ALLS, Vol 6, No 4 (2015)

Advances in Language and Literary Studies Online ISSN: 2203-4714 Advances in Language and Literary Studies [ALLS] All papers on which this is printed in this book meet the minimum requirements of "Australian International Academic Centre PTY. LTD". All papers published in this book are accessible online. Editors-in-Chief Amelia Ying Qin, PhD. University of Houston, United States Vahid Nimehchisalem, PhD. University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Editorial Assistants Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi, PhD Ruzbeh Babaee, PhD Journal Information ISSN: 2203-4714 ISBN: 978-1-291-71811-9 Website: www.alls.aiac.org.au & http://www.journals.aiac.org.au/index.php/alls/index E-mail: editor.alls@aiac.org.au Publisher Australian International Academic Centre PTY. LTD. 11 Souter Crescent, Footscray VIC 3011 Australia Phone: +61 3 9028 6880 Website: http://www.aiac.org.au Hardcopy Provider Lulu Press Inc. 3101 Hillsborough Street Raleigh, NC 27607 USA Web: http://www.lulu.com/spotlight/AIAC 2010 – 2015 © ALLS No part of this book may be reproduced in any form, by print, photo print, microfilm, or any other means, without written permission from the publisher. ii ALLS Editorial Team Editors-in-Chief Amelia Ying Qin, University of Houston, United States Vahid Nimehchisalem, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Editorial Assistants Seyed Ali Rezvani Kalajahi Ruzbeh Babaee Advisory Board Andrew Weiler, Holmesglen Institute, Australia Brian Tomlinson, Leeds Metropolitan University, United Kingdom John I. Liontas, University of South Florida, United States Mark Pegrum, The University of Western Australia, Australia NS Prabhu, National University of Singapore, Singapore Editorial Board Alex Ho-Cheong Leung, Northumbria University, Newcastle, United Kingdom Ali Miremadi, California State University, United States Andrés Canga Alonso, Universidad de La Rioja, Spain Anthony J. Liddicoat, University of South Australia, Australia Bakhtiar Naghdipour, Girne American University, Cyprus Canzhong Wu, Macquarie University, Australia Chan Swee Heng, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Chamkaur Singh Gill, Bond University, Australia iii Darryl Jones, Trinity College, Ireland Dat Bao, Monash University, Australia Fadil S Elmenfi, Omar Al-Mukhtar University/Derna, Libya Holi Ibrahim Holi, Rusaq College of Applied Sciences, Oman I Wayan Arka, Australian National University, Australia Jason Brown, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Jayakaran Mukundan, University Putra Malaysia, Malaysia Karim Hajhashemi, James Cook University, Australia Leila Lomashvili, Shawnee State University, United States Kylie Cardell, Flinders University, Adelaide, Australia Mahmoud M Gewaily, Minia University, Egypt Mohammad Hossein Keshavarz, Near East University, Cyprus Mohammad Reza Shams, University of Kashan, Iran, Islamic Republic of Mounir Jilani Ben Zid, Sultan Qaboos University, Oman Natasha Pourdana, Gyeongju University, Korea, Republic of Neil Anderson, James Cook University, Australia Shaofeng Li, The University of Auckland, New Zealand Siamak Babaee, University of Kashan, Iran, Islamic Republic of Vahed Zarifi, Iran, Islamic Republic of Wayne DeFehr, University of Alberta, Canada Wisdom Agorde, University of Alberta, Canada iv Vol 6, No 4 (2015) Table of Contents Articles Overt and Null Subject Pronouns in Jordanian Arabic Islam M. Al-Momani 1-10 Stylistic Analysis of Robert Browning’s Poem “Patriot into Traitor” Mumtaz Ahmed, Ayesha Irshad 11-19 “Fugitive Without Knowing it”: Language, Displacement and Identity in Assia Djebar’s Autobiographic Narratives Lobna Ben Salem 20-27 Critical Reflection of an Iranian EFL Classroom: Effective Ploys in Narrative Paragraph Writing Development Fatemeh Mohammad Jafari, Alireza Ameri 28-35 Distorted Dialogue in Richard Matheson’s I Am Legend: A Bakhtinian Perspective Hamed Faizi, Ali Taghizadeh 36-40 Blended Learning via Mobile Social Media & Implementation of “EDMODO” in Reading Classes Tahsin Yagci 41-47 On the Effects of L2 on Iranian Bilinguals’ L1 Writing Ability Hessam Agheshteh 48-52 Investigating the of Explicit Instruction of Apology Speech Act on Pragmatic Development of Iranian EFL Learners Shima Rajabi, Akbar Azizifar, Habib Gowhary 53-61 Comparing the Effects of Two Facets of Multiple Intelligences Theory on Developing EFL Learners’ Listening Ma’ssoumeh Bemani Naeini 62-71 A Postcolonial Survey of “A House for Mr. Biswas” by V. S. Naipaul Bahareh Shojaan 72-79 Iranian EFL Teachers’ Attitudes towards Lesson Planning based on their Gender Mina Heidari, Akbar Azizifar, Habib Gowhary, Zahra Abbasi 80-83 Dialect and Cultural Contact, Shift and Maintenance among the Jordanians Living in Irbid City: A Sociolinguistic Study Ibrahim Abushihab 84-91 Writing Deficiency among EFL University Students: Causes and Solutions The Case of English LMD Students at Djilali Liabes University Miloud Bouchefra 92-102 The Comparative Effects of Comprehensible Input, Output and Corrective Feedback on the Receptive Acquisition of L2 Vocabulary Items Mohammad Nowbakht, Mohammadtaghi Shahnazari 103-114 v The Effect of Different Modes of English Captioning on EFL learners’ General Listening Comprehension: Full text Vs. Keyword Captions Sorayya Behroozizad, Sudabeh Majidi 115-121 Nordic Winter and Cold: Their Correspondence with Tomas Tranströmer’s Poetry Mohammad Akbar Hosain 122-127 Teachers’ Evaluation of KBSM Form 4, 5 English Textbooks Used in the Secondary Schools in Penang, Malaysia Hooi Shyan Khoo, Paul Knight 128-150 Overcoming Learning Time And Space Constraints Through Technological Tool Nafiseh Zarei, Supyan Hussin, Taufik Rashid 151-157 Better Education at Ishik University Preparatory School with Extracurricular Activities Yunus Yildiz 158-161 Syllabus Design and Needs Analysis of Students in Educational System Zahra Bazyar, Mehdi Dastpak, Ali Taghinezhad 162-165 Mutinous Colonialism: Navigating Self-Other Dichotomy in Octavia Butler’s Survivor Thamer Amer JubouriAl_Ogaili, Ruzbeh Babaee 166-170 Language and Interactional Discourse: Deconstrusting the Talk- Generating Machinery in Natural Convresation Amaechi Uneke Enyi 171-178 The Effect of Supplementary Materials on Reading Comprehension Improvement of Iranian Female High School EFL Learners Based on Gaj and Khate Sefid Text books Zahra Abbasi, Akbar Azizifar, Habib Gowhary, Mina Heidari 179-184 Syllable Structure in Rumthawi Arabic Naser N. AlBzour 185-194 An Analysis of the Language of Humour in Chinua Achebe’s A Man of the People Daniel Oppong Adjei 195-202 Parents’ Positive Role in Students’ Learning Process at Ishik University Preparatory School Mustafa Tosun 203-207 Oroonoko: A “Royal Slave” and/or a Master of Dignity Banani Biswas 208-215 Patriarchal Hierarchies of Power and the Subordination of Women: Real Doll as a Replacement of Woman Figure Natasha Shokri, Moussa Pourya Asl 216-220 A Comparative Study of the Use of Persian vs. English in Teaching English Grammar to Iranian Students in Junior High School Kowsar Mehrseresht, Habib Gowhary, Akbar Azizifar 221-225 An Evaluation of Output Quality of Machine Translation (Padideh Software vs. Google Translate) Haniyeh Sadeghi Azer, Mohammad Bagher Aghayi 226-237 vi Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Overt and Null Subject Pronouns in Jordanian Arabic Islam M. Al-Momani Department of English Language and Literature, Princess Alia University College, Al-Balqa’ Applied University, Jordan E-mail: almomani_islam@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.1 Received: 25/02/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.1 Accepted: 02/05/2015 Abstract The paper aims at examining the role that morphology plays in allowing and/or motivating sentences in Jordanian Arabic (hereafter JA) to be formed with or without subject pronouns. It also aims at giving a comprehensive and descriptive presentation of the distribution of overt and null subject pronouns in JA, and tries to determine to what extent there is optionality in its system. Keywords: null subject pronouns, overt subjects, pro-drop languages, verbal inflectional morphology 1. Introduction The idea that some languages allows verbal arguments to remain unexpressed has gained a great deal of attention in recent years from linguists working within generative grammar. The possibility of not overtly expressing a verbal argument is connected some way to inflectional morphology of the language, i.e., the inflectional markers attached to the verb determines the person number and gender features of the intended subject, and hence, an overt subject is referentially redundant and therefore, can be omitted. By assumption, all languages generate a subject position in the syntactic representation of sentences, the [SPEC, IP] position. But why languages like English for instance always have an overt lexical item in this position while other languages like Arabic and Italian may have an empty category in that syntactic position? This difference could be justified according to the different setting of parameters of Universal Grammar (UG). Languages that allow unexpressed subjects are referred to as pro-drop languages, and have positive setting, while languages that require the subject to be always expressed and the position to be filled with a lexical material are referred to as non-pro-drop languages , and have negative setting. The option to choose between the use or the non-use of an overt subject NP is considered as a kind of synchronic variation which gives the speaker alternative ways to express the same meaning and thus, speakers choose options available to them as far as the informational content, the meaning is preserved. Labov (1994:568), while reviewing a number of studies related to the speakers’ choice of the two forms, has stated that “…… in the stream of speech, one variant or the other is chosen without regard to the maximization of information. On the contrary, the major effects that determine such choices are mechanical: phonetic conditioning and simple repetition of preceding structure”. He has also stated, while reviewing a research done by Cameroon (1992) on the relationship between the loss of particular morphological distinctions in Spanish verbal paradigms and the frequency of overt pronoun use, that “….. whatever processes are operating to increase the pronoun use in Latin American dialects, they cannot represent a response to speakers’ perceived need to convey information, by providing pronouns in the particular utterances where verbal inflections are missing” (576). In languages that have rich inflectional morphology, it is that morphology which identifies the null subject in the event that is licensed and thus makes it possible to have such null subjects. Proposals and researches for the formal representation of overt and null subject pronouns were done under the Principles and Parameters theoretical syntax framework. Following the schema set out in the “X-Bar theory”, it has been argued in the Phrase Structure, the Government and Binding, and the Minimalist Program within the Principles and Parameters model that all natural languages are binary branching. The structure of sentences and phrases, accordingly, may be represented as in the tree diagram shown below: XP 1. Spec. X’ X YP ALLS 6(4):1-10, 2015 2 Here, (X) is the head of the phrase which could be either a lexical head or functional head combines with YP, (its complement) to form an intermediate level of structure referred to as X-bar, (X’). The X’ in turns combines with its Spec. (Specifier) to form the maximal projection of the head X, notated as XP. The GB model adopted the schema shown above and accordingly the structural representation is represented as shown below: CP 2. Spec. C’ C IP SPEC. I’ I(NFL) VP The I(NFL) node of (I’) which contains both tense and agreement features is the head of the inflectional phrase represented as IP. The subject of the sentence served as the Specifier of the IP. The Complementizer represented as (C), the head of the higher structure (CP), combines with the IP to form an intermediate level of structure referred to as C’. This structure in turns combines with its Spec to form that maximal projection. To this higher layer of structure, the Wh-phrases of interrogatives move in languages. Pollock (1989) has introduced a further refinement of the functional head projection known as the “Split INFL hypothesis”. The proposal disintegrated the IP into TP (Tense Phrase) and AGRP (Agreement Phrase) as in the following: ALLS 6(4):1-10, 2015 3 Within the (GB) version of the Principles and Parameters framework in the 80s, for Empty Categories, (ECs) to be licit have to be “properly governed”. According to Rizzi (1982), empty categories in Italian language are licit because they are properly governed by virtue of rich verbal inflections. Other analyses of null subjects were proposed by Chomsky (1982), and Hyams (1986, 1989). They have asserted a connection between rich verbal inflections and the possibility of null subjects. Borer (1986, 1989), while discussing Hebrew, has presented data to demonstrate that the possibility of null subjects is linked to the richness of agreement features of the predicate. Jordanian Arabic, like other dialects of Arabic, has fairly rich verbal inflectional morphology that specifies the nominal features of person, number and gender of the null subject as unambiguously as an overt subject would. As assumed correctly by Benmamoun (1994), Eid (1993), Mohammad (1988), Farghaly (1982), and Jelinek (1983, and 2002), while discussing various dialects of Arabic, that null subjects are possible only when the predicate has person subject marking which is argued to be necessary to recover the absence of the subject from the sentence. Kenstowicz (1989) has studied the null subject in a Levantine dialect and the Bani-Hassan dialect (two dialects of Arabic) within the GB framework. The study has primarily focused on the relation between postverbal subjects and the lack of that-trace effects. He has suggested that the null subject parameter should be set independently for different clause types in the two dialects. As the Levantine dialect, shows a positive setting for the null subject parameter only in matrix clauses, the Bani-Hassan dialect shows a positive setting for the parameter in both matrix clauses and embedded complement clauses. In the Minimalist Program which is a more recent proposal within the Principles and Parameters framework, Chomsky (1993, 1995) has assumed that there is no more requirements for all the sentences to generate the syntactic position of the sentence subject, [Spec, IP]. Therefore, there is no longer any need to hypothesize the empty category, ‘pro’ to fill the position of the subject. The verb could occur in initial position and satisfy the EPP (Extended Projection Principle) of Chomsky (1982), in which he has assumed that every sentence must have a subject, by checking the D features of the EPP by virtue of the fact that inflections on the verb are lexical and have separate entities in the lexicon. Thus, this proposal continues to assume the possibility of having a connection between null subjects and rich inflectional morphology, i.e., the morphological recovery at the sentence level plays a crucial role in making null subjects licit. 2. Objectives and Methodology In this paper, the researcher is concerned with the analysis of null subject pronouns in JA, and thus follows the descriptive-analytical approach. The data used here is an amalgamation of genuine sentences uttered by native speakers of JA. Casual speech is tape-recorded for the subjects talking freely about different topics of their choices for different periods of time. The study aims at answering the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Are overt subject pronouns in JA optional or obligatory? When and why could overt subject pronouns be omitted? How could omitted subject pronouns be interpreted? What governs the omission of subject pronouns? When are overt subject pronouns obligatory? The following symbols are used to represent certain Arabic sounds that don’t match IPA symbols. /ṣ/ voiceless alveolar emphatic fricative /ћ/ voiceless pharyngeal fricative /c/ voiced pharyngeal fricative /q/ voiceless uvular stop /ġ/ voiced velar fricative 3. Discussion 3.1 Null Subjects Pronouns in JA In order to prove that the role of morphology in JA is very crucial in allowing sentences to be formed with or without an overt subject, consider the JA sentences and their English counterparts in (4). 3. JA a. ?ana/Ø balcab korah kul-yom I-1S/Ø play-1S football every day I play football every day. English I play football every day. b. ?inta/ Ø ?ibtilcab korah kul-yom you-2MS/Ø play-2MS football every day You play football every day. You play football every day. ALLS 6(4):1-10, 2015 4 c. ?inti/ Ø ?ibtilcab-i korah kul-yom you-2FS / Ø play-2FS football everyday You play football every day. korah kul-yom d. ?intu/ Ø ?ibtilcabu you-2MP / Ø play-2MP football every day You play football every day. korah kul-yom e. ?intin/ Ø ?ibtilcab-in you-2FP / Ø play-2FP football every day You play football every day. f. huh/Ø bilcab korah kul-yom he/Ø play-3MS football every day He plays football every day. He/She/It plays football every day. korah kul-yom g. hiih/Ø btlcab she/Ø play-3FS football every day She plays football every day. h. humma/ Ø bilcab-u korah kul-yom they-3MP/Øplay-3MP football every day They play football every day. They play football every day. i. hinneh/ Ø blcab-in korah kul-yom they-3FP/Ø play-3FP football every day They (girls) play football every day. In JA, the subject of a finite clause can be dropped, whereas in languages like English the subject cannot be dropped. In generative grammar, the empty category in pro drop languages which is taken to be “pro” corresponds to an overt pronoun in non-pro drop languages. Sentences in (4) show that JA has fairly rich verbal inflectional morphology that recovers the absence of the verbal argument and specifies the nominal features of person, number and gender of that subject as clearly as an overt subject pronoun would. In sentence (4a), for instance, the morphological inflectional marker ‘ba’ attached as a prefix to the verb ‘l c ab’ is a first person singular marker that allows the subject pronoun ‘?ana’, (I) to be omitted. In (4g), the inflectional marker ‘bt’ is third person singular feminine that makes the presence of the subject pronoun ‘hiih’, (she) optional. In (4h), two inflectional markers are attached to the verb ‘l c ab’, one is the prefix ‘bi’ indicating the person and gender; whereas, the inflectional suffix ‘u’ indicates the number. It is clear that the JA verbal inflectional paradigm is richer than the verbal inflectional paradigm in English. In JA, there are nine verb forms corresponding to the nine independent pronouns, and therefore, the verbal morphology is as unambiguous as the independent pronouns in terms of identifying the nominal features of person, number, and gender (the phi-features) of a referent. The morphological realization of agreement in the English paradigm is less rich because it has only two forms, one serving the third person singular, and the other for all other phi-feature combinations. English, accordingly, exhibits only two forms in the verbal paradigm corresponding to nine independent nominative pronouns in JA. Based on the aforementioned examples, the recovery of unexpressed subject pronouns in JA is possible only when the predicate has person subject marking. It is considered as a pronominal marking in the predicate and argued to be necessary in order for the subject pronoun to be omitted without violating the EPP. This principle can be satisfied in JA by means of null forms which only occur in the subject position. 3.2 The Types of Null Subject in JA Before discussing the types of null subject pronouns, their nonoccurrence and their recovery through pronominal inflections in the subject position in JA sentences, it is worth giving a sketch of the word order of JA in order to decide whether the subject is restricted to one and only one fixed position or not. JA, like Modern Standard Arabic and other Arabic dialects, exhibits different word order and accordingly different subject positions. The subject may occur after the verb in VSO order as in (5), and before the verb in SVO order as in (6). 4. ?akal comar ?ituffaћah ate comar apple Omar ate an apple. ALLS 6(4):1-10, 2015 5 5. comar ?akal ?ituffaћah c omar ate apple Omar ate an apple. In JA, agreement asymmetries is very clear, whereby, in VSO order, the subject partially agrees with the verb as seen in (7), it fully agrees with the verb in SVO order as in (8). 6. a. naamat l-bint slept-3SF the-girl The girl slept. b. naamat l-banaat slept-3SF the-girls The girls slept. 7. a. l-bint naamat the-girl slept-3SF The girl slept. b. l-banaat naam-in the-girls slept-3PF The girls slept. In (7b), the subject NP ‘l-banaat’, (the girls) agrees with the verb ‘namat’ according to person and gender but not number. Thus, agreement is partial. In SVO order as in (8b), the subject NP ‘l-banaat’ agrees fully with the verb ‘namin’ according to the nominal features of person, number and gender. As far as the subject of a finite clause is concerned, a distinction between JA and Modern Standard Arabic regarding the morphological realization of “Case” seems important. In Modern Standard Arabic, the subject is assigned Nominative case generally realized overtly as the noun suffix ‘-u’. Consider the following sentence. 8. naama r-rajul-u slept the-man-nom The man slept. Sentence (9) shows that the Nominative case is overtly realized by the suffix ‘-u’ attached to the lexical NP, ‘r-rajul’. In JA, the overt case marking on lexical NPs disappeared regardless of the word order used as in (10). 9. a. naam l-walad slept the-boy The boy slept. b. l-walad naam the-boy slept The boy slept. Only in pronouns, the overt case marking can be seen when used as subjects of finite clauses. Consider the examples in (11). 10. a. huu bu-drus he 3PSM-studying He is studying. b. hii btu-drus she 3PSF-studying She is studying. c. hummo bu-drus-u they 3P-studying-M.Pl. They are studying. d. hinne bu-drus-in they 3P-studying-F.Pl. They (girls) are studying. The examples in (11) follow the SV order which is more popular in JA than the VS order particularly when the subject of the sentence is a pronoun. ALLS 6(4):1-10, 2015 6 Null subjects are allowed in many languages despite the possibility of their recovery through pronominal inflections. In JA, null subjects can be classified into three different types: (1) referential argumental null subjects, (2) non-referential argumental null subjects, and (3) non-referential non-argumental null subjects. 3.2.1 Referential Argumental Null Subjects Referential null subjects may be determined by a process called recoverability (Taraldsen 1978) or identification (Jaeggli 1982). That is, the pronoun in the subject position may be omitted only if its content can be recovered morphosyntactically. Consider the contrast in (12) and (13). 11. JA a. c omar qaal ?innu Ø be-naam bakkir kul-yom omar said that Ø 3SM-sleep early every day Omar said that he sleeps early every day. c b. hind qaalat ?innu Ø bet-naam bakkir kul-yom hind said that Ø 3SF-sleeps early every day Hind said that she sleeps early every day. c. l-wlaad qaal-u ?innu Ø be-naam-u bakkir kul-yom the-boys said-Pl.M that Ø 3.P-sleep-Pl.M early every day The boys said that they sleep early every day. d. l-banaat qaal-in ?innu Ø be-naam-in bakkir kul-yom the-girls said-Pl.F that Ø 3P-sleep-Pl.F early every day The girls said that they sleep early every day. 12. English *a. Bill said that Ø slept early yesterday. *b. Mary said that Ø slept early yesterday. *c. The boys said that Ø slept early yesterday. *d. The girls said that Ø slept early yesterday. As can be seen in (12), JA allows the omission of the subject of an embedded finite clause because it can be recovered by the nominal inflections attached to the verb. In sentence (12a), for instance, the presence of the morphological inflectional marker ‘be’, which a third person singular masculine prefix attached to the verb ‘naam’ allows the subject pronoun of the embedded clause to be omitted. The verbal morphology found in JA can determine the content of the missing subject, thus making it redundant and recoverable. The English sentences in (13) are ungrammatical because the absence of the subject in the embedded finite clauses. The system of the verbal morphology in English is not rich and cannot recover the content of the missing subject and accordingly the possibility of dropping the subject from a tensed clause can never exist. The null subject parameter predicts that only the arguments with which the verb agrees can be dropped and encoded in term of EC, and thus there should exist an elaborated system of verbal agreement, i.e., a rich inflectional morphology that can recover the absence of the subject. 3.2.2 Non-Referential Argumental Null Subjects in JA Consider the contrast in (14) and (15). 13. ?ibt-ishti barra Ø3FS-rain outside (It) is raining outside. 14. * Ø is raining outside. Sentence (14) indicates the possibility of dropping the non-referential argumental subject in JA because it can be recovered through the third personal feminine prefix, (?ibt) attached to the verb “ishti”. (15) is ungrammatical because the impersonal pronoun “it” is dropped and cannot be recovered. 3.2.3 Non-referential Non-Argumental Null Subjects in JA Languages that allow the occurrence of referential null subjects necessitate the occurrence of non-referential nonargumental null subjects, expletive (non-thematic) null subjects but not vice versa. According to Rizzi (1982, and 1986), Jaeggli and Safir (1989a), Abraham (1993), and Y. Huang (1994), the properties of expletive null subjects are a ALLS 6(4):1-10, 2015 7 subset of the properties of referential null subjects. Consider the JA sentences in (16) and their English counterparts in (17) 15. a. Ø ka?annu l-walad lissat-u ṣaћ-i seem-that the-boy still-3PSM awake-3PSM It seems that the boy is still awake. b. Ø ka?annu l-binit lissat-a ṣaћ-ya seem-that the-girl still-3PSF awake-3PSF It seems that the girl is still awake. c. Ø ka?annu l-wlaad lissat-hum ṣaћ-yiin seem-that the-boys still-3P.Pl.M awake-3P.Pl.M It seems that the boys are still awake. d. Ø ka?annu l-banaat lissat-hin ṣaћy-at seem-that the-girls still-3P.Pl.F awake-3P.Pl.F It seems that the girls is still awake. 16. a.*Ø seems that the boy is awake. b.*Ø seems that the girl is awake. c.*Ø seems that the boys are awake. d.*Ø seems that the girls are awake. All the sentences in (16) are grammatical and hence JA allows expletive null subjects, whereas their English counterparts in (17) are ungrammatical because the expletive pronoun is missing. JA like other pro-drop languages allows null subjects to co-occur with two distinctive properties, namely: (i) the possibility of having free subject inversion, and (ii) the possibility of having complement subject extraction. These two properties, according to Rizzi (1982) are considered very important, and linked as a function of the positive value of the null subject parameter. He has also formalized an obvious connection between rich verbal inflection and null subjects in Italian by proposing that the inflectional node, INFL has the feature [+pronominal] and is thus a proper governor of the subject empty category. The fact that the subject empty category is properly governed makes it possible for the subject to occur in postverbal position. Below are examples in JA of both free subject inversion and complement subject extraction. 17. belcab comar kurah play comar football Omar plays football. 18. ?aiyya walad betfakkir innu katab Ø l-risaleh which boy think (you) that wrote the-letter Which boy do you think wrote the letter? Sentences (18) and (19) show the possibility of having null subjects in JA comes together with the possibility of having free subject inversion and the possibility of having complement subject extraction. 3.3 The Verb Morphology in JA The verb morphology in JA is crucial to the interpretation of null overt pronouns in the subject position. In JA, the context and the semantic features of overt pronouns become less important for the correct identification of the subject in a sentence because one relies on the verb morphology for its identification, and thus, Null pronouns are preferred over overt pronouns because they add no additional advantage in the context. Verbs in JA are distinguished morphologically from other categories because not only they carry nominal inflections that recover the missing subject pronouns but also inflections that reflect tense and aspect. Below a description of JA verbs with information about both: pronominal inflections in imperfective and perfective modes. The imperfective and the perfective modes can be exemplified as shown in (20) and (21) respectively. 19. a. balcab korah 1.P.S-play football I play football. ALLS 6(4):1-10, 2015 8 b. belcab korah 3MS-play football He plays football. c. btlcab football 3FS-play football She plays football. korah d. belcab-u 3.P-play-Pl.M football They (boys) play football. korah e. belcab-in 3.P-play-Pl.F football They (girls) play football. korah imbariћ 20. a. ?ilcibit 1.P.S-play football yesterday I played football yesterday. korah imbariћ b. lecib 3MS-play football yesterday He playd football yesterday. korah imbariћ c. lecbat 3FS-play football yesterday She played football yesterday. korah imbariћ d. lecb-u 3.P-play-Pl.M football yesterday They (boys) played football yesterday. korah imbareћ e. lecb-in 3.P-play-Pl.F football yesterday They (girls) played football yesterday. Sentences in (20), and (21) show that the subjects is missing but can be recovered by the different verb forms that identify the nominal features of person, number and gender of the missing subject. Thus, the pronominal inflection plays the same semantic role that the pronoun plays in JA. Moreover, all the verbs in (20) and (21) show tense/aspect inflections, for instance, in (20 b) the presence of the morphological inflectional marker ‘be’, which a third person singular masculine prefix attached to the verb ‘lcab’ shows not only the phi-features of the omitted subject pronoun of the sentence, but also the present tense form of the verb. Whereas, in (21 b), the pronominal inflectional marker, ‘le’ shows the past tense form of the verb ‘lecib’. Thus, the overt pronoun in the subject position is not crucial because its semantic features such as person, number and gender are totally superfluous because this information is already encoded in the verb. In this sense, overt pronouns do not help in the identification of the subject. The overt pronoun in the subject position in JA like other pro-drop languages adds no new information and hence, the use overt pronouns will not serve their specialized function. The extensive use of null pronouns in the subject position in JA which is, like other dialects of Arabic, a null subject language could happen for two reasons. First, less articulatory effort is involved in the production of sentences containing null overt pronouns. Second, the null pronouns may have some stylistic value related to the expression of certain social attitudes. The distinction between null and overt subject pronouns in JA can be explained in terms of contrast and emphasis. The contrastive function of the overt pronoun is the one which is most often cited by the native speaker to offer an explanation of the occurrence of overt subject pronouns. An example of an obligatory contrastive subject pronoun in JA is as given below. 