation and maintenance of resilience.
This leads to the evolvement of a sense of responsibility for the community, actual action and
resulting changes (Travis & Bowman, 2015). Community empowerment also has an impact on
resilience, as bearing responsibility for others encourages self-help mechanisms (Varga, 2015a).
In case of the observed Student College, the commitment of the Roma community and the
related social responsibility as the main element is the highest degree of empowerment. The
starting point is a positive attitude towards one’s own identity and the establishment of self-
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Fig. 1. The framework of personal and community empowerment (Travis & Bowman, 2015)
esteem. The diversity of minority attitude appears in different ways among the members of the
Student College (19 people), belonging to the Roma community (Table 5). Barely half of the
students experience a strong sense of identity in their family (e.g., parents). Also, they rarely
mentioned preserving traditional Roma habits or using Roma language at home. In most cases,
the question of identity has not yet become relevant for children who attend elementary school.
They considered public education neutral in relation to their identity. The individuals do not feel
discriminated based on their identity, since the hegemony of the majority culture is considered
natural by them, for example in educational contexts. As a consequence of implicit impacts on
the individuals, such as colorblindness, the sense of assimilation grows stronger in them. Later
this sense gets broken down every time the individuals are discriminated against because of their
physical racial features (“So I had friends, but they made fun of me anyway. Because of my skin,
because I’m a Gypsy” – Roma Student College member). Since they have formed an ethnocentric
identity in the school system, they typically do not have the means to respond constructively,
either based on positive identity or self-defense mechanism (Arato, 2012).
This mechanism is supported by the life path interviews, as we encountered one or two
similar examples to the ones mentioned above. However, in the narratives, the Roma Student
College members say the issue of identity mainly appears during high school and it is associated
with implicit or explicit racist attitudes. Also, nearly all of them could list examples of
discrimination based on their race but some of these stories were affecting their environment
rather than them. This mechanism typically appears in researches dealing with the strategies of a
minority shifting towards assimilation, which ultimately contribute to the maintenance of
o, 2012).
racism (Arat
It is also worth mentioning that two-third of the respondents emphasized the opportunity to
embrace their Roma identity as the following example shows; “Now, it feels so much better to do
so in the special College because it is ordinary and accepted here” – Roma Student College member
as one of the greatest virtues of the Roma Student College. Social psychological studies of
empowerment have demonstrated that the positive experience of group identity reinforces the
sense of belonging to a group, which is the first level in the development of empowerment
(Travis & Deepak, 2011).
Considering the duration of the membership, it is apparent that the newer members are
more "identity-neutral", who do not neglect their minority identity but consider it a barely an
indeterminant factor. In their case, it is more noticeable that they are performing exceptionally
in other areas (e.g., learning) as a form of compensation. The “avoidant" attitude can also be
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Relation to Roma identity
Family
Public education
Discrimination of
Roma group
Individual
Mentioned topics
Strong
Weak
Positive
Neutral
Negative
Positive
Neutral
School
Labor market
The positive identity
forming role of WHSZ
Number of people
8
8
2
13
1
14
5
10
2
13
273
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Hungarian Education Research Journal 10 (2020) 3, 263–279
Table 5. The life path details of the studied group – identity (N: 19)
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observed, which is more negative than identity-neutrality and often appears in the form of
denial. In this case, the compensation mechanism is prominent as well, as one of them
emphasized; “It has always been emphasized I should be aware of the fact that compared to others
I always have to go the extra mile for the exact same thing. I’ve always been a little angry about
this. I think it is unfair that because I’m a Gypsy, or perhaps someone else, I have to do more to
prove myself.” (Roma Student College member).
However, the importance of belonging to the community of young people of similar
background is expressed by almost everyone, which is the sign of the strength of their social
identity. Some members, who have been at the Student College for two years or longer, are
somewhat more conscious of their Roma identity, and they are also involved in shaping the
future values of the Student College community.
One of the ways to inspire empowerment in the Roma Student College is to support children
by doing volunteer work in Roma communities, institutions, elementary, and high schools. It
turned out that most of the Student College members from the interviews were first involved in
voluntary work through the Roma Student College. One of them emphasized the importance of
voluntary work as a necessary thing to do as a Roma student;” I think I want do voluntary work
in places where my presence is needed the most. To show the majority of Gypsy children that they
can do it. . . Because I could do it.” (Roma Student College member)
Three-fourth of them would like to do voluntary work in some form even after graduation.
The answers reflect that they are committed to volunteering in Roma communities and most of
them explicitly formulate their own role for others to follow. This shows that, despite the
assimilative resilience of the community, as a positive effect of the Roma Student College, the
undertaking, preparation, and imprinting of the role of the translator (model) takes place. This
process affects the individual’s self-efficacy along the self-help mechanism.
Most of the members of the Roma Student College emphasized that the voluntary work
further expands their social network, provides opportunities to develop competences preparing
them for the labor market, where they can use the acquired skills.
A consciously pursued vision of future as a component of positive psychology capital
At the end of the life path interviews, the answers to the question “Where will you be in ten years
from now?” are much more specific regarding the professional plans than the personal (residence, family) ideas (Table 6).
This kind of focus is characteristic of students in Higher Education. Relatives of the Student
College students who are in in their twenties are typically beginning their careers and families
currently. It is therefore especially important to have a supportive community where the Roma
Student College members can remind one another of the prioritization needed in long-term education and in the construction of professional careers. This is fundamentally different from the
Table 6. Future plans (N: 27)
Mentioned
topics
Number of
people
Work
(specific)
Work
(general)
Family/
children
Home,
finances
View of the
world
Relation to the
Roma community
25
2
12
11
9
13
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Hungarian Education Research Journal 10 (2020) 3, 263–279
social disadvantaged whose survival strategies and internalized feeling of helplessness lead to limited
horizons and a culture of “living in the moment”. In contrast, the Roma Student College members
practice strategies which will lead to broader and more stable development in their future.