21. Speaker A: weinak ya zalameh, min shahir Ø badawwir ca-leik. Where are you man, from month I looking for-you Where are you man, I have been looking since last month. Speaker B: ana halla ?idreet innak bedawwir ca-lyya I just know that (you) looking for-me I have just known that you are looking for me. ALLS 6(4):1-10, 2015 9 The overt pronoun ‘ana’ can be considered as an obligatory element in terms of the notion of contrast. Thus, in JA, the contrast is expressed by means of the presence of the pronoun. The overt pronoun in the subject position can be categorized as an emphatic subject pronoun, i.e., the pronominal subject is used when one wants to highlight the role of the subject. Consider the following sentence: 22. Inta betġush be-l-?imtihan ya comar You cheat in-the-examination, comar You would cheat in the examination, Omar. In (23), the speaker expresses his surprise that Omar whom he trusts very much would cheat in the examination. Like other null subject languages, the ‘emphatic’ function is used in JA to offer an explanation of the occurrence of overt pronouns in the subject position. The pronoun generally receives phonetic stress which, elsewhere, could be paraphrased by all native speakers as ‘pro’. Accordingly, the pronominal subject in JA is required to underline its importance, and may be used in circumstances where it is felt by a native speaker that the expression of the subject by means of verbal pronominal inflection is not enough in a certain action. Therefore, the presence of overt pronouns is considered as a kind of acknowledgement of the focused nature of that pronoun in subject position where it is most frequently omitted. Thus, the presence and the absence of pronouns in pro-drop languages might be considered as an example of free variation with no significant consequences for the meaning of the sentence; besides, if the pronoun can be omitted, its presence nearly always has an emphatic or contrastive value. 4. Conclusion The null subject pronoun in JA has a substantial advantage over the overt pronoun. The richer morphology of JA makes the verbal morphology, i.e., the nominal features of person, number, and gender crucial to the interpretation of the null subject pronouns. The occurrence of null subject pronouns in JA is determined by recoverability and identification, and thus both the context and the semantic features of the overt pronoun becomes less important as cues for the correct identification of the subject. Null subject pronouns in JA are preferred over overt subject pronouns because native speakers rely heavily on the verbal morphology, and overt subject pronouns offer no additional advantage in this point of view. References Abraham, W. (1993). Null subjects in the history of German: from IP to CP. Lingua, 89, 117-142. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0024-3841(93)90050-7 Benmamoun, A. (1994). The Conditions on pro and the ECP. The Proceedings of the Thirteen West Coast Conference on Formal Linguistics. Eds. Raul Aranovich, et al. Stanford: Center of the Study of Language and Information, 173188. Borer, H. (1986). I-Subject. Linguistic Inquiry. 17(3), 375-416. Borer, H. (1989). Anaphoric AGR. The Null Subject Parameter. Eds. Osvaldo A. Jaeggli and Kenneth J.Safir. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academy, 69-110. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-2540-3_3 Cameroon, R. (1992). Pronominal and null subject variation in Spanish: Constraints, dialects and functional compensation. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. University of Pennsylvania. Chomsky, N. (1982). Some Concepts and Consequences of the Theory of Government and Binding. Linguistic Inquiry Monograph 6. Cambridge: MIT Press. Chomsky, N. (1993). A minimalist program for linguistic theory. In the View from Building 20, Kenneth Hale and Samuel Keyser (eds.), 1-52. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Chomsky, N. (1995). The Minimalist Program. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press. Eid, M. (1993). Negation and Predicate Heads in Arabic. Principles and Predication: The Analysis of Natural Language. Paper in honor of Gerald Sanders. Eds. Mushira Eid and Gregory Iverson. Current Issues in Linguistic Theory. Amsterdam and Philadelphia: John Benjamins, 98, 135-152. Farghaly, A. (1982). Subject pronoun deletion rule in Egyptian Arabic. Discourse Analysis: Theory and Application Proceedings of the Second National Symposium on Linguistics and English Language Teaching. Eds. S. Gamal and R. Bower. Cairo: Center for Developing English Language Teaching, Ain Shams University, 60-69. Huang, Y. (1994). The Syntax and Pragmatics of Anaphora. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. http://dx.doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511554292 Hyams, N. (1986). Language Acquisition http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-4638-5 and the Theory of Parameters. Dordrecht: D. Reidel. Hyams, N. (1989). The null subject parameter in language acquisition. In The Null Subject Parameter, Osvaldo A. Jaeggli and Kenneth J. Safir (eds.), 215-238. Dordrecht: Kluwer. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-2540-3_7 Jaeggl, O. (1982). Topics in Romance Syntax. Dordrecht: Kluwer. ALLS 6(4):1-10, 2015 10 Jaeggli, 0. and Safir, K. (1989a). The null subject parameter and parametric theory. The Null Subject Parameter. Eds. Osvaldo A. Jaeggli and Kenneth J. Safir. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 1-44. Jelinek, E. (1983). Person-subject marking in AUX in Egyptian Arabic. Linguistic Categories: Auxiliaries and related puzzles. Eds. Frank Heny and B. Richards. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Company, One: 21-46. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-6989-6_2 Jelinek, E. (2002). Agreement, Clitics and Focus in Egyptian Arabic. Themes in Arabic and Hebrew Syntax. Eds. Jamal Ouhalla and Ur Shlonsky. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 71-105. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-010-0351-3_3 Kenstowicz, M. (1989). The null subject parameter in modern Arabic dialects. The Null Subject Parameter. (Eds.) Osvaldo A. Jaeggli and Kenneth J. Safir. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic, 263-276. http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/978-94-0092540-3_9 Labov, W. (1994). Principles of Linguistic Change: Internal Factors. Oxford: Blackwell. Mohammad, M. A. (1988). Nominative Case, I-Subjects, and Subject-Verb Agreement. CLS. Ed. Diane Brentari et al. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society, 223-235. Pollock, J. (1989). Verb movement, UG and the structure of IP. Linguistic Inquiry, 20, 365-424. Rizzi, L.(1982). Issues in Italian Syntax. Dordrecht: Foris. http://dx.doi.org/10.1515/9783110883718 Rizzi, L. (1986). Null Subject in Italian and the Theory of pro. Linguistic Inquiry, 17(3), 501-557. Taraldsen, T. (1978). On the NIC, Vacuous Application and the That Trace Filter. Bloomington: Indiana University Linguistics Club. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Stylistic Analysis of Robert Browning’s Poem “Patriot into Traitor” Mumtaz Ahmed (Corresponding author) Govt. Postgraduate College of Science, Faisalabad Pakistan, Pakistan E-mail: webmumtaz@gmail.com Ayesha Irshad University of Sargodha Women Campus, Faisalabad Pakistan, Pakistan E-mail: asheei012@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.11 Received: 28/02/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.11 Accepted: 04/05/2015 Abstract The stylistic analysis of Robert Browning’s poem ‘Patriot into Traitor’ is done by using graphological, phonological, morphological and lexico-syntactic patterns. This analysis is helpful in decoding the underlying meanings of the poem. It clearly brings to surface what the poet really wants to impart. Keywords: Stylistic analysis, graphological, phonological, morphological, lexico-syntactic patterns 1. Introduction Style and stylistics are interrelated terms. A style is a certain manner, approach or way in which something is said, done, expressed or performed. Style is a tag term. It is not formed consciously. From linguistic orientation it implies to the particular selection of sounds, words and syntactic patterns. The study of style is called stylistics. Stylistics deals with the description of formal features of a text and their functional importance. Short and Candlin (1989) said that stylistics is a linguistic approach to the study of the literary text. The concept of Style is based upon the use of language in different ways. Wales (2001) considers it hard to define these ambiguous terms. 1.1 Style The word style has been derived from a Latin word ‘stilus’ which means spelling or writing instrument. The term style bears different connotations that add to its complexities. Leech (1969) believes that the characteristic manner in which a writer expresses him- or herself or the particular way of a literary work, is style. Style studies those components or features of a literary composition which give to it individual stamp and associate it with a particular author and produce a certain effect upon the reader. Style can also be defined as a person’s speech and communicative ability which reflects his social identity such as ethnicity, age, gender and social background. Crystal (1987) also regarded style as a distinctive use of language. Style is the major dimension of linguistic variation. According to Carter (1989) style depends on linguistic levels. Bell (1997) emphasizes that style is an individual speaker’s variety o f speech. Style includes verbal repertoire and social context is its incorporating element. Oloruntoba-Oju (1999) argues that style indicates variety in expression, according to certain social-context. In Sociolinguistics, a style is a set of linguistic variations like syntactic, lexical and phonological. It focuses the literary style, especially the distinctive way of writing literary texts. It also refers to the blend of peculiar attributes of literary or artistic expressions of a particular person, group or era. Schopenhauer (2004) regards style as physiognomy of the mind, and a perfect asset for an individual than the face. Style is used as an embellishment and addition to the central thought. 1.2 Stylistics Stylistics concentrates on the style of a literary text. Freeman (1971) describes stylistics as a sub-discipline which started in the second half of the 20th century. The scientific study of literary style and the methods used in written language is stylistics. Turner (1975) describes stylistics as a part of linguistics which concentrates on variations in the most conscious and complex uses of language in literature. The Dictionary of Stylistics describes that the goal of most stylistics is not simply to describe the formal features of texts for their own sake but in order to show their interpretation of the text, or in order to relate literary effects to linguistics causes where there are felt to be relevant. It deals with accurate analysis and account of writing and speech style, by using a specialized vocabulary developed in linguistics. Stylistics attempts to make scientific, methodical, objective and precise analysis. Stylistics is the systematic and scientific study of literary style. Widdowson (1975) and Carter (1988) agree that stylistics is a bridge between linguistics and literature. It considers the devices used in a language like figures of speech and syntactical patterns. Moreover, stylistics is the study of the linguistic features of a literary text which directly affect the meaning of an utterance. As Verdonk (2002) says that the study of peculiar expression and its purpose in a language is stylistics. ALLS 6(4):11-19, 2015 12 2. Levels of Stylistic Analysis Following are the levels of stylistic analysis: 2.1 Graphology According to Crystal and Davy (1969) graphology is the analogous study of a language writing system or orthography as seen in the various kinds of handwriting or topography. Leech (1969) refers it to the whole writing system. Graphological elements are: Punctuation Paragraphing 2.2 Phonetics Yule (1996) explains it as the study of speech sounds in general. So the study and classification of speech sounds in general comes under the level of phonetics. 2.3 Phonology Lodge (2009) expounds that phonology is the study of linguistic systems, specially the way in which sound represents the differences of meanings in a language. The system and patterns of speech in a particular language are the part of phonology. It deals with the systematic organization of speech sounds. The poetic devices in this level are: Rhyme Alliteration Consonance Assonance 2.4 Morphology Mark and Krishen (2005) put that morphology is the mental system which is used in the formation of words and it deals with the inner structure of words. Morphological elements are: Affixes, Compounding 2.5 Lexico-Syntax It is the combination of two different terms ‘lexis’ means vocabulary and ‘syntax’ means sentence construction. It studies the patterns of words in different linguistic context, on the semantic level in terms of stylistics. It is concerned with the meaning of words, phrases and sentences. The semantic levels include: Metaphor, Simile, Personification , Irony, Tone, Anaphora, Hyperbole, Imagery, Symbol, Allusion , Deictic words, Collocation, Metonymy, Synonym, Compounding, Antithesis, Linking words, Natural words, Old English words The lexical elements are: • • • • • Noun Pronoun Verb Adjective Adverb 3. The Poet and the Poem 3.1 Poet’s Biography Robert Browning (1812-1889) was the son of a well-read father and religious mother who had an artistic bent of mind. He inherited creative abilities from his parents. Browning was not formally well-educated. His use of diction, rhyme, symbols and modern poetic style distinguishes him from his peers. He wrote with usual words but it was not easy to compete with him. Most of his works manifest his own juvenile desires and apprehensions. He is well-known for his dramatic monologues. His explicit portrayal of central characters in dire circumstances, make the enigmas comprehensible. He focused on the subject not the form irrespective of its acceptance or denial. 3.2 “Patriot into Traitor” - Dramatic Monologue A dramatic monologue is the speech of a single character with dramatic significance. During this speech, the speaker unveils the situation, setting, the audience and most interesting part is the revelation about his own personality. The dramatic monologue offers a psychological experience, through entering into the mind of a character. And see everything only via his perspective. In ‘Patriot into Traitor’ the speaker takes thorough account of his passed year as a political figure. He experienced a downright aversion for him. The political figure openly tells about the terrible ordeal, a change in the political and social order. He is not feeling any fear from the downswing of his career. The speaker reveals aspects of his character as a patriot through telling the story about what he has done to get where he is. 3.3 Title of the Poem The title of the poem refers to a shift from patriotism to traitor. As it is obvious from the title that Robert Browning’s poem ‘Patriot into Traitor’ tells the story of someone who was once considered nationalist. The one for whom the well being of country is most important and he never hesitated to go beyond the limits to defend his country from ALLS 6(4):11-19, 2015 13 adversaries. The poem also takes account of how he turned into a traitor. The title shows the impermanence of human nature. It implies that a man who has patriotic fervour, sooner or later develops treacherous approach. There are clear implications of status reversal, from peak to bottom. Furthermore, the title alludes to the social criticism also. 3.4 Introduction of the Poem The poem “Patriot into Traitor” is structured around the themes of violence, death and a downfall from a high pedestal. Another underlying theme is the oscillating human attitudes and behaviors. Browning has presented a psychological portrait of a political leader. This poem is a soliloquy type monologue in which the speaker tells about his political career. He puts in picture the brief description of his peak time. The speaker tells about his macabre span of career. He tells that a year back how the people revered him and gave him a warm welcome. The paths were adorned with roses and myrtle to greet the public star. There were hordes of people waiting to see him. The poet also recounts his tactile choices as a politician. The speaker mulls over his past. He made promises with them which proved false somehow. After passing a year, the people have developed negative feelings for their leader. They are regarding him as a backstabber. He is being taken for execution. The poem also points out the fickle public opinion. They deprecated his sincerity and sacrifices. We get vicarious sympathy after reading this poem. No one considered his feat for the welfare of masses. Despite all his pains, he is not feather-bedded in any way. 4. Stylistic Analysis of the Poem 4.1 Graphological Levels There are six well knit stanzas and each comprises five lines. The different punctuation marks are being used in them: 4.1.1 Exclamation Mark (!) It is a punctuation mark usually used after an interjection or exclamation (which indicates strong feelings or shouting). Exclamation marks are placed after the emotional or sentimental words uttered by the speaker. In this poem, the poet has used exclamation mark three times: • • • But give me your sun from yonder skies! To give it my loving friends to keep! Thus I entered, and thus I go! 4.1.2 Question mark (?) All the question marks employed in this poem are rhetorical. The poet used signs of question mark three times in the poem: Line 9. But give me your sun from yonder skies? Line10. They had answered: And afterwards, what else? ‘Paid by the world, what dost thou owe, Line29. Me?’ –God might question; now instead, 4.1.3 Semi-colon (;) The poet used semi-colons three times in the poem: Line13. Naught man could do, have I felt undone; Line17. Just a palsied few at the windows set; Line22. A rope cut both my wrists behind; 4.1.4 Colon (:) The colon is used to clear the meanings. The poet used colon twice in the poem to clarify what he means: Line30. Tis God shall repay: I am safer so. Line10. They had answered: And afterward, what else? 4.1.5 Full Stops (.) Full stops are used on the completion of an idea. In this poem Browning used five full stops at the end of each stanza. There are two internal full stops as well. 4.1.6 Comma (,) Commas are used to add a certain profundity of thought in the poem. They are placed to provide brief pauses or for separating thoughts. Browning has used commas 29 times in this poem. 4.1.7 Apostrophe (‘) It is a rhetorical term for a speech addressed to a person, idea or thing. It refers to possession or used as a mark to indicate omission of letters. The use of apostrophe in literature indicates the arrangement of words addressing a nonexistent person or an abstract idea in such a way as if it were present and capable of understanding feelings. The poet used apostrophe five times in this poem: • There’s nobody on the house-tops now— ALLS 6(4):11-19, 2015 • • • • 14 At the Shambles’s Gate—or, better yet, By the very scaffold’s foot, I trow. Stones at me for my year’s misdeeds. ‘Tis God shall repay: I am safer so. 4.1.8 Hyphen (-) Hyphen is used to create new vocabulary which adds colour to the literary expressions. The hyphenated words used by Browning in this poem are: house-roofs church-spires house-tops 4.1.9 Quotation Marks (“ ”) Quotation marks are placed to enclose some information which is important. These are also used when something requires special attention. When the writer wants to convey something ironically, he encloses it into quotation marks. The poet used quotation marks three times in this poem: • • • Had I said, “Good folk, mere noise repels— But give me your sun from yonder skies!” “They had answered, And afterwards, what else?” “Paid by the world, what dost thou owe Me?”-- God might question; now instead, 4.1.10 Dashes (--) Dash has been used to depict the urgency of situation in the poem and it also elevates emotional effect. Robert Browning used dashes due to stress and strains. He employs dashes to cover unexpressed emotions. This graphological feature makes the text attractive. • • • • Had I said, ‘Good folk, mere noise repels— There’s nobody on the house-tops now— At the Shambles Gate—or, better yet, Me?’—God might question; now instead, 4.2 Phonological Levels 4.2.1 Rhyme Scheme The poem comprises six stanzas: each with five lines in it. The rhymes are end rhymes which are perfect rhymes (way, mad, sway, had, day). Each stanza of “Patriot into Traitor” has the pattern of the rhyme scheme: ABABA, CDCDC, EFEFE, GHGHG, HIHIH and JKJKJ pattern. The same rhyme pattern is repeated in all the six stanzas. The poem is being written in iambic meter; stressed syllables followed by unstressed syllable, which add pace to the poem. The rhyming words used in the poem are: Way, Sway, Day Mad, Had Bells, Repels, Else Cries, Skies Sun, Undone, Run Keep, Reap Now, Allow, Trow Set, Yet Go, Owe, So Dead, Instead Needs, Bleeds, Misdeeds Behind, Mind 4.2.2 Sound Devices The sound devices used in poem like alliteration, assonance and consonance are: Alliteration Myrtle, mixed, my, mad Seemed, sway Flamed, flags Broke, bells Crowd and cries Sun, skies Nobody, now Both, behind Feel, forehead For, fling, whoever, has Me, my, misdeeds Dropped, down, dead World, what Me, might Safer, so Assonance Myrtle, mixed Seemed, heave Flags, had Mist, with See, reap Better, yet Rope, both Wrist, behind Feel, bleed By, my Me, misdeeds Question, instead Repay, safer Consonance Was, roses Mixed, mad Flamed, had Old, rocked, crowd Walls, cries Had, said, good Noise, repels Your, yonder Had, answered, and, afterward Man, undone Harvest, what At, set, best, sight, at, gate, yet Better, or In, rain, than Cuts, wrists For, whoever Stones, misdeeds Entered, and, dropped, dead Paid, world, god, instead. ALLS 6(4):11-19, 2015 15 4.3 Morphological Levels 4.3.1 Affixes It is the formation of new words through prefixes and suffixes. It consists of free morphemes and bound morphemes. Suffixes Roses - rose + s Mixed - mix + ed Seemed - seem + ed Flamed - flame + d Flags - flag + s Bells - bell + s Repels - repel + s Answered - answer + ed Leaped - leap + ed Cuts - cut + s Wrists - wrist + s Bleeds - bleed + s Stones - stone + s Friends Triumphs friend + s - Dropped - triumph + s drop + ed Cries - cry + ies Loving - love + ing Palsied - palsy + ied Windows - window + s Question - quest + ion Safer - safe + r Walls - wall + s Rocked - rock + ed Pre-fixes Undone - un + done Instead - in + stead Misdeeds - mis + deed + s Repay - re + pay 4.3.2 Compounding The compounding used by Browning in the poem is: Forehead , whoever, nobody, afterward. 4.4 Lexico-Syntactic Levels 4.4.1 Semantic levels Metaphor Line 4. The church-spires flamed, such flags they had Line 14. And you see my harvest, what I reap Simile Line 2. With myrtle mixed in my path like mad The word ‘mad’ refers to the state of extreme or intense feelings or acts. Here in the poem this simile is used to describe the passionate and welcoming feelings of public for their leader. Personification In this poem house roofs have been personified: Line3. The house-roofs seemed to heave and sway ALLS 6(4):11-19, 2015 16 In this poem the house-roofs have been presented as living being. They are not static but rather moving to and fro. Irony The poet talks about the poor mentality of illiterate common masses ironically as: Line 24. For they fling, whoever has a mind The dramatic irony lies in the situation of the popularity and downfall of the political leader. It springs out from; how the people who were at the beck and call of their leader, treat him as a traitor after passing a year. Tone The poem opens with an admiring and adoring tone. The poet gives the details of an effusive welcome in nostalgic mood. The poet gives the description of situation after the passage of one year. Here the tone gets lamenting as the poem moves forward. The overall tone and mood of the poem is down-beating. Anaphora The anaphoric words in the poem are: It was roses, roses, all the way Thus I entered, and thus I go! Hyperbole There is hyperbolic exaggeration in the poem: Line 2. With myrtle mixed in my path like mad Line 9. But give me your sun from yonder skies? Line 11. Alack, it was I who leaped at the sun Imagery Browning has used images in the poem: Line 3. The house-roofs seemed to heave and sway Line 6. The air broke into a mist with bells Symbols Roses: In the poem roses symbolize the welcome with respect, honor and passion. Path: It is used in the poem to symbolize the political career. Myrtle: It is a symbol of purity, love, innocence and generosity. Spires: A symbol for hopeful gestures and strength. Sun: The sun stands for something which is unreachable or beyond access. Palsied: This word indicates annoyance and the sufferings of the people. Windows: In this poem windows symbolize freedom or lack of it thereof. Forehead: Symbolizes good luck but in the poem bleeding forehead symbolizes bad-luck of the political figure. Rope: Its symbolic meanings deal with confinement or restriction. Also refers to state of non-action or devoid of power. Rain: Symbolizes loss, death or tears, sadness and sometimes despair as well. In this poem it symbolizes a period of trial. Allusion Line11. Alack it was I who leaped at the sun There is an allusion towards a Greek myth of Icarus, whose father gave him a pair of wings adhered on a wooden frame with wax. His father warned him not to go too near the sun, otherwise the wax will melt. Icarus became so rapturous with the ability to fly that he forgot his father's warning. The wax melted. Icarus fell into sea and died. There is allusion towards the crucifixion of Christ in the fifth stanza. Deictic Words The spatial, personal and temporal deictic words used in poem are: It, there, this very day , a year ago, they, I, you, me, now. These are also known as demonstratives. Collocation The collocations employed in the poem are: Church-spires, Shambles Gate, House-roofs, Loving friends, House-tops, Good folk, Old walls. ALLS 6(4):11-19, 2015 17 Metonymy Sun/Sky Reap/Harvest Scaffold/Shambles Gate Synonym The words Way and Path are synonymous. Compounding Forehead, whoever, nobody, afterward. Natural Words The poem comprises following natural waords: Roses, myrtle, air, mist, sun, sky, rain. Linking words Browning used certain linking words in the poem: Like, and, for, yet, but, thus, just. Old English Words Browning uses archaic words to show the time in which the poem is being written. The following words in the poem show that they are taken from old English as they are no more used in modern English: Folk, yonder, naught, undone, trow, thus, dost, thou, tis, Antithesis Line 26. Thus I entered, and thus I go In the above mentioned line ‘entered’ and ‘go’ are antithetical to each other. 4.4.2 Lexical Levels The lexical levels in the poem are: Noun and Pronoun Roses My path House-roofs Church-spires They It This Nobody The air Old walls I Me Shambles Gate Rope Whoever Triumph People Thou God Verb Mixed Seemed Flamed Broke Rocked Repel Give Answered Leaped Keep Felt See Reap Run Go Entered Cuts Think Feel Bleeds Fling Stones Owe Might question Repay Adjective Myrtle Heave and sway Such flags Like mad House-tops Mist Crowd and cries Good folk Mere noise Loving friend Undone My harvest Palsied few Mist Best of the sight Better Scaffold’s foot Both my wrists My forehead Mind My year’s misdeeds Dead Paid Safer Adverb All the way A year ago Now Yonder skies Afterward Else Very day The windows set All allow Yet By the very More than need Behind By the feel Thus Down By the world Now instead So 5. Conclusion The poem begins with the scenery which shows a poor locality with shabby houses. The beginning two stanzas indicate the enthusiasm and madness of people on the arrival of their political leader who appeared as a patriot to them. There are clear notes of optimism. In second stanza there is an allusion towards a Greek myth of Icarus. The poet has used rich imagery to explain the setting of the poem. ALLS 6(4):11-19, 2015 18 The third stanza opens with a complaining and grumbling tone. The poet says that he has played his role sincerely but what about the people? They have forgotten the things he did for them. Their behavior is not justified. He never swindled them. He utilized all the powers to comfort them. But now after passing a whole year, they are treating him inadequately. He is suffering now due to his over ambitious nature. The first and fourth stanzas are parallel to each other. As in first stanza the speaker tells that: ‘The house-roofs seemed to heave and sway’ and in fourth stanza he adds: ‘There’s nobody on house-tops now’. It shows the state of deterioration in the patriot’s fame and it also connotes towards the fluctuating nature of public views. The fourth stanza paints a word picture of the grotesque reaction of the public for a politician, who is no more a patriot or sincere to them. The speaker considers himself as a sedulous politician when he says: ‘Alack, It was I who leaped at the sun’. The fifth stanza provides detailed description of the intense reaction of people for a traitor. There is an element of poignancy in this stanza. The traitor is being taken to the gallows. The so-called intellectuals stoning at him and his forehead is bleeding. There is an allusion towards the crucifixion of Christ. In the last stanza there is an acceptance and submission to the fate and death as well. But still the patriot is optimistic about the reward, which will be granted to him hereafter. The thought of that perpetual reward reanimated him. There is a swing from past to present tense in the poem as the opening stanzas of the poem deal with the description of the emergence of the patriot and passionate response of public a year ago and the concluding stanzas encompass vehement denial for the leader by the public that how they relegated him to traitor-ship. They erred in judging him. In this poem the speaker is not considering the truth. The fixity of his perspective does not let him accept death as a punishment. The structure aptly relates with the time and pattern of the poem. It reveals the optimistic setting as the poem starts and when the poem comes to final point, the setting turns into pessimistic. As in first stanza ‘It was roses, roses, all the way’ and at the end ‘For they fling, whoever has a mind, Stones at me for my year’s misdeeds’. The poem ends with notes of tranquility. The politician feels satisfied that God will surely reward him in a better way. Browning’s poem “Patriot into Traitor” stimulates careful consideration and attention. The poem explains that how the fame and stardom is fleeting. It does not last long and is not something to rely upon. The people with power also face music at a certain stage of their life. This poem is an acrid evaluation of the tensions and complexities of society. The poem is a commentary on the ebb and flow of politics, power and human nature also. The stylistic analysis of the poem has brought all the underlying meaning to the surface and added to make it transparent. The stylistic devices, tone, diction and all the other details in the poem enhance the appeal. References Aronoff, M. & Fudeman, K. (2005) What is Morphology?, Malden, USA,UK, Carlton, Australia: Blackwell publishers. Aslam, K. & and Bin-Hasan, S. (1993) A New Anthology of English Verse. Caravan Publishers, Lahore. Bell, A. (1997) "Language style as audience design." In Nikolas Coupland and Adam Sociolinguistics: A reader, 240-50. St. Martin’s Press. Jaworski, eds. 1997, Crystal, D. & Davy, D. (1969) Investigating English Style. London: Longman. Crystal, D. (1987) The Cambridge encyclopedia of language. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University. Carter, R (1989) What is stylistics and why do we teach it in different ways? In M. Short, (Ed), Reading, Analyzing and Teaching Literature. London: Longman. Freeman, D.C. (ed.) (1971) Linguistics and Literary Style, New York: Holt Rinehart & Winston. Leech, G. (1969) A linguistic guide to English Poetry, London: Longman. Lodge, K. (2009) A Critical Introduction to Phonetics, London & New York: Continuum international publishing Group. Oloruntoba-Oju, T (1999) Sociolinguistics: An overview; E. Adegbija (ed.), The English Language and literature-inEnglish: An introductory Handbook, Ilorin: The department of Modern European languages, University of Ilorin. Schopenhauer A, T.B. (2004) Saunders, translator, The Art of Literature. London S. Sonnenschein & co., lim.; New York, The Macmillan co. (2013-2015) http://www2.hn.psu.edu/faculty/jmanis/schopenhauer/schopenhauer-6.pdf Short, M., & Candlin, C. (1989) Teaching study skills for English literature in Reading, analyzing and teaching literature. London: Longman. Turner ,G.W. (1975) Stylistics. Benguin Books. London Verdonk, P. (2002) Stylistics. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Wales, K. (2001) A Dictionary of Stylistics Studies in language and linguistics. London: Longman. Widdowson, H.G. (1975) Stylistics and the Teaching of Literature. London: Longman. Yule, G. (1996). The Study of Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ALLS 6(4):11-19, 2015 19 Appendix “Patriot into Traitor” Robert Browning It was roses, roses, all the way With myrtle mixed in my path like mad: The house-roofs seemed to heave and sway, The church-spires flamed, such flags they had, A year ago on this very day. The air broke into a mist with bells, The old walls rocked with the crowd and cries. Had I said, “Good folk, mere noise repels— But give me your sun from yonder skies!” They had answered, “And afterward, what else?” Alack, it was I who leaped at the sun To give it my loving friends to keep! Nought man could do, have I left undone: And you see my harvest, what I reap This very day, now a year is run. There’s nobody on the house-tops now— Just a palsied few at the windows set; For the best of the sight is, all allow, At the Shamble’s Gate—or, better yet, By the very scaffold’s foot, I trow. I go in the rain, and, more than needs, A rope cuts both my wrists behind; And I think, by the feel, my forehead bleeds, For they fling, whoever has a mind, Stones at me for my year’s misdeeds. Thus I entered, and thus I go! In triumph, people have dropped down dead. “Paid by the world, what dost thou owe Me?”—God might question; now instead, ‘Tis God shall repay: I am safer so. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia “Fugitive Without Knowing it”: Language, Displacement and Identity in Assia Djebar’s Autobiographic Narratives Lobna Ben Salem Faculty of Letters, Arts and Humanities, Manouba University PO box, 2010, Tunisia E-mail: lobna.bs75@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.20 Received: 01/03/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.20 Accepted: 10/05/2015 Abstract If in Edward Said’s words, “everyone lives life in a given language; everyone’s experiences therefore are had, absorbed, and recalled in that language” (Out of Place, 1999: 217), a writer who chooses to write in a language other than the mother-language is inevitably a victim of displacement. In a geography-decentred world, being linguistically out of place is usually accompanied with a physical displacement, issuing into a problematic interplay between language, self and identity. In Assia Djebar’s autobiographic narratives, the role of the written word is made more complex, not only because Djebar is a Muslim woman, but also due to the conflict between her oral ‘maternal’ Arabic/Berber language, and the written ‘paternal’ language which is French. Djebar has a complex relationship with these two languages in and between which she lived; two languages that worked in tandem, but also Othered each other in a shifting myriad of experiences and forms of being and becoming. This paper aims at discussing the intersectionality of language, identity and displacement. It starts with the view that the written word separates the writer from her maternal language, and her expression in French has become a source of anxiety. Knowing that her association of language and home underlies her double displacement both linguistically and geographically, how does Djebar come to terms with the anxiety of a double exile? At what point was she able to proclaim that writing in “the enemy’s language” heralds the self’s plurality, positionality, alterity and uniqueness. What role has the autobiographic genre played in this self-fulfilment? The paper postulates that linguistic hybridity is the only possible venue for Djebar when it comes to escaping the alienation inherent in her expression in the enemy's language. The integration of orality in Djebar’s (written) autobiographies allows the author to surmount her linguistic exile, to properly mourn the loss of the maternal tongue, enhancing a linguistic and cultural reconciliation. Keywords: Linguistic exile- female collective memory- displacement - Algeria- French language “So far, I have only been able to use a language that enslaved me, and therefore, the messengers of my mind always come shackled. Ama Ata Aidoo 1 1. Introduction There is nothing new in having writers of the oppressed culture writing in the oppressor’s language. A sweeping look at Anglophone postcolonial literature shows that it is a commonplace practice by writers as versatile and universal as Yeats, Joyce, Conrad, but also more eclectic and ambitious as Achebe, Rushdie and Head. Francophone postcolonial literature is not spared this lot. North African writers like Ben Jalloun, Memmi, and Dib made their way into international fame while their language is that of the colonizer. Assia Djebar, the Algerian female writer, figures among the list of Maghrebian writers who use French as a medium of expression, and whose complex relationship to language is burdened by gender prerogatives and by the assumption that women, in traditional societies, are bearers of language. In view of this, identity fulfilment for both the “daughter of the nation” (Boehmer 106) and the exiled writer announces to be complex, bearing in mind that any identity quest has inevitably to filter through language. A Muslim woman bred in the Arabo-Berber tradition but schooled in French, a witness of colonial rule and the war of liberation, an exilic figure whose nostalgia for home is purged through the agency of writing, Djebar cannot help but reflect on those myriad of experiences, at the heart of which lies her dilemma of using the “Other’s” language. To disclose these experiences and come to terms with her “linguistic” exile, Djebar resorts to autobiography. If, as Carol Hanisch points out, “the personal is political,” 2 then Djebar’s anxiety over language points to a much larger national malaise and inscribes her works within the postcolonial agenda. For much of postcolonial language politics 1 Ama Ata Aidoo, Our Sister Killjoy. Hong Kong: Longman African Writers, 1996. P.112. Carol Hanisch, “The Personal Is Political” (2006; reprint of 1969), available at http://www.carolhanisch.org/CHwritings/PersonalisPol.pdf 2 ALLS 6(4):20-27, 2015 21 around the world, the clash has chiefly been between a colonial, read language and (a) local, oral language(s). This is true in Algeria where one aspect of the colonial legacy is the enchantment of the elites that emerged from the colonial educational system with the imported language, French, to the detriment of their indigenous languages, Arabic or Berber. Within this destabilized/ing order, Berber is even relegated lower positions. For, while Arabic is Algeria’s national language, Berber lacks this advantage of status and power. Its lower position arises not from being a minority language, but from its exclusion and denial of the rights of speakers to use it in crucial domains such as education in general and literacy in particular. The negative connotation attached to Berber is nothing more than prejudice, particularly on the part of speakers of major languages, notably French. Djebar, however, strategically lumps Arabic and Berber together, associating them with the private female world and places French as the public “common” enemy. For her, the point must be made that unless speakers of excluded languages feel honored by their own languages and show a zealous desire to defend them, no amount of external efforts can ensure any status and viable roles for them. The autobiographic works I am interested in belong to what is referred to as the Algerian Quartet, among which, Fantasia (1985, trans. 1995) and So Vast the Prison (1995, trans. 1999). By analyzing Djebar’s autobiographic narratives, I show how the notion of the postcolonial identity is negotiated in relation to the issue of language. Identity – whether at the microcosmic or macrocosmic scale, whether personal or national – resorts to language as one of the most persistent emblems of cultural authenticity. Incorporating postcolonial feminist thought, I analyse how Djebar positions herself in relation to language dynamics and language ideologies and how her narratives attempt to dispel the hegemonic nature of language itself and to relocate the position of undermined, local languages from the periphery to the centre. The analysis brings to the fore a set of asymmetric relationships in which language-gender nexus plays a crucial role. These are all issues at the heart of postcolonial critique and will be dealt with from a very specific positioning—that of autobiographic literature. Though the focus of each autobiographic novel is different in terms of exposing personal lines of thoughts and narrative techniques, there is the discernible fact that with the “I” that narrates, the collective “we” lurks behind, making of the personal identity quest – the quest for Djebar’s identity as writer and Algerian woman– a more tortuous one as it intermingles with the collective identity quest of millions of subdued, silenced women of her country. This (self) exposure will comprise a recollection of personal memory entangled with stories of female siblings cloistered in the harem, and a rewriting of public history in the light of testimonies given through interviews with anonymous women who had their shares in fighting the colonial regimes but who nevertheless were excluded from official historic records. Autobiographic narratives will promise a valuable excavation of the past – in its different vestiges – , for in Freeman’s words “given the beings we are — housed in language, in culture, in history — there is much about us [the individual and the collective] that requires interpretation for sense to be made.” (Freeman 5) Djebar’s texts are not autobiographic in the strictest sense of the term; first and third person narrators intermingle. It is a hybrid genre that pledges a revelation of the “self” via the exploration of a collective identity of a female community that has for long been muted and forgotten: “In writing of my childhood memories I am taken back to those bodies bereft of voices” (Fantasia 156). The narrator is presented as “a compound subject,” in Erickson’s terms, “the sum of her present being as well as of the beings of her sisters and women ancestors” (Erickson 15). By deviating from recognizable autobiographic forms, the project of representing the self acquires a political dimension. Julia Swindells refers to these new radical uses of autobiography: Autobiography now has the potential to be the text of the oppressed and the culturally displaced, forging a right to speak both for and beyond the individual. People in a position of powerlessness – women, black people, working-class people – have more than begun to insert themselves into the culture via autobiography, via the assertion of a ‘personal’ voice, which speaks beyond itself. (Swindells 7) It is also a genre where memory of a beloved past steeped in maternal genealogy and affected by a violent history of patriarchal and colonial repression offers to reconstruct a sense of fragmentation that is inherently linguistic. The autobiographic nature of the novels under study cannot, however, be missed, for as she states: “[i]n my first books, I went veiled. In the quartet, I expose myself” (qtd. in Mortimer 102), contending elsewhere, “Is not writing a way of telling what I am?” (Fantasia 58) Autobiographic accounts in Fantasia and So Vast the Prison relate a childhood and adolescence where Arabic/ Berber cultural values collide with French ones creating a sense of anxiety and displacement. The narratives also evince the theme of the exile of a writer, whose use of French instead of Arabic or Berber condemns her to live on the edge of two cultures, belonging fully to neither. I will first consider what the autobiographic mode offers in terms of exposing the various forms in which vestiges of the past survive (whether personal or collective). I then set out what is entailed in constructing an interpretation of these pasts into a narrative whose language alienates the narrator from these nostalgic reconstructions. The third and final section examines the narrative strategies that allowed a negotiation between French and Arabic languages to prove that her novels are rather of emplacement than displacement. 2. The Legacy of Autobiography “What is a woman who writes within an Arab culture? A scandal,” postulates Djebar in an interview (Le Clezio 232). If writing is a transgressive act, the use of autobiography is doubly so; for it is a tacit agreement to reveal the self, a very hazardous enterprise when the narrator/author is female. Indeed, in a Muslim society, the “we” engulfs and ALLS 6(4):20-27, 2015 22 hegemonizes the “I”; explained by Déjeux by the fact that “holism takes precedence over individualism” (Déjeux, qtd. in Arnaud 25). Self-expression remains a foreign practice, as the author herself contends in Fantasia “the women dramatize their fate, or exorcize it, but never expose it directly” (155). Djebar acknowledges the abomination of selflessness in the Muslim society, hinting at her female siblings’ inability to speak for themselves, “since that would be to scorn the blanket-formulae which ensure that each individual [woman] journeys through life in collective resignation” (F. 156). By entrusting herself to “the will of persistent memory” (So Vast 323) in a genre alien to her culture, Djebar risks unveiling herself (voice and body) and therefore alienating herself from her conservative community; for “to deviate is dangerous, inviting disaster in its multiple disguises.” (F. 156) Djebar’s autobiographical narratives juxtapose life-writing and historiography. They craft in E. J. Hobsbawm’s words a “twilight zone between history and memory; between the past as a generalized record which is open to relatively dispassionate inspection and the past as a remembered part of, or background to, one’s own life” (Hobsbawm 3). Resurrecting dormant, stifled ancestral voices ensures the establishment of “Chains of memories… for do not memories fetter us as well as forming our roots?” (F.178) Personal history fuses within the more controversial collective one, giving it legitimacy and authority. A destiny of female siblings and relatives, made up in part of deception and pain, but also of serenity and pleasure, is exposed and dissected not without its own therapeutic effect on the narrator. What is seen in Djebar’s autobiographic accounts is the primacy of memory. Memory for her has its politics. The process of self-understanding is inherently recollective. While patriarchy goes on “...wrap[ping] the nubile girl in veils. Mak[ing] her invisible. Mak[ing] her more unseeing than the sightless, destroy[ing] in her every memory of the world without” (F.3), Djebar attempts to excavate that dormant memory, a task she admits is painstaking; for, she says “I[am], an Arab woman, writing classic Arabic poorly, loving and suffering in my mother’s dialect, knowing that I have to recapture the deep song strangled in the throat of my people, finding it again with images, with the murmur beneath images...” (So Vast 206). To reconstruct that memory, Djebar relies on oral tales and stories narrated by old women; “the legacy,” Djebar explains, “will otherwise be lost - night after night, wave upon wave, the whispers take up the tale, even before the child can understand, even before she finds her words of life, before she speaks in her turn and so that she will not speak alone” (F. 177). About So Vast the Prison, the writer says: “That is what this story in images and sound is, an attempt to navigate as smoothly as possible back through the stream of my memory and the memory of other several women” (So Vast 279). Obviously then, what Djebar strives for is a resurrection of her subjective memories and those of her female community. “My open mouth,” she says, “expels continuously, the suffering of others, the suffering of the shrouded women who came before me” (So Vast 350). The desire to see for others, to expose their stiffened voices and repressed sufferings amount to an altruistic gesture of solidarity: “Every night my voice leaves me as I awaken the sickly sweet suffocations of aunts and girl cousins that I, a little girl, glimpsed and did not understand. Wide-eyed, I contemplated them, and later was able to picture them again and finally understand” (So Vast 348). It is also a political gesture in the sense that history is re-written from the standpoint of the marginalized other. It is eventually a comforting act that allows her, the exilic figure, displaced both geographically and linguistically, to project into her maternal genealogy and identify with their sufferings. On the political value of memory, Minh Ha observes: “words empty out with age. Die and rise again, accordingly invested with new meaning, and always equipped with a second-hand memory. In trying to tell something, a woman is told” (Trinh Minh-Ha 79). In narrating her failed relation with her husband and the pain he made her go through, for instance, the author/narrator associates her suffering with that of generations of female heirs who, out of legitimacy or pure fancy, called their husbands the “enemy”, “thus the husband returned to the role that for generations he had been assigned by the memory of the city. In his renewed rage... he played the role of the enemy even more easily.” (So Vast 109) The (hi)story of a number of female characters resurfaces in Djebar’s narratives. In So Vast, the stories of mythic or fictional characters like Fin Hinan, Zoraida, and real ones like the mother, the grand-mother and the elderly women of the narrator’s tribe are all excavated and superimposed with the narrator’s own (hi)story. Tin Hinan, the princess of Hoggar, ancestor of the Touaregs, a female nomad like Djebar, is described as the heir of the Berber language with its “archaic alphabet” (176); the legacy of that erased language is buried in the recesses of her body where it has been protected for centuries. Zoraida also, the first Algerian woman ever cited in modern fiction by Don Quixote, is a fugitive whose correspondences in Arabic with a foreign captive did liberate her from the confines of the father’s opulent house, but reduced her to misery. In her sacrifice and destitution, Djebar sees “a metaphor for Algerian women writing today – among them myself” (So Vast 173). The mother too is a major character in Djebar’s narrative, not only because she represents a solid background for an anchored Arab-Berber identity, but also because in her she sees the repository of Arabic/Berber culture. The mother learns oral French, communicates with her French neighbours during colonial times, even takes off the veil, dresses up in French ways and travels to France on her own; yet deep inside her, ancestral – maternal – wisdom is stored. Her love for Andalusian poetry and music for instance testifies to a keen desire to preserve what has been bequeathed from her grandmothers. When the mother cries over the destruction by French soldiers of this heavy legacy, of the poetry of the noubas of Andalusia that “had come so far, navigating from beyond the centuries and shores, having been transmitted from woman to woman, some of them were in flight, the others locked up” (176), this testifies to a sense of belonging that neither modern ways of living nor cultural exchange could erase. While the mother acquired a sense of ease in shifting between languages, for the author/narrator the boundary between languages is clear cut and implies a mutual exclusion, creating a perpetual anxiety and unease. Whether real or imagined, the emblematic female figure seen in Tin Hinan, Zuraida and her biological mother provides a sense of connectedness and belonging for the narrator: “I write in the shadow of my mother... I write to clear my secret path... I am becoming more and more a renegade in the so-called foreign language. Like Zuraida, stripped. Like her I lost the ALLS 6(4):20-27, 2015 23 wealth I began with – in my case my maternal heritage – and I have only gained the simple mobility of the bare body, only freedom” (177). Her destiny of being “rooted in flight” is made familiar and more bearable by the “comings and goings of women in flight from the long-ago or recent past.” (176) To write herself, then, the author/narrator has to write off others. In So Vast the Prison, writing off others is usually meant to condemn their sequestration and to criticise Patriarchy. During her film shoots in her native village, the narrator, who is the film director, ponders over the issue of veiling and the appropriation of the gaze. Women of her tribe were all shrouded in veils, yet their “miniscule gaze” that peeps from the hole in the eye and from which they “spy, they watch, they search, they snoop” (180), acquires power by being associated with the authoritative gaze of the narrator’s own camera while shooting her film; empowering them in the process; and so “All of us from the world of the shadow women, reversing the process: we are the ones finally who are looking, who are beginning” (180). To “gaze back” both at colonial and patriarchal structures and ideology is a political act of resistance made possible through this reconstructed autobiographic event. Reclaiming both the colonizer's gaze and the masculine gaze liberates the female body and therefore voice. Another reminisced experience of the narrator is in parties organized by the mother and the grandmother in which, trances and dances are performed, meant to free the asphyxiated voices from the double shadow of Islamic tradition and colonial exclusion. And despite the narrator’s own exclusion from these festivities (due to her Westerlized manners of a girl who goes to a French school), such events still anchor her in the female tradition of her community. In Fantasia, memory resurfaces through storytelling more than through personal recollections and enables the writer to revive her tradition and roots. Storytelling is many-voiced, disconnected and sporadic in the manner of an oral tale. Created in the language of everyday life of women characters, the stories celebrate the bonds linking various generations of women including her: “my body reverberates with sounds from the endless landslide of generations of my lineage” (46). The last part of Fantasia is weaved around personal stories of elderly women whose “voice[s] lift the burden of memory” (141) as they relate their roles in the War of independence. This trace of orality plays a key role in healing the writer’s fractured identity as it allows her to plunge into the recesses of her self (seen through others), and to pay tribute to a history itself marginalized because unwritten: “Strange little sister… whose story I now transcribe in a foreign tongue. Her body and her face once more engulfed in shadow as she whispers her story” (141). The identification of the writer with her ancestors is complete and makes her comment at the end of the book comprehensible: “the date of my birth is eighteen hundred and forty-two, the year when general Saint-Arnauld arrives to burn down the zaouia of the Beni Menacer, the tribe from which I am descended” (217). Eventually, she is able to rewrite history and contest the official versions that obliterate women’s role in the war of independence, in so doing, her role as “the daughter of the nation” and the engaged writer is fulfilled. Listen, hear, transcribe, write; this has been Djebar’s endeavour to recapture what is lost. This is how collective autobiography is transcribed, that of the subdued, forgotten and marginalized because illiterate and sequestrated. This is also the constructive act of writing trauma, which, La Capra argues, “involves processes of acting out, working over, and to some extent working through in analyzing and ‘giving voice’ to the past” (LaCapra 186). Several examples of recuperated female voices are recounted and with them stories of heroism, courage and patriotism: the story of Cherifa, the girl of thirteen who joined the maquisard, was caught and tortured in prison; that of lalla Zohra who lost all her sons as well as home and belongings in the resistance war; that of the widow who succumbed to sexual abuses while her husband was fighting in the mountain, to mention but few examples. The women speak (whisper) for themselves in the presence of the narrator, their veiled voices emerge, and their stories are eventually heard and transcribed in a narrative that, despite its foreignness to oral testimonies, presents a picture of a self that is comfortable, empowered, and able. Autobiography becomes a political act of resistance to the so-called objectivity of official history and the master-narratives that underpin it. 3. The “Double Bind” Edward Said says “everyone lives life in a given language; everyone’s experiences therefore are had, absorbed, and recalled in that language” (Said 217). Such argument foreshadows a dilemma at the heart of Djebar’s narratives. The autobiographic narrative becomes a contested space to expose and work through the writer’s Linguistic exile. As she clarifies in So Vast the Prison: “I write to reveal a secret path for myself, and . . . it is in a language described as 'foreign' that I become more and more disloyal. . . . Having lost my maternal heritage, and having gained what? If not freedom, then the simple mobility of the body stripped bare” (172). “The body stripped bare,” is tantamount to unveiling, and is seen as the result of relinquishing the mother tongue, the “protective shell in a forbidding new world” (Robinson, xvii); this act entails the risk of vulnerability and exposure, but also the promise of transparence and liberty. At the heart of Djebar’s narratives also lies a paradox, while she attempts to line up with her sisters whose voices have been strangled for years, she must acknowledge this complicity in a foreign language. She is clearly split between two languages and tries to find her voice, without giving up her origins but also without locking herself up in her native culture’s archaic conservatism. While she confides that “Writing has brought me to the cries of the women silently rebelling in my youth, to my own true origins” (204), gender identification is always attempted but never completely achieved. This is due to the banishing effect of French words, those “Torch-words [which] light up my womencompanions, my accomplices; these words divide me from them once and for all. And weigh me down as I leave my native land.” (Fantasia 142) Kateb Yacine once stipulated that the French language is the Algerian “war booty”, and should therefore strategically be used to resist the cultural oppression it engendered. Language is the weapon, the vehicle of violence. The French used it to efface the Algerians and their history, but now Djebar turns it against the French to reclaim her people’s ALLS 6(4):20-27, 2015 24 history. Djebar describes French as “The language of the Others, in which I was enveloped from childhood, the gift my father lovingly bestowed on me, that language has adhered to me ever since like the tunic of Nessus, that gift from my father who, every morning, took me by the hand to accompany me to school” (F. 217). The French language, paternal in essence, liberates the narrator and gives her a voice. She admits the fact that learning to read and write French emblematizes “the outdoors and the risk, instead of the prison of my peers” (184); it has the ultimate power to unveil. It is a language that legitimized her transgression of cultural and social values imposed because of her female gender. It is the language that spared her confinement and sequestration. When interrogated on why her girl is not wearing the veil, “she reads,” the mother replies (179). It is also the language that casts off the male gaze and therefore his authority: “As if the French language suddenly had eyes, and lent them to me to see me into liberty; as if the French language blinded the peeping-toms of my clan and at this price, I could move freely” (181). In addition to the personal achievement made possible through adopting the colonizer’s language, it is this language that made of her autobiography a political act of resistance to the hegemonic mode of historic discourse, in the sense that it is a language turned against its propellers, exposing their colonial ravishes and violence. Empowering as it seems, French is not without its risks. In Fantasia, the external exposure, made legitimate by Djebar’s French schooling, exacerbates her fragility; for it exposes her body and voice, rendering them “bare, unveiled” (46). And although the potential of the Other’s language is recognized, it still thrusts anguish and a sense of threat. Writing in the Other’s language “proves fatal, since it is a sign of compromise” (33). “I know,” she says, “that every language is a dark depository for piled-up corpses, refuse, sewage, but faced with the language of the former conqueror, which offers me its ornaments, its jewels, its flowers, I find they are the flowers of death--chrysanthemums on tombs!” (181) Djebar’s mitigated attitude towards the use of French is clear in her statement: “That language was formerly the sarcophagus of my people; I bear it today like a messenger bearing a sealed letter ordering his condemnation to death, or to the dungeon. To strip myself bare in that language makes me chance a permanent danger of being consumed by fire” (Qtd. in Erickson 51). We see in this admission the “double bind”, the dilemma of continuing to write in French that destitutes her emotionally but liberates her voice and body. To write therefore means to be exiled from the feminine universe; her inability to sing (during evening musical parties) like her cousins and maternal relatives, or her uneasiness in sitting cross-legged are instances of her irrevocable displacement. (So Vast 127) Djebar states that “beyond the territory claimed by Arabic, there is the Berber language, which was my grandmother’s tongue, although as a teenager, I thought it was an oral language, that it did not have an alphabet” (Djebar qted in Gauvin 74). This knowledge propelled the investment of her narratives with Berber undertones, with the purpose of recreating “la sonorité de la langue maternelle” [the sound of the mother tongue], of Arabic or Tamazight, “dans la chair de la langue Française” [within the flesh of the French language] (Djebar qted in Gauvin 84). “I too”, she says, “seek out the rich vocabulary of love of my mother tongue – milk of which I had been previously deprived” (F 62). The yearning for the mother tongue, rendered in libidinal terms of a daughter suckling her mother, is