Half of the Roma Student College members included activities in or for Roma communities
as part of their professional plans, which represents high level of empowerment – and assumes
the sustainability of resilience. One-third of the respondents mentioned traveling, seeing the
world among their desires (“I would love to. . .I don’t know. . .travel by plane for example”, “So I
want to quit my life as it is right now and travel the world instead, visit a bunch of places, see how
things work there”). This shows that higher education provides a window into the world, but
many Roma Student College members have not had the opportunity to cross the border. An
important point in most professional plans is the expectation of a secure living, which is
included in almost all of the answers. Financial appreciation (“Maybe I will invite you all for
something, I don’t yet know for what. You all finish much later and I will be working by then, so I
can afford these things” – Roma Student College member.) is in most cases closely connected to
professional excellence and the desire for appreciation is also a characteristic expression. Supporters who are involved in the course of life, including dedicated teachers, appear in the plans
as good examples to follow (“So I imagine myself as a teacher who has a room where we handle
business of our own with the students, just like our class teachers, physics and math teachers, used
to do” – Roma Student College member). Most of them mentioned that they would stay in touch
with other members of the Roma Student College even 10 years from now, because this community has played a significant role in their lives and will continue to for a long time. One of the
students said the following; “We will meet occasionally and have, let’s say, a seafood pizza or
something. . . There are plans. Even if we drift apart and move to different places in the country,
we have plans. Plans together.” (Roma Student College member).
The self-consciousness of the Roma Student College members and their profound vision of
their future is outstanding. The stories also include the "internal force", which is the "engine" of
conscious actions to overcome the difficulties that the assistance of external supporters has also
contributed to.
Typically, the longer they have been members of the Roma Student College community, the
greater the number of the Roma Student College members turning towards the community (“At
the same time I started to become more active, now that I felt they needed me, I wanted to do
things.” – Roma Student College member). Their narratives reflect the duality of the community’s
strength and how they can contribute to the progress of others. Table 7 depicts that the community itself was mentioned 21 times, which is significantly higher than the other elements from
the diverse support system of the Roma Student College. The fellow community of the Roma
Student College, the self-help mechanism of the members, and the role of the translator, as
examples were mentioned in the narratives. Together these create the effective tools for
Table 7. Contribution of the Roma Student College to the implementation of plans (N: 27)
Topics mentioned
during the interviews
Number of people
Foreign
language
learning
Motivation
for learning
Intercultural
competence
Financial
support
Community
support
3
15
7
4
21
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Hungarian Education Research Journal 10 (2020) 3, 263–279
developing positive psychology capital. One student summarized these ideas with these lines;
“But 10 years from now I think I will only talk about the community. . .many of us have the same
interest and there is so much to learn from each other.” (Roma Student College member).
CONCLUSION
We have seen that the members of the Roma Student College, characterized by diversity, are
resilient: they are achieving Higher Education, breaking through the difficulties of their family
background and the effect of exclusive environments. In their walk of life interviews one can
discover the external factors that aimed at the formation of resilience. Most of them reported having
supportive families (parents, relatives) and some of them mentioned having role models to follow in
their immediate vicinity (siblings, close friends). Many referred to adults (mainly teachers) from
their environment (school or organizational), who provided support for progress far beyond the
expectations of the school. The strengthened internal characteristics and positive psychological
capital help to form a conscious, positive and stable self-image as a counterbalance to the negative
effects, could also be observed in the narratives of the Roma Student College members. These
positive features were recalled by the narrators through concrete life events and people, often linked
to their own, life-changing decisions. In addition, the importance of empowerment for their social
integration into the community is clearly acknowledged, which is also reflected in their everyday and
future plans, even if in different ways. Reflecting on the Roma Student College, the members
emphasized that the college plays a decisive role in their present life. The community power, in
which the activities of college students were embedded, was highlighted in the narratives. The
creation of community capital has led to the integration of Roma Student College grants as investments in each member and remain so in the forms of personal success (resilience) and social
responsibility after completing their higher education. This enables them to become a useful
member of society for themselves and their community based on their positive psychological capital.
Ethics: The study procedures were carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki.
The Institutional Review Board of the Institute of Educational Sciences (University of Pecs)
approved the study.
Funding sources: No financial support was received for this study.
Authors’ contribution: All authors had full access to all data in the study and take responsibility
for the integrity of the data and the accuracy of the data analysis. V.A.: study concept and design,
data analysis, study supervision. T.F.: data analysis, interpretation of data. V.K: analysis and
interpretation of data.
Conflict of interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Thank you for the detailed interviews for the members of the Roma Student College.
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277
ABOUT THE AUTHORS
Aranka Varga is an assistant Professor at the University of Pecs, Chair of Institute of Education
Sciences. Her research interests are theory and practice of inclusion and education of disadvantaged and Roma students. She is a founder and a Leader of an Organization (Student
College) which promotes success of Roma students at the University. Nowadays her research
focuses on resilience, inclusive excellence and positive psychology.
Fanni Trendl is an assistant Lecturer at the University of Pecs. Her research interests are the
practice of inclusion at the higher education and the participation at education of the Roma/
Gypsy students. She is part of a Student College which support Roma/Gypsy students at the
University of Pecs.
Kitti Vitez is an assistant Lecturer at the University of Pecs and a PhD student at the „Education
and Society” Doctoral School of Education Programme. Her research field is related to inclusion
in higher education, mainly foreign students. She is a Member of the “Inclusive University”
project at the University of Pecs and she is a helper of two Student Colleges, which focus
especially on Roma and disadvantaged students.
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