reminiscent of Hélène Cixous’ “Bon lait de mère” and establishes fundamental links between Djebar and the French feminist Cixous. Interestingly, Cixous bears kernel resemblances in terms of language anxiety with Djebar. She also writes about being caught not between but with three languages; inside her mouth, three tongues proliferate, German, French and English, with the belief that German can only be oral. Her écriture feminine, the fluidity of language resonating with writing the body, seems in tune with Djebar’s grotesque transgression of the prevailing order of language through the constant transliteration and transcription of Arabic and Berber words that infiltrate the French overall narrative. Such an endeavour describes an attempt to engage with the locus of the repressed and lost language(s), to abandon the illusion of conscious rational control that the use of French dictates, and to open up to the unconscious as the site of “that which has been repressed by the brutal severing of the corporeal and the linguistic and by the processes of sexual differentiation” (Shiack 70). Djebar’s own “écriture feminine” or semiotic language is fleshed out in her constant moving in tandem between registers and languages, successfully transgressing and denying the boundaries of the symbolic order and the Law of the Father. She occupies an indeterminate space, or in Cixous’ words a “third body” that “surgit, vole et va voir plus haut le sommet des choses… mais pour que s’ecrive le troisieme corps, il faut que l’exterieur entre et que l’interieur s’ouvre” [“arises, flies and will see above the tops of things ... but for the third body to be inscribed, it is necessary that the outside gets in and the inside opens”] (Cixous La Venue à l’Ecriture 53). Though founded upon a sense of loss and exile, language for both Djebar and Cixous brings a sense of freedom and possibility when it adheres to the oral undertones of the maternal legacy, more so for Djebar as the indigenization of French restored her self-confidence in the possibility of an eventual reconciliation with her language and nation. Berber and Arabic languages are intimately connected to home, not just in the physical, domestic sense, but in the sense of belonging, roots and origins. Berber is the grand-mother’s tongue, Arabic is the mother’s, relegating French to the status of “step-mother” (F 214) or “enemy’s tongue” (F 215). In an interview, Djebar states “I refused to allow the French language to enter into my life, into my secret. I felt it was the enemy. To write in this language, but to write very close to the self, not to say oneself, with a violent separation, became a very dangerous undertaking” (Le Clezio 238). By “secret”, Djebar is undoubtedly referring to the private, intimate space of emotions. Indeed, the mother/ Mother’s tongue is viewed as the language of the heart, with its strong umbilical associations with motherly warmth, private feelings and “musical intimacy”. Arabic and Berber are the languages of the harem, they carry with them associations with the mother and home; these, Suleiman argues, “are intimately inscribed in some deeply personal expressions and forms of language use that act as mnemonic and archival sites of belonging and return” (Suleiman 81). French, then, is a harbinger for displacement and alienation in so far as it is situated outside the internal space of home; its objectivity does not allow the narrator to express her feelings, intimacy, and desire. To express love, French becomes sterile, ALLS 6(4):20-27, 2015 25 aphasic, “the words do not charge with any carnal reality,” she notes. (Gauvin 79) So, for instance, when recalling her love story with her “Beloved” in So Vast, she reflects on the emotional value of the word “darling” in Arabic or Berber, which a French speaker “would not have guessed its emotional weight” (90). In Fantasia, it is a reflection on the word “hannouni”, “half-way between the Berber language of the highlands and the Arabic of the nearby city” (80), untranslatable in French, that displays the sterility of French in matters of love and desire. She admits: “the French language could offer me all its inexhaustible treasures, but not a single one of its terms of endearment would be destined for my use” (27). “The written words, the words I had learned, retreated before me as soon as the slightest heart-felt emotion sought for expression” (128). In an interview with Lise Gauvin, Djebar states: “ I became aware, from a particular moment, that French was my language to think, to have friends, to communicate with friends, but when affection and desire are concerned, this language becomes for me aphasic. This desert is vested with scenes of violence and the ancestors’ war, of the cavaliers’ collapse, those who fell in the combat” (Gauvin 79). French is a depersonalized, disconnecting medium, devoid of sensuality and desires. 4. Strategies of Appropriation In So Vast the Prison, there is a persistent, if not haunting, need to repossess the mother’s tongue. Djebar must have felt that a part of her oral transcriptions and interviews will be lost in writing, through the semantic leakage that the transfer of feelings and meanings from one language to another inevitably produces. So, readers can easily hear echoes of the oral rhythm of folk, traditional texts, and of the spoken voice generally. This is clear in the innumerable use of colloquial words and expressions that have not been translated to keep their cultural or religious overtones. “Cadi”, “mahakma”, “jaouleds”, “douar”, “roumi” and “zaouia” are but a few examples of a deliberate transliteration or transference of a typically oral characteristic mode of speech. “Dhiab fi thiab” (319) is a “several centuries old” Arabic proverb that for Djebar could only be transcribed in Arabic to keep its rhythms and musicality. “Treated ‘in France’” (240) is a very Arabic locution meaning to go to a French doctor, while “France came” (F. 117) is another Arabic turn of phrase, meaning French soldiers came; they are transmuted literally into French to stress the exaggeration and sense of repulsion and fear that French presence engenders for the female community. These expressions add detail and local color to the narrative while placing Arabic and French on equal footing visually. It is in this localized form of the French language that the identity of the speakers is affirmed and assumed. Oral nuances refuse to disappear from Djebar’s discourse; they hang there archeologically, persisting to leave a trace in the written text, to redeem the pain and guilt of “uttering such a constant howl: such a wild, barbaric cry, macabre residue of a former century” (115). These murmurs, whisperings, soliloquies, and confabulations reconnect the writer with her maternal tongue. The marginalized language of the native and the voice of subalternity are displayed, flaunting and resisting the linguistic authority of French. Djebar goes further into transcribing a Berber song, whose first line “so vast the prison” figures as the title of her autobiography. (242) This “feminine memory” that Djebar resuscitates has a structure and a rhythm to which French has to modulate. The cumbersome task of the writer is to adapt the graphism of the French language into the curves of the Arabic and Berber languages. The author not only translates from one language to another, but from a spoken to a written culture. This is what Edouard Glissant has described as “the complex union of writing and orality” (cited by Rodriguez 34) and to which Djebar adheres perfectly well. The integration of orality in Djebar’s autobiographies allows the author to surmount her linguistic exile, to properly mourn the loss of the maternal tongue; it is both a linguistic and cultural reconciliation. Most postcolonial writers provide multiple layers of interpretation and intentionality that creates a whole cultural context, both past and present that ensure the transgression from the state of colonialism to that of post-colonialism.The “enemy’s language” dissipates in her female community’s oral dialects, so she transmits in French what she could hear in her mother’s tongue; the “I” will be speaking in tongues or heteroglossia, to paraphrase Bakhtin. In Fantasia, the plethora of voices redeem the sense of linguistic exclusion; it is what Erickson refers to as “Dialogic exchange” that accounts for the “plurality of propositions and positions; it works against closure and finality; it is atemporal and irreducibly polyvocal, and presents propositions and understandings in essentially non-linear, synthesizing sequences” (Erickson 13). The effect, to quote Erickson again, is to “delegitimize the master narratives” (13), to maintain a dark, unattainable knowledge about the postcolonial identity rather than opt for its accessibility and assimilation. This argument echoes that of Boehmer who notes that “Basically, what is frequently ignored in postcolonial criticism is the difficulty or otherness of the postcolonial text: the implications for us as readers of its possibly untranslatable cultural specificity” (238). As such, Djebar is engaged in a process of “language appropriation”, or fertilization, which is for Ashcroft et al. an essentially “subversive strategy… a process by which the language is made to bear the weight and the texture of a different experience” (Ashcroft et al. 262). For Zabus, this re-appropriation of language refers to a process of “relexification”, defined as “the making of a new register of communication out of an alien lexicon” (Qtd. in Ashcroft et al. 285). So when Djebar addresses her son as “my little liver”, “the apple of my eye”, she has relexified Arabic into French, keeping alive “the sound embedded deep in our childhood” (81). For Zabus, this subversive strategy works at two levels: On the methodological level, it stems from a need to solve an immediate artistic problem: that of rendering African concepts, thought patterns and linguistic features in the European language. On the strategic level, relexification seeks to subvert the linguistically codified, to decolonize the language of early, colonial literature and to affirm a revised, non-atavistic orality via the imposed medium.” (288) ALLS 6(4):20-27, 2015 26 As such, Djebar frees herself from the aphasic encroachment of French by enriching it with the rhythm and phrasing of her maternal languages; her French, through its hybrid, localized and “fighting back” forms, is now stripped of its colonial trappings and baggage. The narrator/author can claim: “I finally recover my power of speech, use the same understatements, interlace the allusiveness of tone and accent, letting inflections, whispers, sounds and pronunciation be a promise of embraces… At least, voice answers to voice and body can approach body.” (129) 5. Conclusion An autobiography “in the plural”, in a voice that is hybrid, is the only possible venue for Djebar when it comes to escaping the alienation inherent in her expression in the enemy's language; it is also an empowering medium that made her write about violence without flinching. She contends: “I thought that, by dint of writing about those who died last century in my country in flames, the blood of men today (the blood of History and of the oppression of women) was rising again to splatter my writing and condemn me to silence” (So Vast 347). The ability to celebrate the “anonymity of the elders” (So Vast 217), to lift women’s voices from oblivion, to re-inscribe their marginalized histories, compensated for the use of French and alleviated the violence and pain associated with its use; for as she contends: “I have captured your voice; disguised it with my French without clothing it. I barely brush the shadow of your footsteps” (F. 142). Through French also a re-writing of history is made possible, her part of responsibility, what she calls “solidarity”, has allowed the illumination of parts in history that were darkened due to historic amnesia. Relying on the plurivocality of women’s voices that entangle the personal with the collective, the private with the public, the use of French has offered the postcolonial self plurality, positionality, alterity and uniqueness. This language, imposed on the author/narrator as the only language of education that expresses neither love nor desire, has nevertheless given her a space. She managed, by writing on her own life, to distance herself from that language. Writing enabled her to feel home again, to reconcile with her origins. Linguistic anxiety is released in the sense that the language split is no longer a dichotomy, a matter of either/or relationship, but a continuum where the two (or three) languages cohabit and interact. The oral and the written together and separately; each first in relation to the other; this is what the autobiographic text celebrates. Arabic/Berber remain the languages of orality that bind and bound Djebar to her female community, the main contender for her identity as Algerian, while French is the written medium that safeguards memory and restores a sense of historic justice. At the end of Fantasia, Djebar says: “While I intended every step forward to make me more clearly identifiable, I find myself progressively sucked down into the anonymity of those women of old - my ancestors!” (217) Such statement questions the extent to which the whole endeavour of writing her autobiography has managed to establish the authorial voice of the writer and to claim the repossession of her nomadic identity. It makes it painfully clear to her that the genesis of her self, her identity as such, will always be circumscribed by the tyranny of French that will keep alienating her, reminding her that she cannot fully reclaim for her female ancestors’ subjectivity; it is also an acknowledgment that writing rests on self-deception, for it enshrouds more than unveils. The way the book ends reflects also the extent to which the trauma of loss and exile is endemic “They call me an exile. It is more than that: I have been banished from my homeland to listen and bring back some traces of liberty to the women of my family… I imagine I constitute the link, but I am only floundering in a murky bog […] My fiction is this attempt at autobiography, weighed down under the oppressive burden of my heritage. Shall I sink beneath the weight?” (218) And yet, the publication of her Algerian quartet is proof that she has gone over her trauma. The reader can only admire her narrative achievements, her discard of “the autobiographic pact” (Lejeune 1975) of solely focussing on the individual’s (his)story, the way she eschews the cult of individuality for the collective potential of expression, considering each woman resurrected her “alter ego” (201). As such, her narratives offer the possibility of resistance and counter-discourse not only to the canonized historic texts, but also to the classical use of autobiography. Memory in a foreign language is tantamount to loss and nostalgia, but Djebar made it constructive and ennobling. An aesthetic of writing that in dispersing the speaking postcolonial subject across languages, affirms an identity that is plural, fluid, and unstable in the postmodern sense of the word. In this, there is victory enough. References Aidoo, Ama Ata. Our Sister Killjoy. Hong Kong: Longman African Writers, 1996. Print Ashcroft, Bill, Griffiths, Gareth, Tiffin Helen. (eds.) The Post Colonial Studies Reader. London and New York: Routlege, 2006. Print. Boehmer, Elleke. Stories of Women: Gender and Narrative in the Postcolonial Nation. Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2005. Print. ___________ . Colonial and Postcolonial Literature: Migrant Metaphors. Oxford: Oxford UP, 1995. Print. Déjeux, Jean. “L’Emergence du ‘je’ dans la littérature maghrébine de langue française”. In Jacqueline Arnaud et al. (eds.): Autobiographies et récits de vie en Afrique. Paris: L’Harmattan. 1991. p. 23-29. Print. Djebar, Assia. Fantasia, An Algerian Cavalcade. Trans. Dorothy S. Blair. Portsmouth: Heinemann, 1993. Print. __________ . So Vast the Prison. Trans. Betsy Wing. New York: Seven Stories Press, 1999. Print. __________, Madeleine Gagnon, Annie Leclerc. La Venue a l’Ecriture. Paris :Union Générale d’Edition, 1977. Print. Gauvin, Lise. "Assia Djebar. Territoire des Langues: Entretien." Littératures, no. 101, février 1996, pp.73-87. Print. Freeman, Mark. Rewriting the Self – History, Memory and Narrative. London and New York: Routledge, 1993. Print. ALLS 6(4):20-27, 2015 27 Hanisch, Carol. “The Personal Is Political” (2006; reprint of 1969), available at http://www.carolhanisch.org/CHwritings/PersonalisPol.pdf. Web. Hobsbawm, E. J. The Age of Empire: 1875–1914. London: Abacus, 1989. Print. LaCapra, Dominick. Writing History, Writing Trauma. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins UP, 2001. Print. Le Clezio, Marguerite. "Assia Djebar: Ecrire dans la langue adverse." Contemporary French Civilization, 92 (1985), pp. 230-44. Print. Mortimer, Mildred. “Assia Djebar’s Algerian Quartet: A Study in Fragmented Autobiography.” Research in African Literatures 28.2 (1997): 102-17. Web. Robinson, Marc. (ed.) Altogether Elsewhere: Writers on Exile. New York: Harcourt Brace, 1994. Print. Rodríguez, E.J. “Oral Tradition and the New Literary Canon in Recent Caribbean Poetry Anthologies”. In Breitinger, E. (ed.) Defining New Idioms and Alternative Forms of Expression. Amsterdam: Rodopi, 1996. Print. Said, Edward. Out of Place: A Memoir. New York: Vintage Books, 1999. Print. Suleiman, Yasir. Arabic, Self and Identity: A Study in Conflict and Displacement. Oxford UP: Oxford, 2011. Print. Shiack, Morag. Hélène Cixous: A Politics of Writing. London and New York: Routledge, 1991. Print. Swindells, Julia. Victorian Writing and Working Women. Cambridge: Polity, 1995. Print. Trinh, T. Minh-H. Woman, Native, Other: Writing Postcoloniality and Feminism. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1989. Print. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Critical Reflection of an Iranian EFL Classroom: Effective Ploys in Narrative Paragraph Writing Development Fatemeh Mohammad Jafari Department of Foreign Languages, Fars Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Marvdasht, Iran E-mail: fatemeh_m_jafari@yahoo.com Alireza Ameri (Corresponding author) Department of English, Faculty of Persian Literature and Foreign Languages, South Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tehran, Iran E-mail: a_ameri@azad.ac.ir Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.28 Received: 05/03/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.28 Accepted: 16/05/2015 Abstract This article describes a qualitative study that investigated critical reflection in the hope that effective learning is objectified. It is the fruit of rumination on how critical reflection approach would affect learners’ performance in narrative writing. The idea for this paper arose when the researchers consistently utilized ploys effective for five EFL students’ learning of narrative writing in critical reflection process in an institute. Later, these ploys were categorized in three themes under three categories in teaching narrative writing. Data were gathered via students’ reflective writings. Gathered data were interpreted in the real setting by small scale grounded theory analysis. The final upshot demonstrated the criticality of students’ thoughts in their paper. The findings reveal the significance of optimal rapport and intimacy in which participants move ahead from mechanical learning to more cooperative approach in language learning with thorough reflection in their narrations for effective learning to take place. Keywords: Critical Reflection, Narrative Paragraph Writing, Effective Learning, Ploys, Improvisation, Reverse Position, Social Camaraderie 1. Introduction There is a growing concern in the concept of reflection, particularly critical reflection. Although these two concepts have the same meaning and usage in education, not all reflection is critical reflection. While moderating distortions in our beliefs is possible through reflection, it is by critical reflection that connections are made and new knowledge is created. This may occur in the case that learners accept other opposing ideas, which may culminate in positive, productive changes in them. Such changes can be consolidated by adopting reflective writings in the process of critical reflection by which learners can easily express themselves and critically reflect their thoughts on their sheets. While transformation in perspectives is the main outcome of critical reflection, growing people who develop greater effective understanding and learning should be another main concern of critical reflection. Effective learning can happen when the learning outcomes are highlighted and purposes of critical reflection are not emphasized. That is to say, among many different learning environments along with different purposes, there would be wide variation of ways and means used in the practice of critical reflection. As a consequence, in the process of critical reflection in teaching English skills, if language teachers are armed with means in teaching each one of the English skills there would be effective learning which can guide learners toward self-actualization and creating prolific incentive to better their competency and performance. Concurrently, this study intends to introduce effective ploys, clever methods used in teaching narrative writing, in critical reflection process for narrative paragraph writing development to take place. At the end, although this study investigated the two concepts of reflection and critical reflection in learning narrative paragraph writing, there can be further unpacking to clearly identify these two concepts for better teaching other skills in foreign language learning. 2. Literature Review To fulfill the purpose of this study and in order for the educators/readers to have a clear picture of the idea, trying to map and have a clear meaning of just what critical reflection is, what its effects are and how we can make both critical reflection and narrative writing seems apt and worthwhile. 2.1 Reflection According to social theories reflection can play a vital role for individuals, their role, and influences of it in social interaction (Panadit, 2011). Long (1996) stated that interaction plays an important role in the learning process because of the feedback that learners receive during interaction. Dewey (1933) identified learning as a reflective activity that is ALLS 6(4):28-35, 2015 29 based on the individual’s prior understanding of the relationships between parts of his or her experience that could lead to a new interpretation of the relationships. Reflection is “the process of critically assessing the content, process, or premise(s) of our efforts to interpret and give meaning to an experience” (Mezirow, 1991, P. 104). Depending on Aristotle’s three forms of reason “technical, practical and theoretical” (Kemmis, 1985, P. 141), there could be three forms of reflection: “problem solving, practical deliberation and speculative thought” (Kemmis, 1985, P. 142). The problem solving form is directly related to reflection-in-action and reflection-on-action. Reflection-in-action is reflection that individuals get engaged in as they confront a problem in their life. Reflection-on-action (the most common type) on the other hand, is the kind that people get involved in their back in a group (Schon, 1983). 2.2 Different Kinds of Reflection There exists a trichotomy of reflections: • Content reflection: what an individual perceives or thinks, • Process reflection: how we perform these perceiving, thinking, feeling, or acting • Premise or critical reflection: why we perceive, think, or feel 2.3 Critical Reflection Critical reflection makes sense out of experiences which ends in learning. It mainly differs from reflection, because it involves being aware of the power dynamics of the situation instead of reflection’s limited scope of examining the more immediate details of problems (Reynolds, 1999). Writing is a method which helps to reduce stress levels. Critical reflection can be evidenced by narrative writing in any process. Narrative is a complex, critical event especially for reflection which links language to experience. By the help of narrative one can reveal their uniqueness. “Being aware of our own uniqueness provides a path way to selfdiscovery. Discovering our own voices in educational settings, guide us to assist ourselves in life s’ events, or even change our own behaviors” (Ward, 2001). 2.4 Tools and Processes for Promoting Critical Reflection There are several techniques for materializing critical reflection. Therefore, in order to facilitate critical reflection learning process in this study, the researcher followed some of these techniques in the hope that under their influence effective teaching and learning objectified. Some of which are mentioned below. 2.4.1 Storytelling Storytelling is a powerful means which is employed to explore and understand ones’ own values, ideas and norms (Gold and Holman, 2001, as cited in Gray, 2006). Storytelling is trying to persuade us to share meanings, therefore, it can be the preferred sense making skill in human relationships (Gray, 2006). Stories also help students to articulate quite complex events they are involved, which helps them to develop new insights and understandings, new perspectives and therefore, new ways of acting. This analysis of arguments also helps students and teachers to recognize the perspectives of their classmates and students. Knowing principles governing storytelling means having a degree of self-understanding, self-insight and self-respect, cornerstone of perspective transformation (Gray, 2006). The process of storytelling can be improved by practicing in pairs or listening to others’ stories. It facilitates reflection, self-awareness and a better (critical) understanding of others as well as themselves. Therefore, learning and new behaviors or awareness happen. Central to this approach is valuing doubt and uncertainty, so that a space can be opened up for critical self-reflection and emancipation (Gray, 2006). 2.4.2 Picture Story The impact of pictures in stories is clear. It is proved that using picture stories have positive impact on students’ motivation, comprehension, confidence, interpretation, and creativity (Hsiu-Chih, 2008, as cited in Rausch, 2011). From teachers’ side they should be tolerant toward different opinions and various learning styles. An increase in motivation is seen as a reflection both of the inherent interest of stories, which is increased by the pictures, and an outcome of the increased comprehension that comes with being able to understand the story through the pictures, all of which then inspire learner confidence with the language (Rausch, 2011). Stories allow for many interpretations, a reflection of individual creativity and tolerance for different viewpoints and opinions. 2.4.3 Reflecting on Critical Incidents Critical incidents involve an interpretation of the significance of an event (Tripp, 1993). The events are not necessarily dramatic events, and may occur in the routine of everyday life. At first sight, many of these events appear to be ‘typical’ rather than ‘critical’. They become classified as critical, however, through the process of reflective analysis. Critical incidents go through two stages. The first is that the nature ALLS 6(4):28-35, 2015 30 of the incident becomes noted and described which should be richer and more detailed, in the second stage, the incident becomes critical when it is linked to a wider social context (Tripp, 1993). 2.5 Rapport and Cooperation Brown (2001) maintains that as students work together in pairs or groups, they share information and come to each other's aid. He believes that the students are a team whose players must work together in order to achieve goals successfully. As a matter of fact, developing interpersonal interaction between the facilitator and the experiencers in the target language in the class is located at the heart of establishing rapport. An apt technique to do so is to encourage the learners to work in groups. Then a sense of belonging is grown in the members of the groups, the whole class. Even the groups are motivated to communicate with each other to form a whole, which is the class. This is the gist of whole language learning. Rapport is the relationship or connection that teachers establish with their students, a relationship built on trust and respect that leads to students’ feeling capable, competent, and creative (Brown, 2001). Students working in groups can begin to feel a sense of community and can learn from each other as well as the teacher; as a result, cooperation, not competition is encouraged. In consequence, communicative interaction encourages cooperative relationships among the students. It gives them an opportunity to work on negotiating meaning. In short, students learning collaboratively have been shown to use higher level learning strategies, are more motivated to learn, and are able to learn through cooperative problem solving. 3. Method, Participants, and Instrumentation In this qualitative study data were garnered through several informal interviews. The majority of the conversations fell into the category of unstructured or semi-structured interviews to make the participants free to follow their own paths. The data also were collected through the use of participant observation and participants’ narrative writings over seven months. The five EFL pre-intermediate teenage students, three boys and two girls who all had passed English File 1 by Clive Oxenden and Christina Latham-Koenig (2007), participated in this research project. In the process of critical reflection, participants had originally gone through 22 sessions by which voice recorder was always working. At the very beginning of the process, the researchers/ teachers exposed participants to different pictures and reading, encouraged them to tell different personal stories, preparing their minds to talk and write. After twelve sessions of preparatory work for critical reflection, from session thirteen on, interesting topics about social issues were introduced to be discussed. The next step was to let them talk freely about their thoughts, and afterwards ask them to narrate and take a critical stance in reflecting whatever that happened in the class during the discussions on the paper in one or two paragraphs. For the purpose of investigating the level of criticality in participants, data were analyzed via reflective writing rubric adopted from Rhode Island Commission Rubrics. In an attempt to analyze the garnered data, small scale grounded theory was employed. In terms of grounded theory, it was attempted to inductively derive meaning form data in the real setting. The data in this type of qualitative research were grounded together on a similar dimension, and this dimension was given a name, then, it became a category. Therefore, the following analyzed data were the result of investigating twenty-two class narrations in great details to provide thick and rich information for the study. 4. Findings and Analysis In this section, the gathered data were profoundly analyzed and scrutinized to constitute findings and results about the practical ways by which critical reflection could impact participants’ narrative writing. Accordingly, for the purpose of effective learning to happen in the narrative writing class, throughout the process, there arose many different events which were the results of the two researchers’/teachers’ adaptation ploys in the process of critical reflection. The events later were divided into the following tokens which were classified under three main themes for better organization. These themes fall into three broad categories of Establishing Rapport, Cooperative Learning, and Participants’ Reflection. In all of these categories, Intrinsic Motivation, Learner Autonomy, Individualization, and Self-actualization are of pivotal significance. The following table is set out to reveal the outcomes evoked from establishing rapport in association with deficiency needs of language learners. The elements of motivating class atmosphere are perfectly visible. ALLS 6(4):28-35, 2015 31 Table 1. Establishing Rapport Theme Analysis 1. Social camaraderie a. Psychological well being Type Token Communication Fourth session, Commonalities Social awareness Third session, a student’s answer to teacher’s question “ Air pollution” Fourth session, a student ‘s drawing on the board b. Intrinsic motivation Social health Sense of security Sense of belonging c. Integrating in social network Equal attention to gender d. Injecting more fun and joy More intimacy Healthy Humor e. Camaraderie Fourth session, One of student’s interest in knowing his classmates Students’ feeling toward this class Third session, participants reflections toward a sporty picture Third session “ Chatter Box” Sixth session, intimate conversations between participants Table 2 is intended to sum up the principal benefits originating from cooperative learning. The influences of participants’ learning process are disclosed. Table 2. Cooperative Learning Theme 2.Participatory approach Analysis a. Accounting for active involvement b. Lowering teacher domination c. Reverse position d. Generating a sense of accomplishment e. Deliberate mistake f. Naturalizing the procedure of language learning Type Role play Mutual learning Moving forward from passivity to activity, and growing a feeling of selfimportance and confidence Incarnation role-shift Boosting Confidence Empathy Improvising tasks Bona fide topics f. Active thinking g. Prolific collaboration among participants Imaginitivity/visual simulation Voluntarism Token Fifth session, seventh session, and fifteenth session Eleventh session, Fifth, seventh sessions, Taking teachers’ place to make others understand the point, Giving enough time and freedom to the participants in order to teach in whatever way they prefer to teach Third session, a mistake happened by the teacher, in spelling “Sur name” and “Halloween” Third session, Birthday celebration discussion, Fourth session, one of students mood, affecting that session plan Fourth session, first paragraph, another student’s reflection about his age and changes in his body Fifth session, working on a photos to choose the sequences and write a story about them From session sixth then on ALLS 6(4):28-35, 2015 32 The third table is intended to sketch out the main merits that derived from participants’ reflection. It actually confirms how reflection can usher in criticality. Table 3. Participants’ Reflection Theme 3. Problem Solving Analysis Mutual Trust and respect between participants and teachers Type Mistrust to trust Sense of Sympathy Influencing behaviors Sense of Empathy Sharing feelings Developing a sense of belonging Freedom of Expression Reflection Encouraging risk-taking activities Tolerance of ambiguity Curtesy Courage self-actualization Self-revealing side talent discovery Token Fourth session, teachers’ misunderstanding about one of the student’s’ writing and behavior Twentieth session, participants’ concern about teacher’s feelings Session Eleventh, participants’ try to make one of them to deal with his loss Session fifteenth, participants’ stories of their grand parents’ death, and feeling they had Twelfth session, importance of the class for participants Ninth session, dealing with opposing ideas Seventeenth session, Respect in return to opposing ideas Seventh Session, gaining Courage to speak out loud in the class Seventh session, students’ perfect learning Fifth session, Being a good story teller, having especial talent in association of ideas Seventeenth session, talking about “Myself” Self-discovery Gratifying internally Enjoyment/ Musical Pun Fourth session, “Potato/Photato” Eleventh session, “Rabbit/Habit” Nineteenth session Better concentration and writing act with music Edutainment Holding Challenging discussion Criticality in thoughts and writing From sixteenth session then on 4.1 Discussion One of the managerial affairs on the part of the teacher in an attempt to promote reflection, especially critical reflection in language learners is to establish and maintain appropriate rapport and camaraderie among them. Based on what Beattie (2001, P. 98) claims, good teaching is like being in a good relationship. It is stimulating, caring, full of trust, and fun. The process is as important as the goal, honesty, sharing, exploring, and cooperation, taking responsibility, mindbody connection, going into depth, and accepting. On the other hand, one of the non-linguistic outcomes of language learning is to be psychologically ready to use language to communicate that provides supportive social environment to start personal relationship with people who may help them to do well in learning. According to the “Hierarchy of Needs’ theory (Mazlow, 1970, as cited in Griffin, 2011, P. 125), the four lower needs are called “deficiency needs” because their lack creates tension within us. So, the learners’ rudimentary and basic needs are to be satisfied. In this regard, the initial point to take into consideration seems to be the matter of “Comfort”. That is to say, the ambiance of the classroom must be comfortable enough so that the participants can feel at home. In so many ALLS 6(4):28-35, 2015 33 words, if the atmosphere of the classroom alienates the participants from the course and so on, the teachers’ and students’ objectives can hardly be objectified. Therefore, throughout the process of data gathering, in the light of proper rapport and relationship, participants developed a sense of belongingness, personal and social identity. This sense of security along with Social Camaraderie, a feeling of friendship, significantly facilitated the procedure of learning for the learners. Considering social camaraderie, the researchers/ teachers changed the atmosphere of the classroom to a real society whose members were participants and interestingly they were integrated in a social network. In fact, they learned more in that setting in which they were cared for and in which their social developments were supported. Therefore, they all enjoyed the camaraderie, fundamental to language learning, which was the result of friendly, intimate atmosphere where there was tenable exchange of ideas and information with fun and pleasure in which creativity was always unlocked and permitted. Following that, the atmosphere became more stress-free and comfortable between participants who became highly motivated by their personal involvement in the class activities. To fulfill this achievement, the teachers’ domination became moderated. That is to say, the participants did not “wait for instruction, words of approval, correction advice, or praise” (Jones, 2007, P. 7). The two researchers/teachers became less dominant and directive and the process of learning turned out to be more enjoyable in the eyes of the language learners. Hence, the teachers and the participants had the chance to put their heads together to make enlightened decisions for getting most out of learning. For the purpose of providing the learners with an atmosphere that was conducive to learning, “Reverse Position” for the teachers and participants developed. Reverse position means the role of the teacher and that of participants change intentionally. Therefore, the participants moved forward from being passive to have active roles in the classroom. In this fashion the participants were given a limited time to instruct not only to their peers but also to their teachers. Acting as a teacher made participants take responsibility in the classroom which persuaded others to cooperate, too. Nevertheless, in the ambiance of the classroom, the participants were encouraged to laugh with each other, not at each other. They worked with each other, not against each other. In this situation, destructive competition was replaced with constructive cooperation, and the result was that participants shared their own ideas to learn more. Indeed, asking the participants to think and act freely created self-worth and self-esteem in them. This self-worth developed their best to the course which grew a sense of accomplishment. Subsequently, in order to minimize the negative influences of affective filter that prevents language learners from actualizing their goals, from time to time, the researchers/teachers set a suitable scene for themselves to be tested by the participants in grammar, spelling, and vocabulary. By the help of “deliberate mistake” they provided an empathy with their participants, and gave rise to their feeling of confidence. Maheux and Lajoie (2010) consider improvisation as “the idea of doing something “in the moment”, without a script or step-by-step preparation, and pretty much “in response to” one's immediate environment, inner feelings, and so on”. As supported by Sawyer (2000), “every day conversation is creatively improvised- there is no script that guides a conversation”. He emphasized the importance of three concepts of “creative process, collaboration, problem-finding and communication” in the process of improvisation. Therefore, based on the above-mentioned facts, when the focus of teaching and learning is on natural communication, or on collaborative practice of target language in adaptable environment, improvisation that provides opportunities for learning and development becomes prominent. As a result of living in the natural, and collaborative setting, participants had the chance to exercise more creativity which would carry unplanned tasks and talks to devote to during the class time. Coming up with an event and make excellent use of it to encourage participants to learn, increased the dynamism in the classroom. Moreover, imaginative open-ended tasks activated their thoughts. For example focusing participants’ attention on the pictures, allowed them to both discuss orally and write several lines in conjunction with the photos. In consideration of their writings, the participants were encouraged to write a story together within a simple structured framework, and using vocabulary they had learnt to move from creative and active thinkers to creative writers who were leaning collaboratively in the group. Regarding interpersonal interaction between the researchers/teachers and the participants, there was mutual understanding, empathy, trust, respect, between them. The participants were encouraged to voice their thoughts to the course, to the member of group, and the whole class. In solving problem activities throughout the course, language learners were convinced to express their feelings and get involved in risk-taking activities which would reveal their inner selves . In return, the researchers/ teachers did not care about finding fault with them. This nonjudgmental environment made the participants gratified internally to enjoy every minute of learning English. In the light of the observations made throughout the study, it was convinced that the stimulating discussions gave the learners an exceptional opportunity to share their ideas and findings with their friends. Holding challenging discussions also turned out to be pretty significant which resulted in maximum criticality in both their thoughts and their papers. Therefore, the challenging and intriguing topics to discuss about raised their language inquiry. Analyzing participants’ narration from the beginning to the end of the process, the followings are demonstrative of their critical progression. Participants’ narrations were analyzed based on “Reflective writing rubric” adapted from Rhode Island Commission Rubrics. ALLS 6(4):28-35, 2015 34 Table 4. Critical Reflection in Narrative Writing A B C D E • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • • Setting the context by the appropriate use of descriptive language. Proposing questions Making connection between personal idea and subject matter Open-ended conclusions/ Making the readers think Using descriptive language to put the readers in context in Exceed standard Making connection between personal idea and subject matter Reflecting back to see the situation critically Closing the text and providing the reader to think about something in Exceed standard Making connection between personal idea and subject matter Criticizing herself Reflecting back to see things in-detail and carefully Leaving the reader something to think Proposing question Open-ended conclusions Leaving the reader something to think Using precise language and descriptive one to put the reader into the context Making connection between personal idea and subject matter Proposing question Reflecting on the issue by analyzing it in-detail In addition, the whole findings and results in this section brought up the subsequent table which is arranged the taught materials in ten steps to follow in narrative writing classroom. These teaching materials were all inspired by Whitakers’ (2005) article who listed different items in teaching writing. Table 5. Steps in teaching narrative writing with regard to critical reflection 1 Basic Sentence structure 2 Capital Letters 3 Short Paragraph ( Narrating their class) Indentation, Unity, Paragraph Length, Story Writing task 4 Reading Summary/ Participants’ awareness toward ways they can write 5 Punctuations Coordinating Conjunction Time Clue Order of Importance Signal words Comma, Full stop, quotation mark (But, And, So, Or, Yet), Punctuation task Chronological order, Process development, Mind-mapping 9 Participants’ choice and ownership Collaborative Writing Helping students draw on their own experiences, interests, tendencies Removing grades Pair writing practice, Grammar needs analysis syllabus re-design, Grammar Task, Spelling Task 10 Academic Writing Working professionally on Introduction, Body, and Conclusion Guided to semi-guided composition Emphasizing Critical thinking Editing their writing by the help of themselves 6 7 8 Sentence and its parts, Function of words/ Parts of speech, simple sentence Every sentence starts with capital letters Transitions, Semi colon, Transition task 5. Conclusion The entire procedure of moving from a product-oriented approach to a process-oriented perspective, practicing narrative writing in critical reflection process by the help of different ploys motivated participants to get involved in class activities. Their choral attention was indeed on their own learning which resulted in more questions and answers, sharing ideas and enhancing information. As a consequence, they worked with each other and developed a sense of ALLS 6(4):28-35, 2015 35 cooperation. Accordingly, progress in spelling, vocabulary, and writing mechanics was perfectly visible. Participants’ salubrious endeavor in English talking and criticality in writing were the other main outcomes of this humble practice of teaching writing. Reference Beattie, M. (2001). The art of learning to teach: Preservice teacher narratives. Upper Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall Inc. Brown, H. D. (2001). Teaching by principles, an interactive approach to language pedagogy. San Francisco State University: Pearson Education, Addision Wesley Longman, Inc. P. 74 Dewey, J. (1933). How we think: A restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process. Boston: D. C Heath and Company. Gray. E. D. (2006). Facilitating management learning – Developing critical reflection through reflective tools. School of management. Guilford: University of Surrey Griffin, E. (2011). Hierarchy of needs. Griffin (Eds.), A first look at communication theory (PP. 125-133). New York: MC-Graw-Hill Jones, L. (2007). The Student-Centered Classroom. New York: Cambridge University Press. Kemmis, S. (1985). Action research and the politics of reflection. In D. Boud, R. Keogh, & D. Walker (Eds.), Reflection: Turning experience into learning (pp. 139-163). New York, NY: Nichols. Long, M. (1996). The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition. In W. Ritchie and T. Bhatia (Eds.), Hand book of second language acquisition, pp. 413-68. San Diego: Academic Press Maheux, J. F., & Lajoe, C. L. (2010). On improvisation in teaching and teacher education. An International Journal of Complexity and Education, 8, 86-92 Mezirow, J. (1991). Transformative dimensions of adult learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. Oxenden, C., & Latham-Koenig, Ch. (2007). English File. Oxford: University Press. Pandit, G. (2011). Critical Reflection in Collective Knowledge Creation: A Mixed-Method Case Study of Middle Managers’ Reflection and Interaction in a Public Organization. A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of The Graduate School of Education and Human Development of The George Washington University. Rausch, S. A. (2011). Picture Story Books in Elementary School English Education. Revisiting the Mechanisms of Trans mediation. 106, 15-22 Reynolds, M. (1999). Critical Reflection and Management Education Rehabilitating Hierarchical Approaches, Journal of Management Education. 23, 537 – 553 Sawyer, R. K. (2000). Improvisation and the Creative Process: Dewey, Collingwood, and the Aesthetics of Spontaneity. The Journal of Aesthetics and Art Criticism, 58,149-161 Schon, D. A. (1983). The reflective practitioner. New York: Basic Books Tripp, D. (1993) Critical incidents in teaching: Developing professional judgment. London: Routledge. Ward. G. C. (2001). Narrative, making meaning, and personal development: Teachers’ storied experience in Montessori, Steiner and other primary classrooms. A thesis submitted to The Graduate School of Education of The University of Notre Dame Australia in fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy Whitaker, C. (2005). Best Practices in Teaching Writing, Write in the middle, 6, 1-8. Retrieved November, 2014, Annenberg Learner. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Distorted Dialogue in Richard Matheson’s I Am Legend: A Bakhtinian Perspective Hamed Faizi English Department, Faculty of Letters & Humanities, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran E-mail: hamed.faizi89@gmail.com Ali Taghizadeh (Corresponding author) English Department, Faculty of Letters & Humanities, Razi University, Kermanshah, Iran E-mail: altaghee@zedat.fu-berlin.de Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.36 Received: 07/03/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.36 Accepted: 18/05/2015 Abstract Based on the theories of Mikhail Bakhtin, a dialogue can necessarily take place only in a two-sided communication. But if a party creates a hierarchical situation for the domination of its voice in the context, the communication will no longer be dialogic. In I Am Legend, Richard Matheson depicts a post-apocalyptic world that is destroyed due to the spread of a disease which metamorphoses people into bugs. The bacterium of this disease is denotatively and symbolically the aftermath of a war in which every party attempts to suppress the other parties to establish a monologue to its own advantage. But Robert Neville, Matheson’s main character, tries to find a cure for this exasperation. As he kills the new creatures, his attempt is a measure to delete the factors which make the “other” intolerable for him. When the new nonhuman race is ultimately at the threshold of creating another society, they look upon him in the same way he used to look upon them. However, the new society finally decides to execute him. A Bakhtinian reading of the novel shows that almost all the position-holders try to erase the dialogue and establish their own authority. It causes disastrous consequences like violent exclusions. The present research takes it to analyze the attempts in the novel which want to destroy dialogue, and to expose the disastrous results of each participant’s efforts to exclude the other party. These efforts lead each party, especially the marginalized one, to an alienation where they have to spend their times in violence and frustration. Keywords: I Am Legend, Matheson, Bakhtin, Dialogism, Monologism, Post-apocalypse 1. Introduction In the Bakhtinian dialogic context the voices are independent. Mikhail Bakhtin takes it natural to dialogue that each voice should interact with other voices while it has the right freely to be spoken out in the context. But if the privilege to suppress the other voices is given to a certain voice, the dialogic context will get demolished, and the possibility of what Ball and Freedman call “the development of the whole person” gets exhausted. Ball and Freedman affirm that, “Bakhtin and his followers are interested in the development of the whole person and his or her complex of ideas and concepts,… but not to the exclusion of other parts of the idea system” (2004, p. 5). Out of dialogue, there is nothing to curb the voices. Therefore, it is likely that they turn to become authoritative an aftermath of which is a further development of radicalism which in turn can lead to the decline of democracy. Bakhtin sheds still more light on the risks of this radicalism emerging from the monologic. He says, “in the monologic world… a thought is either affirmed or repudiated; otherwise it simply ceases to be a fully valid thought” (1984, p. 80). In such a background, only the prevailing thought often comes to the fore and imposes itself on the other thoughts while the other thoughts get marginalized and lose their validity. White believes that, “monologism, according to Mikhail Bakhtin, represents the shutting down of dialogue and its alteric potential. For Bakhtin and his followers, monologism exists where ultimate truth claims, as truth-istina, do not make room for alternative perspectives on truth, as truth-pravada” (2008, p. 3). The disarmament of the alternative along with the imposition of fixity proves the monologic not only authoritative but banal and dispirited also. I am Legend reads about the spread of a deadly disease which puts the human race on the edge of extinction. A last war between humans has grounded the disease to become epidemic. This is the time when dust storms spread the host mosquitos all over the world carrying the bacteria. Thus, the war symbolically depicts the attempts which destroy the dialogic, for each side involved in war tries to vanquish the other side and impose his own voice on him. The disease creates an apocalypse the smash of which shows us a post-apocalyptic world where most of the human civilization is already extinguished. In this narrative space, Robert Neville is perhaps the only human creature who survives while his life is often threatened by the human mutants whom he hunts whenever he has the chance. Causing a war between humans and real vampires, the disease turns most of the humans into vampire-like creatures. On the one hand, Robert tries to discover a cure for the disease. On the other hand, trying to infect humans, the vampires convert them to bugs, ALLS 6(4):36-40, 2015 37 non-human creatures. At the end, these vampires become smarter and establish their own society. They also execute Neville to guarantee both their own survival and the destruction of the marginalized party. Critical studies on I am Legend have often focused on three main themes. One is horror, another one is the postapocalypse, and the last one is loneliness. The present study will intend critically to analyze all of them. However, it seems that Matheson’s novel has not yet been approached in the light of Bakhtinian theories on dialogism and unfinalizability in fiction. Therefore, the present study will also take to reveal the representation in it of the potential dangers of the exhaustion of dialogism. We will argue that in the exhaustion of dialogism war becomes widespread with destructive consequences. In other words, the present research attempts to critically analyze the efforts both of the humans and the newly born society to wipe each other off the scene of existence. Each of these species in Matheson’s novel tries to do so by imposing the logic of his or her own monologue on the other species. Such a conduct leads to the execution of Robert while he is the last hope of a still uninfected human race to find a cure for the disease. Literally speaking, it leads to the extinction of the ordinary human beings. Trying to exclude a participant from the dialogue will ground the establishment of a monologue with disastrous issues that violently excludes that participant. 2. Discussion and Analysis Mikhail Bakhtin’s theories have attracted many literary critics since his revival or better to say rising in the west. Bemong and Borghart state that, “Since western scholars became acquainted with his writings in the 1970s and 1980s, the Russian scholar Mikhail Bakhtin has been an indispensable figure in literary theory and a number of related disciplines in the humanities” (2010, p. 3). The notion of dialogue surely plays the most crucial role in the Bakhtinian writing, and it is widely applied to literary studies; “In literary theory, dialogue… signifies the organizing of fictional texts, usually novels, to allow the interplay of different voices, minds or value systems in such a way that none is superior to another” (Vagaan, 2007, p. 90). In a dialogic context, the participants have the privilege to establish their presence through uttering their outlooks and without the fear of being either suppressed or excluded from the dialogic context. This means that any hierarchical organization is a threat to dialogism to which it runs counter. On the other side, the established power, which often tends to be monologic in its conducts and communications, tries to show only a single side of the coin of truth which guarantees its advantages. However, what is more important for Bakhtin is whether a literary text is ideally dialogic. Actually, our dialogues ground the realization of our consciousness, and it is the way our actions take roles in society. Dentith claims that “consciousness can only realize itself, however provisionally, in dialogue with the other’’ (1995, p. 42). And also White affirms that dialogue is “an ongoing social process of meaning making that occurs between people as subjects’’ (2008, p. 5). In a dialogic context, man understands his presence not as a taken-for-granted entity but in relation to the presence and participation of another man, even if this another man tries to alienate him by pushing him out of the field. This is to mean that even if there is a hierarchical system working in the field that wants to suppress the other participant, we still can realize the existence of the suppressed participant. From the eye of Bakhtin, as an outcome of negotiation, our being cannot be defined in isolation, because “sharing existence as an event means among other things that we are—we cannot choose not to be— in dialogue, not only with other human beings, but also with the natural and cultural configurations we lump together as ‘the world’” (Holquist, 2002, p. 28). On the natural level, our dialogue makes us connected with the physical nature, that is, with other natural phenomena like the Earth, the sun, the wind, and the unstoppable sequence of nights and days. On the cultural level, it is the gate of our social being, the meaning of our life in relation to the institutes like family, school, the police, the bank, and the church. But on the human level, which is the most innate to our own selves, it is the guarantee of our understanding about our others or our fellowmen also, the guarantee of our comprehension about the other people who experience the world in more or less the same ways as ourselves. About the interdependence of the self and other in dialogue, Kershner provides more elaborations: Bakhtin’s idea of the self is radically dependent upon others; the self, for him, is an act of grace, the gift of the other. Human consciousness is formed only in a process of perpetual negotiation with other selves by way of their ‘languages’. Selfhood is supremely social, and a person who grew up without ever having been exposed to speech would not be fully human for Bakhtin (2001, p. 21). Therefore, it seems that the monologic is actually far from genuine, because even if a dialogue between two parties inclines to be one-sided, dialogue is in closer terms not only with creation but with consciousness also. Dialogue may happen everywhere, but its genuineness is the condition that all the participants in it have the priority to freely utter their outlooks. Such a genuine dialogue provides us with the possibility of the intersection of heterogeneous horizons to the advantage of critical interpretation. Holquist believes that, Bakhtin, on the other hand, conceives monologue as not only secondary in importance to dialogue, but as having a different ontological status. Dialogue is real, monologue is not; at worst, monologue is an illusion, as when it is uncritically taken for granted. Or at best, monologue is a logical construct necessary to understand the working of dialogue (2002, p. 57). Focusing on dialogism, Bakhtin basically takes his attention from who says the truth to give it to the exchange of opinions between participants. Thus, the question “who says the truth?” gives place to the question “who says what?”, while no party is privileged to impose his thoughts on the other party. So, one can suggest that by dialogic Bakhtin means an occasion where everybody has the right to freely express his existence, and by so doing he not only infuses his idea with the idea of the other but also for the idea of the other to be infused with his own idea. It is this idea ALLS 6(4):36-40, 2015 38 interfusion (or idea intertwining) which makes a communication ideally dialogic. On the contrary, by the monologic Bakhtin means the systems with authoritative figures who distort the dialogic by creating hierarchical pyramids of power and discrimination. Matheson’s novel depicts a post-apocalyptic world where mutant humans kill real humans for their survival. Yet, Robert, as the only human survivor, either fights them or tries to find a cure for the virus that has caused the metamorphosis. Thus, the novel is his life story. For five months he passes a lonely life in a post-apocalyptic world while he gets into contact with no other human being. In the third year of his loneliness, we seem him finally executed. In the course of the novel, a number of flashbacks offer data about why this apocalypse should happen and how Robert loses his family. At first, the reader looks upon these vampires as cliché blood-sucking creatures that he often sees in commercial movies. But later he finds out that they are on the verge of establishing a society; and they start to look upon humans in the same way that the reader used to look upon them. Near the end of the story Ruth warns Robert of the impending danger of the vampires: “they’re [vampires] terrified of you, Robert, they hate you. And they want your life” (Matheson, 1997, p. 95). In the whole story, Robert’s mode of conduct is monologic, and he constantly fights with the vampires. We see him in two different episodes. In the first one, he has been alone for five months, while in the second he is in the third year of his loneliness. Yet, he still cannot find any man with whom to stand in relation. In the first episode, he is an edgy person who has lost his temper because of loneliness and lack of communication. We see him living a literally solitary life due to which he is getting depressed while his only nourishment is drinking and smoking. It is pretty natural for a person like him to become depressed when he is denied of all forms of social intercourse whose life is typically comprised only of daily routines. There is no dialogue in his life, a kind of life which is therefore almost impossible for a man to pass. Considering the social dimensions of human life, “Bakhtinian theories support the study of social norms and processes, not isolated individuals. Ideology is part of a social process, which can only be understood by analyzing its social and interactive essence” (Ball and Freedman, 2004, p. 29). The first thing that Robert usually does after waking up in the morning is smoking. As usual, he either attends some chores at home or scavenges the city for supplies. And his listening to very much music testifies that his conduct is inclined to the monologic, because when one is listening to the music, his communication is only one-sided. The voices and screams of his vampire neighbors bother him so much that he soundproofs his house so that “they could scream and howl all they wanted and he didn’t have to listen to them. He especially liked not having to listen to Ben Cortman [his neighbor and they used to be friends but now Ben is a vampire] any more” (Matheson, 1997, p. 25). This soundproofing symbolizes the fact that he wants to suppress the other party. When we move to the second episode, Robert has already experienced three years of loneliness. He has turned to an antisocial person who has got used to this lonely style of life. He has started to have delusions about having a companion, and even his plans to befriend a dog turn out to be pathetic efforts that finally kill the dog. Monologic features of his life style are realized almost everywhere. Everything in his place smells of a single vegetable, which is the smell of the garlic he uses for protection. Even his nutrition suggests that his life is cold and stale, because everything which he consumes, even fruits and vegetables, is frozen. When he wants to hear a voice he can only listen to the music. Robert’s living in this post-apocalyptic situation is summarized into either finding the necessities of life or fighting the creatures. The absence of dialogue is felt even in the city where Robert is residing. Once, this city was populated by many people. But it is far from unbelievable that they are no longer taking use of the advantages of dialogue. Hence, absence of dialogic communication is the central theme of Matheson’s novel. For example, “he [Robert] frowned as he drove along the empty boulevard, the only sound the muted growling of the motor in his car” (1997, p. 11), and as another example, “he [Robert] started the car and backed quickly into the street and headed for Compton Boulevard. There he turned right and headed east. On both sides of him the houses stood silent, and against the curbs cars were parked, empty and dead… … There was no one to be seen anywhere” (Matheson, 1997 p. 10). The mechanical and deadly situation of Matheson’s character, which is overwhelmingly silent and empty also, and the fact that there is no one in his thereabouts with whom he can communicate, tell the believable tale of a man who is denuded of the conditions of dialogue. In another example, the text directly points to the absence of dialogue by explaining Robert’s idea as to singing birds: “there was no sound but that of his shoes and the now senseless singing of birds. Once I thought they sang because everything was right with the world, Robert Neville thought, I know now I was wrong. They sing because they’re feeble-minded” (Matheson, 1997, p. 18). Birds are feeble in mind. They unknowingly create language stuff, but in the stuff they create there is no sense, no communication. So, they are out of dialogue. Robert too is out of dialogue, because however language is affluently at hand, language is actually inaccessible to him. Thus, one can suggest that the birds’ feeble-mindedness allegorizes his inability to create dialogue, which is similar to when we see him listening to classical music pushing him out of communication. In confrontation with the vampires, Robert either tries to kill them or desperately searches for a way to cure them. His attempt to find a cure for the virus is another symbolic way of enhancing the monologic at the expense of the dialogic, because it is clear that he will not accept the presence of a party other than his own. This hostile interaction between humans and vampires is shown on a symbolic level. It is fixed from its commencement, and it remains finalized. Notwithstanding, what usually leads to the inconclusiveness of dialogue is the unfinalizable interactions between participants, because their dialogic interactions transfer them to an “inconclusive context” where “all the semantic stability of the object is lost; its sense and significance are renewed and grow as the context continues to unfold” (Bakhtin, 1981, p. 30). As a result, it is natural for the dialogic to be in an unstoppable process of formation and reformation in which there is no final resolution. ALLS 6(4):36-40, 2015 39 In Matheson’s novel, war on different levels shows that a certain truth has already been defined which implies their finalized mode of thinking. But a basic requirement of dialogue is its open-endedness or unfinalizability. Bakhtin argues that the presence of participants in a dialogue is essentially relative while their relative presence demands it to be perpetuated. Dialogue actively looks to the future, which makes it even more tangible and inconclusive. But in order to establish a monologic system one needs to be finalized; if a party wants to impose its dominance over the other party, firstly they should create hierarchies. This is what happens in Matheson’s novel, for each party tries to keep the hostile relationship in practice. For example, Robert changes his direction and resets his goals from killing the vampires and merely surviving the day to conscious efforts to find a cure for the disease; so whatever he does is a way to keep the monologue running because he cannot accept the other (vampire) the way it is. Even vampires mutate and become so intelligent that they create a society; this society also keeps the hostile positions toward the humans or better to say Robert Neville because he is probably the last human being. The notion of legend plays a crucial role in understanding the distorted dialogue here; by legend Robert refers to superstitions about vampires that have come true in the storyworld. In his point of view, vampire is “something black and of the night had come crawling out of the middle Ages. A tenuous legend passed from century to century” (Matheson, 1994, p. 13). We used to scare ourselves with these legendaries not only for fun but also for thinking about the secrets of life more carefully and inquisitively, but now, as they’ve come true, they are a real part of our life and consciousness. However, metaphorically they refer to those propagandas which the dominant party uses to warn us about the marginalized party. When they want to deprive somebody of the privilege of their relations, they just coin scary legends about them to damage their reputation and shift the public opinion for their own benefits. Robert considers some American politicians even more dangerous than these creatures when he says: But are his [vampire] needs any more shocking than the needs of other animals and men? Are his deeds more outrageous than the deeds of the parent who drained the spirit from his child? The vampire may foster quickened heartbeats and levitated hair. But is he worse than the parent who gave to society a neurotic child who became a politician? Is he worse than the manufacturer who set up belated foundations with the money he made by handing bombs and guns to suicidal nationalists? ... All he does is drink blood (Matheson, 1997, p. 15). And he continues to refer to the marginalized position of vampires: Why, then, this unkind prejudice, this thoughtless bias? Why cannot the vampire live where he chooses? Why must he seek out hiding places where none can find him out? Why do you wish him destroyed? Ah, see, you have turned the poor guileless innocent into a haunted animal. He has no means of support, no measures for proper education, he has not the, voting franchise. No wonder he is compelled to seek out a predatory nocturnal existence (Matheson, 1997, p. 15). Here, Robert directly refers to the lower and suppressed communities of his society. When vampires come to power a similar process is repeated; Robert turns to a legend, a superstition that scares vampires. Even before his execution, he thinks to himself “I’m the abnormal one now. Normalcy was a majority concept, the standard of many and not the standard of just one man” (Matheson, 1997, p. 95). Robert has already found out that “he did not belong to them; he knew that, like the vampires, he was anathema and black terror to be destroyed” (Matheson, 1997, p. 96). He used to hunt them once and when they become more powerful, they start hunting him down. Now the human has turned to the beast and vampires are (considered) normal creatures. This happens when the hierarchy turns in a circular way; the dominant party becomes marginalized while the marginalized one becomes dominant, and all of this happens because the dialogic is misrepresented. However, the decadence becomes more tumid when we realize that not only Robert but the vampires also are inclined to the monologic. For instance, there are vampires who wait for a chance to kill Robert. If Robert rules the day, these vampires rule the night, while their opposition ultimately leads to the former’s execution by the runners of the new society. Although not all members of the Vampires’ counsel agree with Robert’s execution, a majority of them demand it. They are afraid of Robert in the same way he used to be afraid of them; even Robert says “a new terror born in death [by new terror Robert actually refers to himself as a human being], a new superstition entering the unassailable fortress of forever. I am legend” (Matheson, 1997, p. 96). Robert turns to a new legend, and vampires are scared of humans in the same way that we used to be scared of them. The text symbolically divides the thinking creatures all over the world into two confronting groups; humans versus vampires. By doing this, the novel refers to the hostility between two groups who are involved in a war. Actually, everything starts and ends with a war. In a flashback, when Robert is talking to Kathy his wife, he claims that “‘half the people on the block have it [the disease], and you say that more than half the plant is absent” by which he means “some kind of virus”. She shook her head saying “I don’t know’” (Matheson, 1997, p. 28). The storms created by the war have grounded the increase of mosquitoes which transfer the bacteria; and the spread of these insects shows the destructive consequences of war as Robert says “we are entering the age of the insect” (Matheson, 1997, p. 28). This symbolizes the fact that the communities which fight a war against each other get closer to primitive ways of life (and communication). Later on, Robert and his wife acknowledge that in a war neither party can be the winner: ALLS 6(4):36-40, 2015 40 “‘they say we won the war,” she said. “Nobody won it” “The mosquitoes won it.” “He smiled a little. “I guess they did,” he said’” (Matheson, 1997, p. 29). Actually no one can win a war because war is the ground of the annihilation of the human races. Robert’s encounter with Ruth is also significant. When he sees her the first time, she is walking under the sun while she is tanned. But under the sun, the vampires can’t come out. Robert becomes pretty much assured that Ruth is human. So, he chases her because he believes that his wish has come true. He is not alone anymore, for he captures her. But the moment she shows reaction to garlic and her body smells like vampires he starts to suspect that she is a vampire. It is significant that as soon as he suspects of her humanity he starts showing hostility to her while she is still calm. Robert wants to make sure that she is really not human. If she is not human, he will no longer welcome her with pleasure. Although Ruth is on a mission to extract information from Robert, she wants something more than that. Sometimes she shows warm attitudes towards her. Later on, she even warns him in a note to leave the city and go to the mountains to protect his life. But she disagrees with his execution. However, when she perceives the point that Robert wants to distort the dialogue because she is not like him, she also gives herself up caring for dialogue. This point becomes additionally obvious when she doesn’t want him to test his blood, because she thinks that it does not matter and she wants him to accept her the way she is. She behaves in a way that it does not matter whether or not she is a vampire, she just wants some sort of communication. But Robert does not want to have such a kind of dialogue. At the end, both vampires and Robert Neville choose the monologic ending which leads to the extinction of human race; one side is finally destroyed. 3. Conclusion In a monopolizing (authoritative) system, “everything ideological falls into two categories; the first category is certain thoughts–true, signifying thoughts” (Bakhtin, 1984, p. 79), and the second category is comprised of those thoughts which are not considered false or untruthful by the authority. Truthful thoughts “gravitate toward the author’s consciousness, and strive to shape themselves in the purely semantic unity of a worldview; such a thought is not represented, it is affirmed” (Bakhtin, 1984, pp. 79-80). When a community is fractured into (two) parties, if the parties can enjoy the advantages of no dialogic negotiation, it is much likely that a hostile confrontation takes place between them while the dominant party tries to destroy the minor one. Matheson’s novel is a representation of the confrontation in such a radical situation of such two fractures which cannot enjoy the advantages of dialogism. In the scenario illustrated by the novel, even the relations between the protagonist and his wife and neighbors are considered as false, because these guys go under metamorphosis and turn to creatures that show liking to kill Robert. In addition, their metamorphosis shows that the dialogue among them is distorted in a radical situation when their society is on a very significant turn. The last survivor of the human race should live upon the leftovers of the previous civilization because that civilization has tried to “shut down the dialogue.” The consequences of this venture of dialogue annihilation are much more than just loneliness, because in this way a new race comes into existence who are not humans but vampires. Between these humans and vampires no dialogue is likely to be made. In such a dramatic setting, the last survivor of the human race shall be executed by the vampires who are themselves the products of the war the humans have fought against each other. War is inevitable, because some human creatures abandon the dialogic and try to impose their own monologues upon other human creatures. Consequently, Robert Neville, the last human creature, becomes the victim of the monologic, while it seems that his final execution symbolizes the shattering of the last illusions of dialogue in the modern man. References Bakhtin, M. M. (1984). Problems of Dostoevsky's Poetics (C. Emerson, Trans. Vol. 8). University of Minnesota Press. Bakhtin, M. M. (1981).The Dialogic Imagination: Four Essays. (C. Emerson and M. Holquist, Trans.). University of Texas Press. Bemong, Nele and Pieter Borghart. (2010). “Bakhtin’s Theory of the Literary Chronotope: Reflections, Applications, Perspectives.” in Bemong Nele et al. (Eds.). Bakhtin’s Theory of the Literary Chronotope: Reflections, Applications, Perspectives. Gent: Academia Press. pp. 1- 16. Dentith, S. (1995). Bakhtinian Thought: An Introductory Reader. London: Routledge Publications. Freedman, S.W. and A. Ball. (2004). “Ideological Becoming: Bakhtinian Concepts to Guide the Study of Language, Literacy, and Learning.” in Ball, A., & S. W. Freedman. (Eds.) Bakhtinian Perspectives on Language, Literacy and Learning. Cambridge University Press. pp. 1-33. Holquist, M. (2002). Dialogism: Bakhtin and His World. London: Psychology Press. Kershner, R. B. (2001). “Mikhail Bakhtin and Bakhtinian Criticism.” In Julian Wolfreys. (Ed.). Introducing Literary Theories: A Guide and Glossary. Edinburg University Press. pp. 19-32. Matheson, Richard. (1997). I am Legend. Kindle version. PDF. Vaagan, R. W. (2007). “Open Access Scientific, Electronic Publishing and Bakhtinian Dialogism.” Westminster Papers in Communication and Culture, 4(2), pp. 85-99. White, E.J. (2008). Bakhtinian Dialogism: A Philosophical and Methodological Route to Dialogue and Difference? New Zealand: Victoria University of Wellington Press. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Blended Learning via Mobile Social Media & Implementation of “EDMODO” in Reading Classes Tahsin Yagci Ishik University, Erbil, Iraq E-mail: tahsin.yagci@ishik.edu.iq Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.41 Received: 10/03/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.41 Accepted: 21/05/2015 Abstract Almost there is nowhere that we don’t use permeated smart technology. Increasingly developing mobile and wireless innovations forced us to integrate them to all fields in our lives. The latest trend in education is now blended learning and applications of mobile learning in educational environments. Pervasive and augmented usage of social media such as Facebook, YouTube, Twitter, Instagram, Bloggers etc. forced educators consider integrating social educational platforms into their academic curriculum. Furthermore the advancement in mobile device technologies with internet connectivity made mobile blended learning inevitable. Thus, for a long time educators are determent to adapt mobile learning for their lessons. So teaching evolves 7/24 through social mobile platforms. In my study I will clarify how to use social mobile media and devices in EFL teaching. Especially, there will be significant strategies how to enhance students’ reading skills using Edmodo in my lessons practically. Advantages and disadvantages of mobile learning will be discussed in my paper. We will have an overview of learners’ attitudes about social media and mobile learning platforms. What kind of reading tasks could be given through on Edmodo? How will be the assessment in this process? Are there any collaborative learning methods in Edmodo? All these and more questions are going to be enlightened in this study. Keywords: Blended learning, mobile devices, social mobile media, reading comprehension skills, student centered approach 1. Introduction Mobile wirelessly internet networked electronic devices are enhancing new format of blended learning environment. There has been a great deal of innovation in the curriculum of EFL teaching. Most of the course material publishers added some extra applications in their offers. These applications are available both on mobile and non-mobile smart devices. The inevitable integration in multimedia and technology really obliged lecturers to revise and renew their teaching methodology. However, to be honest learners are a few steps beyond from their instructors. “As users of mobile technologies become dramatically widespread worldwide, it is more likely that they will become ubiquitous in the lives of learners” (Sharples, Corlett, & Westmancott, 2002).The increasing and ubiquitous implementation of Web 2.0 and Web 3.0 social media platforms, such as social networking sites, wikis, and blogging, provides a broad road for cooperative and collaborative teaching -learning process proactively (Pachler, Bachmair, & Cook, 2010). As the results are shown in Table 1 the most popular social networking site is Facebook with a percentage of 72% among adult social media network users (Duggan,2015). On the other hand the ratio of Facebook is decreasing gradually. Additionally some recently discovered social networking sites such as twitter, Instagram, Pinterest etc. are increasing significantly. Some other important values on Social media in USA are; a common usage for multi-platform is % 52. More than % 56 of older adults has Facebook account. The youngest ones enjoy sharing their emotions on Instagram or Pinterest (see Figure 1). Figure 1. Social media sites percentage among adult users and their development ALLS 6(4):41-47, 2015 42 The 21st century is going to be remembered in educational history as the inception of blended learning (Wexler, et al., 2007). The last evolution in both electronic smart devices and wireless internet accessibility led educators to integrate these tools into their educational environment. On the other side web 2.0 software application engineers prepared various educational programs beside personal computer programs (Moreillon, 2007). Currently there is almost no one who has got one of those social media platforms. Facebook has the first rate among them. It is widely used in any fields in the real life as well as educational environments. Generally it is used as Facebook groups or pages among students. They share with each other course notes, home assignments and additional information and comments (Yagci, 2015). They are connected to each other through these kinds of platforms. New generation which is called digital natives by Prensky (2001) have their smart mobile devices such as smart mobile phones, tablet pcs, netbooks etc. They are always connected to internet via GSM operators or special internet suppliers. One can recognize that students have a common sharing attitude about their internet routers. Regarding to speedy developments in facilities of higher education, students are able to connect to internet via their mobile smart devices (Yagci, 2014). Figure 2. The diversity of electronic devices among undergraduate students in Erbil Iraq In Figure 2 according to the survey the author conducted in April 2015 among undergraduate university students; 85, 7% of the students have smart mobile phones. 75, 3 % of them have Laptop or Notebook computer. 29, 8% have tablet Pcs. Those are the indications for readiness for involving students to implement blended learning. Unfortunately most of the students use this giant source for communication and entertainment. Our duty and responsibility as educators and curriculum developers, we should encourage the students to use mobile learning and embed social media in our syllabus (Yagci, 2015). 2. How to integrate social networking platforms into reading comprehension Social networking tools such as Twitter, Blogging, Facebook, and Edmodo are the platforms which engage individuals or set of citizens to communicate and distribute the knowledge via micro blogging Software (Facebook statistics, 2004). They could have educational personal or business aims; micro blogging distributes each other’s opinions or thoughts and information with circumscribed amount of text or document. On the other hand blogging is a type of website that permits you to share enormous quantity of information. Consumers not only just past text but as well as their comments statements audio visual tools or graphics. They can send messages directly to individuals or groups in this method they construct their own social networks. Social networking tools for example Edmodo, Blackboard and Moodle etc. are really preferred to instruct by several scholars to amend their learning and teaching environment (Simyo and ahead of time, 2009) these educational platforms let learners to initiate discussion and sharing outside the classroom .Typically if the teachers have less interact time with students its more effect time to interact with them by social educational equipment. Social media platforms make teaching learning cognitive 7/24. Some teachers claim that they work at a dual language school; they want to use mobile technology to raise learner motivation and engagement in learning languages or other subjects. They suggest using Edmodo or other educational platforms for students to sign up and accomplish their daily or weekly assignment through internet. Most of the educators prefer Edmodo because of its user-friendly layout nature, which demands less computer skill knowledge (Lee, 2015). Mobile technology in fact offers a winy beneficial method to gain learning aspects. Froyd (2008) declares that learning from books and from computers bused environments outcome in more progressive execution compared with learning from the text-only books. Likewise mobile technologies can be coordinate with text voice icons videos shared workspaces or mixture of these shapes mobile learning profoundly more interactive engages more human to human cooperative and communicative interactions shows mobile learning really motivates learners. (Froyd, J; Simpson, N, 2008). Another definition of Mobile Learning by the MoLeNET program is as “The exploitation of ubiquitous handheld ALLS 6(4):41-47, 2015 43 technologies, together with wireless and mobile phone networks, to facilitate, support, enhance and extend the reach of teaching and learning” (MeLoNet, 2007). By the mobile technologies customers not just consume information. However operatively provide and share information. The utilization of mobile technologies is not always inevitable to educate learners. However in the correct context it can aid nowadays educators to embrace accurately learner focused approach to learning mobile technology can be used for numerous learning exercises including. 1) Mobile equipment and inventions are most widely used forms learners can use social mobile media for project work. Context submitting or fast question and reply. SMS is allowing more interaction and collaboration with people. 2)Books or course objects can be downloaded on to mobile devices (smart phone tablets PDAs laptops) specifically at higher education score podcasting can be used to reshowing live lectures and to provide opportunities for students to narrate spoken presentations podcasts allow supplemental info to enhance traditional scolds as a huge number of intelligent mobile devices came into the fairs .Its riskless to assume that mobile equipment is increasing and rising as component of day by day existence. Specifically with university students educators or government investors will require to counsel on the base of devices most sufficient for the curriculum mobile devıces can be used to support the learning process us comparatively lighter quicker and less expensive than PC . Mobile technology has perfect ability for providing students with valuable true time collaborative and conversational experience both in and outside the class. This potential should be used and cared (Kukulska-Hulme, 2005). 3. Specificities and Peculiarities of Edmodo and its role in reading classes Edmodo is one of the popular and most preferred educational social platforms which have approximately 48 million users all around the world (National Center for Education Statistics, 2008). Because of its user friendly menu makes it point of attraction among teachers and students. Its mission is to connect all students with the teachers and resources they want to reach their full potential. Edmodo has a distinguishing design which attracts students` excitement about learning as teachers can easily create a blended learning experience and environment. In Edmodo educators and teachers are at the origin of a powerful social network which joins them to learners, parents, school administrators and publishers. Edmodo is engaging and attracting user friendly educational platform. It has not only pc web-site, but also tablet pc and android applications (Froyd, J; Simpson, N, 2008). It is student centered software. Learners can follow their improvements through the assessment reports. They can see their results and get feedback from their teachers. Teachers can easily hold the pulse of students. They can make groups in their classroom (Ally, 2009). It’s very convenient to send and receive data or assignment either individually or in groups. Your students are there where you can touch to Edmodo. In any time you can send text or reading parts to your connection. Teachers may communicate with other colleagues and they can cooperate with each other. Shortly Edmodo is a motivating platform which encourages learners to study out of contact time (Shih, Chuang & Hwang, 2010). 4. Methodology To achieve the objective of study, the data and the information were collected from interviews, observation and impressions of researcher. An experimental study was established in 2nd grade ELT students’ class. In the reading course Cover to Cover text books were studied. During the studies the class had a special closed Facebook group. They registered to Edmodo classes and some extra reading materials were delivered through social media. Qualitative and quantitative research methods were used. Four students were chosen as a member of social media team in the classroom. Their duty was to inform and guide students with the registration of social media accounts. Through this experimental study we had some interviews and observation. The impressions of researcher were inevitable. Another quantitative questionnaire was conducted among the Iraqi university students. The questionnaire was conducted online through Google Forms. The collected data were analyzed in SPSS 22. Some of the results and tables were shared in this study. Actually this survey was the first online one among several universities. 4.1 Participants There were 26 students in ELT second grade reading class. According to gender of students; sixteen of the students were female and eight of them were males. The level of the participants was intermediate level. According to CEFR it was B2 level. And some of them had several social media accounts. Most of them had Facebook account however they had not met with Edmodo yet. In this study 177 respondents participated. They were the university students in Kurdistan region in Iraq. They were from different universities. Ninety six respondents were female, 81 were male. Among the respondents 47.5% of them participated from Ishik University which was a private university in Kurdistan region. 11% of them study in Salahaddin University which is a state university. Students from Cihan University were 28.8%. Kurdistan University and the others were 13 % (see Table 1). ALLS 6(4):41-47, 2015 44 Table 1. Gender and Institutions of Respondents Valid Female Male Total Cihan University Ishik University Kurdistan University Other Salahaddin University Total Frequency Percent Valid Percent 96 81 177 51 84 1 23 18 177 54.2 45.8 100.0 28.8 47.5 .6 13.0 10.2 100.0 54.2 45.8 100.0 28.8 47.5 .6 13.0 10.2 100.0 Cumulative Percent 54.2 100.0 28.8 76.3 76.8 89.8 100.0 5. Initial Findings 5.1 Electronic Devices All the students had at least one or two different types of electronic devices. As devices are tax free in Kurdistan as it is very easy to get one of those smart devices. 38.7% of the participants have Mobile cellular phone. 75.1 % of the respondents have smart mobile phone. 19.9 % of the participants had laptop or desktop computers. The percentage who owns Tablet Pcs such as IPad, Samsung Galaxy Tab etc. is 32 %. The other details can be seen in Figure 3. Figure 3. Types of electronic devices students use The same respondents who have Tablet pcs. of the students use their mobile devices 4-6 hours during the day. The percentage is 37.4%. 86.8% of the participants have their own internet access. 62% of the participants had mobile internet accessibility. Table 2. Usage of Electronic Devices How many hours in a day do you use your electronic device(s)? Frequency Percent 1-2 hours 33 18.6 2-3 hours 29 16.4 4-6 hours 66 37.3 7-12 33 18.6 More than 12 hours 16 9.0 Total 177 100.0 I generally use my electronic device intensively.... Valid Valid all the day in the afternoons in the evenings in the mornings Total Frequency 71 24 69 13 177 Percent 40.1 13.6 39.0 7.3 100.0 Valid Percent 18.6 16.4 37.3 18.6 9.0 100.0 Valid Percent 40.1 13.6 39.0 7.3 100.0 Cumulative Percent 18.6 35.0 72.3 91.0 100.0 Cumulative Percent 40.1 53.7 92.7 100.0 ALLS 6(4):41-47, 2015 45 In table 2 the data are about respondents’ electronic device usage period and duration. 37.3 % declared that they use their devices 4-6 hours in a day. There are two same ratios that use the devices 1-2 hours and 7-12 hours which is 18.8 %. The participants in the survey also emphasize that they intensively use their devices 40.1% all the day time and 39.9 % in the evenings. Additional results are shown in Table 2. 5.2 Social media usage in Kurdistan region of Iraq Figure 4. Social networking sites usage of respondents in Erbil Figure 4 shows that each respondent has at least two account in social media platforms. 87.8% of 177 respondents have Facebook account. 57.5 % have Instagram, 50.8 have YouTube profile and 39.2% have Twitter accounts. According to my observation students generally do not use twitter. As it is shown in Table 3. 42.4 % of the respondents use their social media accounts for 2-3 hours in a day.27.1 % of them uses it just for one hour. 47.5% of them logs into their accounts generally in the evenings. 31.6% of them say that they use it during all day. Table 3. time spending with social media and its duration How much time do you spend on your social media account? Valid 1 hour 2-3 hours 4-6 hours 7-12 More than 12 hours Total Frequency Percent Valid Percent 48 75 32 16 6 177 27.1 42.4 18.1 9.0 3.4 100.0 27.1 42.4 18.1 9.0 3.4 100.0 Cumulative Percent 27.1 69.5 87.6 96.6 100.0 I generally use my social media account intensively.... Valid all the day in the afternoons in the evenings in the mornings Total Frequency 56 19 84 18 177 Percent 31.6 10.7 47.5 10.2 100.0 Valid Percent 31.6 10.7 47.5 10.2 100.0 Cumulative Percent 31.6 42.4 89.8 100.0 5.3 Internet access In table 4 we see that 87% of the participants have their own internet provider. The average for the internet access is around 20 %. The details are shown in the Table 4. ALLS 6(4):41-47, 2015 46 Table 4. internet Accessibility How many hours in a day do you login your internet? Cumulative Frequency Valid Percent Valid Percent Percent 1-2 hours 43 24.3 24.3 24.3 2-3 hours 38 21.5 21.5 45.8 4-6 hours 36 20.3 20.3 66.1 7-12 31 17.5 17.5 83.6 More than 12 hours 29 16.4 16.4 100.0 177 100.0 100.0 Total Do you have your own internet access? Cumulative Frequency Valid Percent Valid Percent Percent No 23 13.0 13.0 13.0 Yes 154 87.0 87.0 100.0 Total 177 100.0 100.0 6. Discussion and Recommendations At the beginning of the study the social media team which was established by the researcher made all the participants to have Facebook and Edmodo account. We shared our Edmodo class joining code and the students became members of virtual class. We studied in the class in classical way and then we supported our participants with extra reading materials on Facebook group at the same time in Edmodo. Most of the reading materials were related to the topics which we studied during the classical lessons. We shared the links of some related videos on Edmodo. Before coming to class students were watching and studying the given materials. They were like warming up activities. In some lessons we were online in the classroom and we took some quizzes through Edmodo. It was very encouraging for students to take online quiz because they had the opportunity to have feedback simultaneously. As students read more reading text both in real classes and in virtual classes through social media, their reading comprehension skills improved. We are going to discuss those results in another study. But as far as I observed during the lesson, student’s attitudes to the reading class increased. Because before coming to class they had enough prior knowledge to understand and discuss the issues and topics in the classroom. Using social media tools such as Facebook and Edmodo had really encouraged and motivated them to have reading classes. They started reading a lot through their mobile devices. Using Edmodo not only developed their reading skill but also increased their listening skill. The participants were frequently exposure to listen audio tracks of some texts in the textbook. As they read a lot through different means, they also developed their grammar structures. The Undergraduate students generally have the potential of integrating mobile learning. The requirements are ready but, regarding to social background and culture of the people who live in Iraq, they are reluctant to do some of the activities for educational purposes. Methodologists should study to encourage and motivate students to use the potential power of social media. The limitation of the study is the people in Iraq are not very ready for rapid changings. Socio- cultural background slows them. Iraq is a new area to make extra researches after the war. Additionally new elected political leaders are open for innovations. They are gradually adopting modern developments in to their country. Of course the private universities like Ishik University really accelerate the processes in any fields about education. 7. Conclusions In conclusion, In Iraq Erbil all the students have some type of mobile devices. Most of them have internet access. They like using Facebook and some other social media tools such as twitter and Instagram. According to the social, cultural and climatic issues majority of the students are reluctant to study in traditional way, as a consequent it is a must to gather these together and change the disadvantage of mobile media and social platforms into advantage for the sake of education. As educators we should discuss and establish the benefits of social mobile devices and their usage in educational environment. All around the world there have been many researches about blended learning, it’s inevitable to implement in Iraqi regions. In this study we just aimed to discover the potential energy of mobile learning in a territory. As a result we have seen that there is a great source to establish and implement Edmodo kind virtual schools. The students are ready for new innovations. Just they need a start point. ALLS 6(4):41-47, 2015 47 References Ally , M. (2009). Mobile learning: Transforming the delivery of education and training. Edmonton, Canada: Athabasca University Press. Duggan, M. (2015, January 9). Pew Research Center Internet science and Tech. Retrieved from Social Media Update 2014. Facebook Statistics. (2014, July 1). Retrieved from http:////Facebook%20Statistics%20%20%20Statistic%20Brain.htm Froyd, J; Simpson, N. (2008). Student-centered learning: Addressing faculty question about. Retrieved from The Course, Curriculum, Labor, and Improvement: www.ccliconference.com/2008.../Froyd_Stu-CenteredLearning.pdf Kukulska-Hulme, A. (2005). Mobile Teaching And Learning. In A. Kukulska-Hulme, & J. Traxler, Mobile Learning: A handbook for educators and trainers (pp. 25-45). London: Routledge. Lee, C. (2015). wordpress.com. Retrieved from MS CLAUDIA LEE: https://claude331.wordpress.com/2014/07/26/edmodo-vs-schoology-vs-moodle-vs-weebly-vs-google-site-part-2/ MeLoNet. (2007). Retrieved Augost 12, 2012, from http://web.archive.org/web/20100830073550/http://www.molenet. Moreillon, J. (2007). Collaborative Strategies For Teaching Reading Comprehension: Mazximizing Your Impact. Chicago: American Library Association. National Center for Education Statistics. (2008). Educational technology in U.S. public schools. Retrieved from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2010034 Pachler, N., Bachmair, B., & Cook, J. (2010). Mobile Learning:Structures,Agency,Practices . London: Springer. Prensky, M. (2001). Digital Natives:digital Immigrants part 1. On the Horizon, 9(5), 1-6. Sharples, M., Corlett, D., & Westmancott, O. (2002). The design and implementation of a mobile learning resource. Personal and Ubiquitous Computing, 6, 220-234. Shih, J. L., Chuang, C. W., & Hwang, G. J. (2010). An inquiry based mobile learning approach to enhancing social science learning effectiveness. Educational Technology & Society, 13(4), 50-62. Simyo and Ahead of Time. (2009, May 5). Mocom 2020-The Future of Mobile Media and Communication. Retrieved from You Tube: http://www.youtube.com/results?search_query=mocom+2020 Wexler, S., Schlenker, B., Brown, J., Metcalf, D., Quinn, C., Thor, E., . . . Wagner, E. (2007). 360 research report mobile learning: What it is, why it matters, and how to incorporate it into your learning strategy. In Santa Rosa CA: eLearning Guild. Yagci, T. (2014, November). Mobile Social Media Challanges Digital Natives In EFL Learning. (Z. Kaya, U. Demiray, & M. Hismanoglu, Eds.) Journal Of Educational And Instructional Studies, 4(4), 49-53. Yagci, T. (2015). Mobile Social Media in Higher Education & Implementation of "Edmodo" in reading classes. 6th International Visible Conference on Educational Studies and Aplied Linguistics. (pp. 436-442). Erbil: Ishik University. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia On the Effects of L2 on Iranian Bilinguals’ L1 Writing Ability Hessam Agheshteh English Department, Azadshahr Branch, Islamic Azad University, Azadshahr, Iran E-mail: h_agheshteh@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.48 Received: 14/03/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.48 Accepted: 23/05/2015 Abstract While the effects of L 1 on L 2 have been extensively investigated, the effects of L 2 on L 1 have been largely ignored. The present study attempted to address this issue by investigating the effects of L 2 English on Iranian Bilinguals’ L 1 writing ability. For this end, 61 participants, 30 bilinguals and 31 monolinguals, were assessed on an essay-writing test in their L 1 . The gathered data were analyzed using independent samples t-test in which the t obs (2.37) was higher than the critical value (2.00) at the significance level of 0.05. The bilinguals, as indicated by the results of the independent samples t-test, performed better than the monolinguals on their L 1 writing ability indicating the positive effects bilingualism, here English, could have even on L 1 writing ability, which provides more evidence for cross-linguistic influence. Keywords: Bilingualism, cross-linguistic influence, monolingualism 1. Introduction According to the concept of “dual language”, proposed as an alternative to “interlanguage” by Kecskes and Papp (2003) and Kecskes and Cuenca (2005), the two language channels the bilinguals have are in constant interaction and mutually affect one another through their common underlying conceptual system. Therefore, besides focusing on L1→L2 effects, research has to focus on L2→L1 effects, too (Kecskes, 2008). Traditionally, however, the ESL/EFL profession was preoccupied with L1→L2 effects. The literature on second/foreign language acquisition is, in fact, replete with research studies on L1→L2 effects, all discussed as either positive or negative “transfer”. The research in this area led to the development of what came to be known as Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH). The strong version of the CAH, with its a priori orientation, was an attempt to predict difficulty long before the learning process started (Wardhaugh, 1970). The weak version, on the other hand, had a posteriori orientation and simply recognized the significance of interference across languages but never made any a priori predictions. The weak version of the CAH is what remains today as cross-linguistic influence (CLI) (Odlin, 2003; Kellerman, 1995; Kellerman & Sharwood-Smith 1986) which, according to Brown (2007, p. 252), recognizes “the significant role that prior experience plays in any learning act, and that the influence of the native language as prior experience must not be overlooked”. What the CLI suggests, as Brown further argues, is more a matter of influence than prediction. CLI, however, implies much more than the effect of one’s first language on a second; the second language also influences the first (Pavlenko & Jarvis, 2002). Learning other languages, Brown argues, can affect one another in various forms, too. While the effects of one’s first language on a second has been extensively investigated, very few research studied have addressed the effects learning a second language can have on the first. 1.1 Statement of the Problem Research in the past has to a large extent focused on L 1 effects on L 2 acquisition ignoring the effects L 2 could have on bilinguals’ L 1 .We should note, in considering L1→L2 effects, the negative transfer is more dominant in terms of grammatical, lexical and/or phonological errors. This is while in examining L2→L1 effects generally positive influences are expected (Kecskes, 2008). L2→L1 effects are cognitive and pragmatic rather than syntactical and lexical; and it is only a potentiality rather than a necessity (Kecskes, 2008). In fact, not all kinds of L2 learning bring about the development of multi-competence. To be able to bring about changes in the monolingual system, the language learning process must be intensive enough, rich in content, and have a high level of learner motivation (Kecskes, 2008). While research in the past has extensively examined L1→L2 effects, the L2→L1 effects have been largely overlooked. The present study, then, was an attempt to investigate L2→L1 effects on Iranian bilinguals’ writing ability. It specifically addressed the question below. • Does knowledge of an additional language (s) influence the Iranian bilinguals’ native language writing ability? 1.2 Significance of the Study As argued by many researches in the field, cross-linguistic influence goes beyond L1→L2 effects and cares for L2→L1 effects, too. This is because learning a second/foreign language can undoubtedly influence one’s first language abilities, too. Since most research in the past has focused on L1→L2 effects and very few research studies have addressed the L2→L1 effects, especially in the writing ability area in the Iranian EFL context, this present study is an attempt to add to the literature on cross-linguistic influence. ALLS 6(4):48-52, 2015 49 2. Literature Review In a review of the research conducted on the impact of second language acquisition on both the students and the society in which they live, Lyseng, Butlin and Nedashkivska (2014) report five areas where second language education has brought considerable changes. These areas and the related studies, as cited by Lyseng, Butlin and Nedashkivska (2014) include a. intellectual development (Lambert, 1962; Carroll, 1962; Lambert, 1974; Kessler & Quinn, 1980; Ratté, 1968; Latham, 1998; Black, 1993) b. scholastic achievement (Collier, 1995; Cooper, 1987) c. effects of learning a second language on the students’ first language (Genesse, 1987; Halsall, 1998; Albanese, 1987) d. citizenship (Genesse & Cloud, 1998; Curtain & Pesola, 1994) e. economic potential (Report of the National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983, U. S.) For many years, however, there was a concern that learning a second language may adversely impact the students’ acquisition of knowledge and skills in their first language. This was, however, rejected by several studies all reported by Lyseng, Butlin and Nedashkivska (2014). Genesse (1987), for instance, proved immersion programs were helping students to achieve a higher degree of second language proficiency without detrimentally affecting English language skills or overall academic achievement. Halsall (1998) also found that students who learn a second language in kindergarten or grade one perform better than those who learn it at grade four, and much better than those who begin at grade seven. Albanese (1987) showed that second language programs enhance reading skills, English vocabulary, and communication skills. Based on the evidence provided, Lyseng, Butlin and Nedashkivska (2014) conclude that “learning a second language inhibits development of the first language is not only false, but research finds the very opposite to be true (p. 13).” Marian and Spivey (2003) also believe that knowledge of a second language can affect the ability to manage information in the native language although second language acquisition is considered to be different from first language acquisition. Current bilingual models explicitly posit that the two languages interact, even during languagespecific processing (Costa, Caramazza, & Sebastian-Galles, 2000; Dijkstra & van Heuven, 2002). Cook (2005, p. 52) asserts that “ the syntactic processing of people who know another language is no longer the same as monolingual, even if the differences are small and need complex techniques to establish.” Cook further argues that there is no doubt the speakers’ knowledge of their first language is affected by their knowledge of other languages in different aspects. She reports the following studies to provide support for the bidirectional effects of the different languages present in the minds of people who speak some other languages besides their own native language. Syntax: Cook, Iarossi, Stellakis and Tokumaru (2003) found that the Japanese who speak English are more likely to prefer plural subjects in the Japanese sentences they use than the Japanese who don’t know English. The lexicon: Laufer (2003) showed that experienced Russian speakers of Hebrew use a less rich vocabulary in Russian than comparative newcomers. Stylistic complexity: Kecskes and Papp (2000) investigated Hungarian children who had learnt English and found that they used stylistically more complex Hungarian. Pragmatics: Pavlenko (2003) studied Russian learners of English and found that they began to rely on expressing their emotions as states rather than as process. Phonology: Flege (1987) examined French users of English and found that they pronounced the /t/ sound in French with a longer Voice Onset Time (VOT) than monolingual French speakers. Lord (2008) also investigated the effects of L2 acquisition on L1 use by looking at the L1 phonological productions of advanced L2 learners vis-à-vis the production of monolingual speakers of the same language. Lord’s study provides tentative support for Flege’s Merger Hypothesis (1987, 2005) that the merging of phonetic properties of phones that are similar in the L1 and L2 can potentially impact not only the acquired language but the native one as well. Based on Flege’s Merger Hypothesis, Lord proposes that an English speaker with advanced proficiency in Spanish could not only pronounce Spanish with an English characteristics, but will also pronounce English words less “English-like” than a monolingual English speaker would. Lord’s study provides tentative evidence for the proposal mentioned above, something which has already been shown for French-English bilinguals (Flege 1987). Kaushanskaya, Yoo, and Marian (2011) tested English-Spanish and English-Mandarin bilingual adults on their vocabulary knowledge and reading fluency in English, their native language. They found that second language experiences influence native-language performance, and can either facilitate or reduce it depending on the properties of the second language writing system. Standardized English Language Arts Tests have shown that students involved in second language programs have higher achievement scores (ERIC, 2001). This provides support for Cummins’ “interdependence hypothesis” (1984) that states language skills such as those involved in reading comprehension are transferred from one language to another. This transfer can occur across subjects, too, including numeracy, thinking skills. Bialystock (1997) found advantages for bilingualism in their reading, provided that children are exposed to stories and literacy in both languages. She showed, by the age of four, bilingual children progressed more than monolinguals in understanding the general properties of the symbolic function of written language. By the age of five, they were more advanced than monolinguals and bilinguals who have learnt only one writing system in understanding specific representation properties, even in English. ALLS 6(4):48-52, 2015 50 Kecskes and Tunde (2000) showed the long-term effect of intensive study of a second language on one’s first language writing skills with Hungarian students learning a foreign language in a range of different types of programs. Students enrolled in immersion or intensive foreign language courses showed an increase in the syntactic complexity of their first language writing. Gaining proficiency in a second language correlated with their true formation of complex sentence structures in their first language. 3. Method 3.1 Participants Sixty one Iranian M.A students studying English and Fishery at Islamic Azad University and Gonbad University in Golestan participated in this study. There were 30 people in the Experimental group and 31 in the control group. Iranian students start learning a second language after they are finished with their five-year elementary school. They study English for seven years in the guidance and high school and then at the university. Despite seven years of studying English at school and some general (3 credits) and ESP courses (2 credits) at the university, most of them are weak in English. Since to be able to bring about changes in the monolingual system, the language learning process must be intensive enough, rich in content, and have a high level of learner motivation (Kecskes, 2008), and, as Cummins (1979) says, students should have attained a certain threshold level of proficiency in the first or second language before one can affect the other, the researchers decided to study M.A students of TEFL and non-TEFL students at Islamic Azad University and Gonbad University in Golestan. Having studied English in their B.A and M.A programs, TEFL students are supposed to have a high level of both English and Farsi, and non-TEFL students are supposed to have a low level of English but a high level of Farsi as their native language. It’s true that non-TEFL students have also studied English, but as discussed above, they are supposed to be too weak to transfer second language abilities to their first language writing ability. To check the students’ level of English, however, the researchers developed a 100-item test adapted from NTC’s paper and pencil TOEFL. As expected, TEFL students scored an average of 78 with an SD of 2.5 and the non-TEFL students scored an average of 15 with an SD of 4. Extreme scores in each group were excluded for the sake of homogeneity. 3.2 Instruments and procedures The participants were asked to write an essay in their native language on a topic assigned by the researcher (Should students be allowed to have cell phones in elementary and high schools?) in an effort to study the effects a second/foreign language can have on their native language writing ability. The essays, then, were rated by two independent raters to see if there was a significant difference between the writing abilities of those who have acquired and use L2 and those who have very limited knowledge of L2 and seldom use it in the Iranian EFL context. 3.3 Data Analysis Using a holistic approach, the data obtained were rated by two independent readers using SAT essay grading scale (2005), and the scores gained by these two groups, i.e. TEFL and non-TEFL majors, were analyzed using independentsamples t-test to see if there was a significant difference between the performance of these two groups in their essay writing ability or not. Each essay was scored independently by two readers on a scale of 1 to 6, with 6 being the highest score. A correlation was run to make sure of interrater reliability which yielded a coefficient of 0.83. 4. Findings and discussions As the table below shows, Iranian bilinguals performed better than their monolingual counterparts in their essay writing indicating the positive effects learning English can have on their L1 writing ability. As we can see below t obs (2.37) is higher than the critical value (2.00) at the significance level of 0.05 and we are on the safe side to say that Iranian bilinguals’ writing ability has been positively affected by their learning English. Table 1. Independent samples t-test to compare the performance of bilinguals and monolinguals on their writing ability Levene's Test for Equality of Variances t-test for Equality of Means 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Sig. Mean Std. Error F Sig. T Df (2-tailed) Difference Difference Lower Upper Subjects Equal .451 .505 2.374 59 .021 1.017 .429 .160 1.875 variances assumed Equal 2.369 57.579 .021 1.017 .429 .157 1.877 variances not assumed ALLS 6(4):48-52, 2015 51 This is in line with the findings of Kecskes and Tunde (2000) who showed the long-term effect of intensive study of a second language on one’s first language writing skills with Hungarian students learning a foreign language in a range of different types of programs. Students enrolled in immersion or intensive foreign language courses showed an increase in the syntactic complexity of their first language writing. Gaining proficiency in a second language correlated with their true formation of complex sentence structures in their first language. This is also in line with the findings of Bialystock (1997) who found advantages for bilingualism in their reading, provided that children are exposed to stories and literacy in both languages. She showed, by the age of four, bilingual children progressed more than monolinguals in understanding the general properties of the symbolic function of written language. By the age of five, they were more advanced than monolinguals and bilinguals who have learnt only one writing system in understanding specific representation properties, even in English. This provides evidence for Cook’s argument on multi-competence (2005) that there is no doubt the speakers’ knowledge of their first language is affected by their knowledge of other languages in different aspects including the writing ability as shown above. When discussing the unique characteristics of L2 users, Cook (2005) asserts that L2 users’ knowledge of their first language is in some respects different from that of a monolingual. This means that “the speakers’ knowledge of their first language is undoubtedly influenced by the other languages they learn”(Cook, 2005, p. 52). Kecskes (1998) also contended that people who speak more than one language have different knowledge of their native language than do monolingual speakers and this difference in native language competence can be justified only by the effects learning additional languages can have on the speakers’ native language competence i.e. the two linguistic systems constantly interact and mutually affect one another. According to Grosjean (1989), a bilingual is not two monolinguals in one body. This, as argued by Kecskes (1998), implies that people who know more than one language have different knowledge of their L1 than do monolingual people. Based on Cook’s multi-competence, as discussed above, bilingualism is the compound state of mind with two grammars affecting one another in different ways whether in terms of syntax, lexicon, stylistic complexity, pragmatics, and phonology. In the same vein, Kecskes (1998), implies that people who know more than one language have different knowledge of their L1 than do monolingual people. This is also in line with Brown’s (2007) cross-linguistic influence, according to which learning a second and third language can affect on another in complex ways. 5. Conclusion The present study was an attempt to investigate the concept of “dual language”, proposed as an alternative to “interlanguage” by Kecskes and Papp (2003) and Kecskes and Cuenca (2005), according to which the two language channels the bilinguals have are in constant interaction and mutually affect one another through their common underlying conceptual system. Since most of the studies thus far focused on L1→L2 effects, this study was designed to focus on L2→L1 effects. The results of the study indicated a positive effect of L 2 English on L 1 writing ability as Iranian bilinguals performed better than Iranian monolinguals on an L 1 essay-writing test providing more evidence to the arguments proposed by Cook (2005), Grosjean (1989), Kecskes (1998), Kecskes and Papp (2003) and Kecskes and Cuenca (2005) among many others. References Albanese, R. (1987). Three relations for second language study. Modern Language Review. 43(3), 461-470. Bialystok, E. (1997). Consequences of bilingualism for cognitive development. In de Groot A. M. B. and Kroll, J. F. Tutorials in bilingualism: Psycholinguistic perspectives (pp. 279-300). Brown, D. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching(5th ed.).White Plaines, New York: Pearson Education Company. Cook, V. (Ed.) (2005). The effect of L2 on L1. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Cook, V.; Iarossi, E.; Stellakis. N. & Tokumaru. Y. (2003). Effects of the second language on the syntactic processing of the first language. In V.J. Cook (ed.), Effects of the second language on the first. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters (pp. 214-233). Costa, A.; Caramazza, A.; & Sebastian-Galles, N. (2000). The cognate facilitation effect: Implications for models of lexical access. Journal of Experimental psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition, 26, 1283-1296. Cummins, J. (1979). Linguistic inter-dependence and the educational development of bilingual children. Review of educational Research, 49, 855-883. Cummins, J. (1984). Bilingualism and special education: Issues in assessment and pedagogy. Multilingual Matters. Clevedo. 6, 22-44. Dijkstra, A., & Van Heuven, W.J.B. (2002). The architecture of the bilingual word recognition system: From identification to decision. Bilingualism: Language and Cognition, 5, 175-197. Flege, J. E. (1987). “The production of ‘new’ and ‘similar’ phones in a foreign language: Evidence for the effect of Equivalence Classification.” Journal of Phonetics 15, 47-65. ALLS 6(4):48-52, 2015 52 Flege, J. E. (2005). “What is the cause of ‘age’ effects on second language (L2) learning?” Plenary talk presented at The Hispanic Linguistics Symposium (Workshop on Linguistic Convergence), November 10-13, 2005, Pennsylvania State University. Genesee, F. (1987). Learning through two languages: Studies of immersion and bilingual education. Cambridge, Mass., Newburry House. Grosjean, F. (1989). “Neurolinguists, beware! The bilingual is not two monolinguals in one person. Brain and Language, 36, 3-15. Halsall, N. (1998). French immersion: The success story told by research. Keynote address at “French Immersion in Alberta: Building the Future Conference”, Edmonton, Alberta, November 19-20, 1998. Kaushanskaya, M.; Yoo, J.; & Marian, V. (2011). The effect of second-language experience on native-language processing. Vigo International Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8, 55-77. Kecskes, I. (1998). The state of L1 knowledge in foreign language learners. WORD, Journal of the International Linguistics Associatio,. 49(3), 321-340. Kecskes, I. (2006). On my mind: Thoughts about salience, context, and figurative language from a second language perspective. Second Language Research, 22(2), 219-237. Kecskes, I. (2007). Synergic concepts in the bilingual mind. In Kecskes, I. & L. Albertazzi (eds.) Cognitive aspects of bilingualism (pp. 29-63). Heidelberg/London: Springer. Kecskes, I. & I. M. Cuenca (2005). Lexical choice as a reflection of conceptual fluency. International Journal of Bilingualism. 9(1), 49-69. Kecskes, I. & T. Papp (2000). Foreign language and mother tongue. Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum. Kecskes, I. & T. Papp (2003). How to demonstrate the conceptual effect of the L2 on L1? In Vivian Cook (ed.), The Effect of L2on L1 (pp. 247-267). Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Kecskes, I. & Papp, T. (2000) Foreign Language and Mother Tongue. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum. Kellerman, E. (1995). Crosslinguistic influence: Transfer to nowhere? Annual Review ofApplied Linguistics, 15, 125150. Kellerman, E. & Sharwood Smith, M. (1986). Crosslinguistic influence on second language acquisition. Oxford: Pergamon Press. Laufer, B. (2003). L1 and L2 interface: Evidence from grammatical gender in heritage Russian. Retrieved on February 24th, 2014 at igdal.files.wordpress.com/.../l1-and-l2-interface-evidence-from- grammatical-gender-in-heritage-Russian. Lord, G. (2008). Second language acquisition and first language phonological modification. In Selected proceedings of the 10th Hispanic Linguistics Symposium. J. B. de Garavito and E. Valenzuela (Eds.), pp. 184-193. Somerville, MA: Cascadilla Proceedings Project. Retrieved on February, 14th, 2014 from www.lingref.com, document#1795. Lyseng, B; Butlin, M. & Nedashkivska, A. (2014). Impact of second language education on intellectual development, socialization and economic potential of student and province. Wachowicz, S. (ed.), in Impact of second language on first language learning by BOF trustees. Retrieved on February, 14th, 2014 from www.district18.nbed.nb.ca Marian. V. & Spivey. M. (2003). Competing activation in bilingual language processing: Within- and between-language competition. Language and Cognition, 6(2), 97 – 115. Odlin, T. (1989) Language Transfer: Cross-Linguistic Influence in Language Learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Odlin, T. (2005). Cross-Linguistic Influence and Conceptual Transfer: What are the Concepts? Annual Review of Applied Linguistics 25, 3-25. Pavlenko, A. (2000). L2 influence on L1 in late bilingualism. Issues in Applied Linguistics, 11, 175-205. Pavlenko, A. & Jarvis, S. (2002). Bidirectional transfer. Applied Linguistics, 23(2), 190-214. SAT collegeBoard. (2005). Retrieved October 22, 2013 at http://sat.collegeboard.org/scores/sat-essay-scoring-guide Wardhaugh, R. (1970). The contrastive analysis hypothesis. TESOL Quarterly, 4, 123-130. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Investigating the of Explicit Instruction of Apology Speech Act on Pragmatic Development of Iranian EFL Learners Shima Rajabi English Department, Ilam Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ilam, Iran E-mail: Shima_rajabi@yahoo.com Akbar Azizifar (Corresponding author) English Department, Ilam Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ilam, Iran E-mail: Akb1354@yahoo.com Habib Gowhary English Department, Ilam Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ilam, Iran E-mail: h_gowhary@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.53 Received: 12/03/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.53 Accepted: 24/05/2015 Abstract Learning a foreign language requires students to acquire both grammatical knowledge and socio-pragmatic rules of a language. Pragmatic competence as one of the most difficult aspects of language provides several challenges to L2 learners in the process of learning a foreign language. To overcome this problem, EFL teachers should find the most effective way of teaching pragmatic knowledge to their students. Accordingly, the present study investigated the effect of explicit teaching of apology speech act, as an aspect of pragmatic competence, on the Iranian EFL learners’ appropriate use of the mentioned speech act. In so doing, a total of 73 EFL students at intermediate and advanced levels participated in a pre-posttest design research with experimental and control group. Data were collected using a Discourse Completion Test (DCT). The selection of apologetic situations in DCT was based on two variables of social status and social distance. The results revealed that explicit instruction was a facilitative tool that helped students use the proper apology strategies in different situations. Moreover, it was found that L2 proficiency had a significant influence on overall appropriateness of speech act production. Keywords: Explicit instruction; Apology speech act; Pragmatic competence; Iranian EFL learners 1. Introduction Communication is dynamic and context specific. It depends on the negotiation of meaning between two or more persons and one's understanding of the situation and also on prior experience of the same kind (Savignon, 1983). The performance of a person is the interaction between competence (knowledge, ability for use), the competence of others, and the "cybernetic and emergent properties of events themselves" (Hymes, 1977, p. 283). According to Bachman's (1990, p. 87) model, "language competence" is divided into two components: "organizational competence" and "pragmatic competence". Organizational competence comprises knowledge of linguistic units and the rules of ordering them to form a text. These abilities are of two types: ‘grammatical competence’ and discourse ('textual competence'). Pragmatic competence is divided in to ' illocutionary competence’ and 'sociolinguistic competence'. 'Illocutionary competence' is ‘knowledge of communicative action and how to carry it out'. 'Sociolinguistic competence' consists of the ability to perform language functions in the ways that are appropriate to the context. Brock and Nagasaka (2005) also define pragmatic competence as a range of abilities in the use and interpretation of language in context; the ability to use language for different purposes such as greeting, requesting, informing, refusing, and so on. As it is evident, knowledge of vocabulary and grammar of language is not enough for the speakers to be able to produce native like language functions. This become even more crucial when one tries to learn and speak in another language. They should acquire pragmatic competence and also be aware of differences between two cultures in addition to differences between two languages. Since intercultural communication is an inseparable part of daily life, it should be taken in to account that more than any aspect of language, speech acts are culture specific. According to Hymes (1962), speech behaviors are commonly influenced by culturally specific social constraints which help speakers 'what to say', 'to whom', and 'under what conditions'. Since a language is not separate from its culture, L2 (second language) learners, regardless of their proficiency level, encounter a great challenge in communications inconsistent with L2 cultural norms. Thus, it is necessary to help learners to perform pragmatically correct language in intended situation is very significant in language teaching area. Moreover, it is also important that there should be material and resources that can be addressed by the teachers when ALLS 6(4):53-61, 2015 54 they are teaching pragmatic competence. Accordingly, pragmatic competence and the ability to adapt one's language to contextual demands are emphasized as an important skill to develop in English subject curriculum. Therefore, in English language pedagogy, teachers should try to foster language learners’ pragmatic competence in the target language with an emphasis on one of the significant pragmatic features, speech acts, through adequate pedagogical practice (Takahashi, 1996). As cited in Istifci and Kampusu (2009, p. 16), Schmidt and Richards (1980) define speech acts as "all the acts we perform through speaking, all the things we do when we speak and the interpretation and negotiation of speech acts are dependent on the discourse or context". In so doing, a speech act is an utterance that fulfills the purpose of communication, as speakers utilize a variety of speech acts, to obtain the communicative targets. Thus, knowing how speech acts are produced both in native and target language for EFL learners is of significant importance and speech acts can be thought of as "functions" of language, such as complaining, thanking, apologizing, requesting, refusing and inviting. The speech act of apologizing is called for when the interlocutor's behavior violates social norms. So, when an action or utterance has caused some kinds of offense for persons, the act of apologizing is required to set things right (EslamiRasekh&Mardani 2010). The act of apologizing is a significant medium of "restoring" the relationship between interlocutors after the offense is committed (Leech, 1983). This speech act usually requires the presence of two participants, namely, the person who is apologizing and the person who expects an apology. They may have different social dispositions and power. Hence apologies may vary from highly apologetic to lowest apologetic depending on interlocutors. It is also a complicated and difficult speech act to learn in second language because an apology speech act carries with it dishonor and need for satisfaction on the part of the speaker. Therefore, it seems necessary for language teachers to raise the students’ attention to the delicate rules dominating on apology speech act in order to enable them to employ apologetic strategies appropriately. This could be conducted in several fashions; one of them is explicit teaching. Accordingly, this study is going to investigate the effect of explicit teaching of apology speech act to Iranian EFL learners. 2. Review of the Related Literature Pragmatic competence is a vague term, and covers a variety of different definitions; thus, it cannot be easily defined (Levinson, 1983). Pragmatics is "the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationship between sentences and contexts and situations in which they are used" (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1993, p. 284, cited in Muhsin Mohammed, 2012). Yule (1996, p. 127) asserts that pragmatics is "the study of intended speaker meaning". Verschueren (1999, p. 1) believes that pragmatics is the "study of linguistic phenomena from the point of view of their usage properties and processes". Levinson (1983, p. 24) asserted that pragmatics is "the study of the ability of language users to pair sentences with the context in which they would be appropriate". Similarly, May (1993, p. 42) considers pragmatics as "the study of conditions of human language uses as these are determined by the context of society". Jaszczolt (2002, p. 1) states that "pragmatics is the study of how hearers add contextual information to the semantic structure and how they draw inferences from what is said". In language pedagogy, communicative competence is defined as the students' ability to "understand the essential points of what a native speaker says… in a real communicative situation" as well as "respond in such a way that the native speaker interpret to response with little or no effort and without errors that are so distracting that they interfere drastically with communication" (Terrell, 1977, p. 326, cited in Kramsch, 1996). Research show that instruction is advantageous in the area of pragmatics (Tateyama, 2001). Classroom provides a safe place for learners to learn and to try out new forms and patterns of communication and helps learners become familiar with the range of pragmatic devices and practices in the target language. So, they can take part entirely in the target language communication and to expand their perceptions of the language and speakers the language. One of the inseparable part of pragmatic competence is proper application of speech acts. Oxford philosopher, John L. Austin presented speech act theory in 1962. Austin stated that there were only two types of utterances: performative vs. constatives. According to Austin (1962, p. 5) performative utterances do not "describe" or "report" or constate anything at all, are not 'true or false', and the uttering of the sentence is or is part of, the performing of an action, which again would not normally be explained as saying something. Performative utterance can be viewed as a "speech act" where "the uttering of the words is […] the leading incident in the performance of an act, […] the performance of which is also the object of the utterance" (Austin, 1962, p. 8).Searl (1975) systemized Austin's word and developed theory of speech act in his own fashion. He proposed a five-way classification of illocutionary acts including Representatives, Directives, Commissives, Expressives, and Declarations. One of the expressive speech acts is apology which EFL learners find difficult to learn how to employ it appropriately. Different scholars define apologies in different ways: Olshtain and Cohen (1983) perceived apology as a social event and they believed that it will be performed when social norms are violated. Fraser (1981, p. 262) argues that apologizing is taking responsibility for the infringement and expressing regret “for the offense committed, through not necessarily for the act itself”.Owen (1983) confines the meaning of apologizing to the expression of ‘sorry’ and ‘I apologize’. According to Goffman (1967) an apology is one type of ‘remedy’. Holmes (1995), with regard to gender differences in apologies, found both similarities and differences between males and females. ALLS 6(4):53-61, 2015 55 Speech act theory characterizes and classifies prototypical apology based on the felicity conditions for its realization that consists an apologetic performative verb and an expression of regret (Suszczynska, 1999). Apology is also described in accordance with the function it may serve. For example, it can be considered as a remedial word used to remedy a real or virtual offense to maintain or restore social harmony (Goffman, 1971) or can be defined as a negative politeness strategy that denotes S’s (speaker) "reluctance to impinge on H’s (hearer) negative face" to save the hearer’s face needs (Brown and levinson, 1987, p. 187). Although, there is diversity in classification of apology, due to the diversity in definitions of apology which are the results of cross-cultural differences based on both inter language studies, a very common taxonomy was the basis of the cross-cultural speech act realization project (CCSARP), and it consists of seven strategies to perform apologies: using an illocutionary force indicating devices, taking on responsibility, explanation or account of what happened, offer to repair the offending act, promise of forbearance (Blum- Kulka, House, & Kasper 1989). These strategies can be used, according to authors, by themselves or in any combination or sequence. As a conclusion, there are many different classifications of apologies, but this speech act is culture specific and desired taxonomies should be applied to respective culture.Empirical studies on apology speech act ranges from proposing classification of apology speech act, and cross-cultural studies to teaching and using this speech act in EFL context. A quick review on some of these studies in provided below. Afghary (2007) conducted a study on socio pragmatic study of apology speech act realization pattern in Persian. The research finding revealed that Persian apologies are as formulaic in pragmatic structure as other languages, and it can be concluded that IFID (illocutionary force indicating device) was the most frequent apology formula used in Persian and other languages studies, and also there is significant relationship between the frequency of intensifiers in different situations and the value assigned to the two social variables (distance , dominance). Karimnia and Afghari (2012) conducted the study to outline the degree and type of use of apology strategies in Persian and to elaborate on the socio-cultural attitudes and values of this community. The result suggested the universality of apology strategies and the selection of apology strategies in this study reinforced the culture specific aspect of language use. Chamani and Zareipur (2010) conducted a study on the cross cultural study of apologies in British English and Persian. The result indicated that both English and Persian speakers used relatively the same set of apology strategies,yet with significantly different preferences. Eslami-Rasekh and Mardani (2010) investigated the effect of teaching apology speech act with the focus on intensifying strategies. 60students were participated in the study. They were homogenized and classified into an explicit apology strategy instruction. The analysis revealed that the subjects in explicit teaching group performed significantly better in terms of apology speech act, and also the results showed that learners who received explicit apology strategy instruction used intensifiers more appropriately than the other group.Another study conducted by Istifci and Kampusu, (2009) investigated the use of apology by EFL learners, with subject from two different levels of English proficiency. The data were gathered by discourse completion test comprising of eight apology situations. The results of the study revealed some similarities and differences between two groups. The L1 can be said to have an influence on their use of apologies, especially intermediate level subjects transfer native Turkish speaker norms into English. 2.1 Statement of the problem As it is evident from the existing literature in the field of language teaching and learning, linguistic competence does not suffice to use a language appropriately. In fact, in order to have an effective communication, one should be aware of not only grammatical rule but also socio-pragmatic aspects of language. In fact this latter aspect of language is acquired through interaction in language context implicitly. But, this becomes complicated in EFL contexts where the classrooms are the only medium for language learning. Since classrooms’ time are limited and are mostly restricted to teaching grammar and other major skills, this aspect of language is difficult to learn implicitly. On the other hand, there may be some controversies on the effectiveness of explicit teaching of pragmatic rules to the Students. Accordingly, the present study is going to examine the effect of explicit teaching of apology strategies as one aspect of language pragmatics to Iranian EFL learners. Thus, the current research aims to answer the following questions: 1. Is explicit instruction of apology speech act facilitative for L2 pragmatic development at different proficiency levels? 2. Is there any significant difference between Iranian EFL learners' pragmatic competence in terms of apology speech act at different levels of proficiency after receiving instruction? 3. Methodology 3.1 Research Design The main goal of this study was to examine the effect of explicit instruction on EFL learners’ pragmatic skills development. Accordingly, a quantitative measure was employed. The quantitative method was based on pre-, post-test experimental, control group design (Robinson, 1981). This design was necessary to measure the dependent variable (pragmatic development of the students) as the consequence of independent variable (treatment program). 3.2 Participants At the beginning of the term, Oxford Placement Test (OPT) was administered and 73 female students of four EFL classes took part in this test. As a result, two of classes were at intermediate level and two were at advanced level. Each of the intermediate and advanced classes consisted of a range of 17-20 students which were assigned to control and experimental groups randomly. The participants were all native Persian speaking students. Their age ranged from 10 to 14 for intermediate groups and 14 to 18 for advanced groups. ALLS 6(4):53-61, 2015 56 3.3 Instruments Oxford Placement Test. Oxford Placement Test 1 (OPT) (Allen, 2004) is a validated placement test published by Oxford University Press. It provides teachers an efficient tool to place students at the start of a course. To achieve the goals of this study, the OPT was used at the beginning of the term. As long as the students were studying English at intermediate and advance levels of the institute, the placement test was used to ensure level of proficiency. DCT as Pre-test. At the onset of the study, a pretest, in terms of Discourse Completion Task (DCT) was used. DCT is a kind of questionnaire which contains series of concisely defined situations used to elicit special speech acts (Varghese &Billmyer, 1996). DCT is considered as a relevant means of data collection at early stage of learning communicative functions of target language. By means of DCTS, researchers can gather information about the kinds of semantic formulas that students use to recognize different illocutionary acts (Ellis, 1994). The DCT used in the pre-test consisted of four apology scenarios and was used to assess the students ’pre-existing knowledge on the course topic for further comparison with post-test. The students were asked to write desired speech acts (see Appendix A). DCT as Pre-test. At the end of the term a post-test in terms of DCTs comprising of 12 situations was administered to the participants of both experimental and control groups in order to measure the effect of treatment (see Appendix B). 3.4 Procedure of Data Collection In conducting the current study three major steps were taken, pre-test, treatment program, and post test. In the first step, OPT was given to 77 students of four EFL classes of a private English institute (Alpha) in Ilam, Ilam province, Iran. According to the discriminations done by the institute, two of the classes were at intermediate level and two were at advanced level. The OPT was given to the students at the beginning of the term to ensure the students’ level of proficiency. After analysis of the data obtained from OPT, four out of 77 participants were excluded from the study because their OPT scores did not match with the range of score that Oxford introduced for intermediate and advanced levels. Although, they were present in classrooms their results were ignored in statistical procedure of the study. Becoming sure about the students' proficiency levels, learners at intermediate and advanced levels were assigned to both control and experimental groups. Then, a pretest, in terms of DCTs, was assigned to measure the students’ pragmatic competence in request speech act to certify comparability of groups prior to their treatment. The DCT included 4 situations, four apologeticsituations; each situation was followed by a blank space in which students were asked to write their desired speech acts. Treatment group received instruction of the mentioned speech acts for half an hour; ten minutes for each of them, while control group did not received any treatment. Beside the 25 minutes of speech act instruction to the treatment groups, the regular instructions designed by the institute were performed for both treatment and control classes. All groups were taught by the same teacher. Control groups received normal instruction programmed by the institute, while experimental groups received extra instruction about how and when to use speech acts in the appropriate situations. All conditions of control and experimental groups were similar except for the treatment. At the end of the term, a post test similar to that of the pre-test was administered to both control and experimental groups to assess the probable changes in their strategy use. Then, the received data were coded and scored based on the scoring process cited in Farahian, Rezaee and Gholami (2012), "there were four aspects of appropriacy as rating and the analytic likert 5 for marking was employed”. Therefore, scale of 5 indicates ‘completely appropriate’; scale 4 refers to ‘mostly appropriate’, scale of 3 as ‘generally appropriate’; scale of 2 means ‘not very appropriate but acceptable’; scale 1 indicates ‘not appropriate and not acceptable’. The approperiacy of the data was determined based on categorization of RESP formula proposed by Afghary (2007) which is illustrated in Figure 1. After coding the data based on the models which are presented below, they were entered into SPSS (version 20) software to analyze them. To achieve the goals of the study, descriptive and inferential statistics were employed that will be presented in the next chapter at length. An Acknowledgement of responsibility Implicit Explicit Explicit self blame Lack of intent Justifying the hearer Statement of the offense Expressing self deficiency Concern for the hearer Figure 1. Categorization of RESP formula (Afghary, 2007) 4. Results As mentioned earlier, goal of the present study was to explore the effect of explicit instruction of speech act of apology on Iranian EFL learners’ performance of this speech act with regard to their proficiency levels. To achieve this goal, the data were analyzed and interpreted through descriptive and inferential statistics which are presented below. ALLS 6(4):53-61, 2015 57 Table 1. Descriptive statistics of pretest of control and experimental groups at intermediate level Speech acts Control Experimental percentages scenarios Mean Std. Deviation 0 2.0556 .41618 0 0 1.3333 .48507 5.6 5.6 0 1.8889 .75840 22.2 0 0 0 1.2222 .42779 10.0 75.0 15.0 0 0 2.0500 .51042 Scenario 2 65.0 35.0 0 0 0 1.3500 .48936 Scenario 3 25.0 70.0 5.0 0 0 1.8000 .52315 Scenario 4 80.0 20.0 0 0 0 1.2000 .41039 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Scenario 1 5.6 83.3 11.1 0 Scenario 2 66.7 33.3 0 Scenario 3 27.8 61.1 Scenario 4 77.8 Scenario 1 According to Table 1, in performing apology speech act by control group, the mean score for (scenario1) is 2.0556, for (scenario2) mean=1.3333, for (scenario3), mean=1.8889, for (scenario4), mean=1.2222. Performing this speech act by experimental group resulted in the mean that are 2.0500 for scenario 1, 1.3500 for scenario 21.8000 for scenario 3, and 1.2000 for scenario 4. As it is evident, the differences in the means between control and experimental groups were not very much, though this should be detected by the means of inferential statistics. In the following table descriptive statistics of advanced level are presented. Table 2. Descriptive statistics of pretest of control and experimental groups at advanced level Speech acts Control Experimental percentages Mean Std. Deviation 0 2.1176 .60025 11.8 0 1.8235 1.01460 11.8 0 0 2.0000 .50000 23.5 5.9 5.9 0 1.5294 .87447 5.6 55.6 22.2 16.7 0 2.5000 .85749 Scenario 2 33.3 44.4 16.7 5.6 0 1.9444 .87260 Scenario 3 11.1 61.1 27.8 0 0 2.1667 .61835 Scenario 4 66.7 16.7 0 16.7 0 1.6667 1.13759 scenarios (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Scenario 1 11.8 64.7 23.5 0 Scenario 2 47.1 35.3 5.9 Scenario 3 11.8 76.5 Scenario 4 64.7 Scenario 1 As it is evident from Table 2, the means for scenario 1, 2, 3, and 4 performed by control group at advanced level are 2.1176, 1.8235, 2.0000, and 1.5294, respectively. Performing this speech act by experimental group, means revealed to be 2.5000 for scenario 1, 1.9444 for scenario 2, 2.1667 for scenario 3, and 1.6667 for scenario 4. As it is evident, the differences in the means between control and experimental groups were not very much, though this should be detected by the means of inferential statistics. Table 3. Independent sample T-test of pre-test of both control and experimental groups at intermediate level t-test for equality of means Mean Differences Intermediate Advanced Equal variances assumed Std. Error Differences 95% confidence interval of the Difference Lower Upper t df Sig (2tailed) -.02500 .08268 -.19268 .14268 -.302 36 .764 .15768 .20046 -.25015 .56551 .787 33 .437 As it can be seen, p values are higher than .05. For the intermediate level, it equals to .764 and for advanced level it equals to .437. So, no significant difference is observable in the pre-tests of control and experimental groups at both levels. Accordingly, both control and experimental groups had almost similar knowledge at the beginning of the term in the case of the mentioned speech acts. ALLS 6(4):53-61, 2015 58 Table 4. Descriptive statistics of post test of control and experimental groups at intermediate levels Speech acts Control at intermediate level Experimental at intermediate level scenarios percentages Mean Std. Deviation 0 1.9494 .53930 0 0 1.6667 .48507 5.6 0 0 1.9444 .41618 38.9 0 0 0 1.3889 .50163 5.0 15.0 60.0 10.0 10.0 3.0500 .94451 Scenario 2 5.0 60.0 30.0 5.0 0 2.3500 .67082 Scenario 3 0 35.0 45.0 20.0 0 2.8500 .74516 Scenario 4 5.0 80.0 15.0 0 0 2.1000 .44721 (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Scenario 1 16.7 72.2 11.1 0 Scenario 2 33.3 66.7 0 Scenario 3 11.1 83.3 Scenario 4 61.1 Scenario 1 As it is illustrated in the above table, the mean score of control group for scenario 1 is 1.9444, for scenario 2 is 1.6667, for scenario 3is 1.9444, and for scenario 4is 1.3889. In performing apology speech act by experimental group at the post test, the mean score for scenario 1 is 3.0500, for scenario 2 is2.3500, for scenario 3 is2.8500, and for scenario 4is 2.1000. Table 5. Descriptive statistics of post test of control and experimental groups at advanced levels Speech acts Control at advanced level Experimental at advanced level percentages Mean Std. Deviation 0 2.1765 .63593 0 0 1.7647 .56230 5.9 0 0 1.8824 .48507 52.9 0 0 0 1.5294 .51450 0 22.2 55.6 16.7 5.6 3.8556 .80237 Scenario 2 5.6 33.3 50.0 5.6 5.6 2.7222 .89479 Scenario 3 0 27.8 50.0 22.2 0 2.9444 .72536 Scenario 4 0 55.6 44.4 0 0 2.4444 .51131 scenarios (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) Scenario 1 11.8 58.8 29.4 0 Scenario 2 29.4 64.7 5.9 Scenario 3 17.6 76.5 Scenario 4 47.1 Scenario 1 In performing apology speech act as the post test by control group at advanced level, the mean score for scenario 1 is 2.1765, for scenario 2 is 1.7647, for scenario 3 is 1.8824, and for scenario 4 is 1.5294. In addition, for experimental group the mean score for scenario 1 is 3.8556, for scenario 2 is 2.7222, for scenario 3 is 2.9444, and for scenario 4 is 2.4444. In order to examine whether the differences in the means between control and experimental groups at pre and post tests are significant, inferential statistics were employed. The results are presented in the following tables. Table 6. Comparison of post test of control and experimental groups at both levels t-test for equality of means Mean Differences Std. Error Differences 95% confidence interval of the Difference Lower Upper t df Sig (2tailed) intermediate Equal variances assumed .85139 .11285 .62252 1.08026 7.544 36 .000 Advanced Equal variances assumed .86520 .09986 .6620 1.06835 8.66 33 .000 In this table post tests of control and experimental group were compared at both levels. The results showed that there were significant differences in performing apology speech act between experimental and control groups at both level because the obtained p values are lower than the accepted level at .05. ALLS 6(4):53-61, 2015 59 Table 7.Paired Samples Testof pre and post test of control and experimental groups at both levels Paired Differences Groups Mean Std. Deviati on Std. Error Mean 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper t df Sig. (2tailed) Control Intermediate Prepost -.11111 .28726 .06771 -.25396 .03174 -1.641 17 .119 Experimental intermediate Prepost -.98750 .54697 .12231 -1.2434 -.7315 -8.074 19 .000 Control advanced Prepost .02941 .44090 .10693 -.19728 .25610 .275 16 .787 Experiment advanced Prepost -.72222 .52782 .12441 -.98470 -.4597 -5.805 17 .000 According to the results presented in table 7, there is no significant difference between the pre and post tests of control groups at both levels because sigsare higher than .05. On the other hand, significant differences are observable at p=.000 which show that experimental groups at both levels showed significant differences at the post test in comparison to the pre-tests. This implies that pragmatic knowledge of experimental groups improved in the case of performing apology strategies after treatment. Table 8. Total comparison of both pre and post test of exprimental groups across two proficiency levels. t-test for equality of means Mean Differenc es Std. Error Differenc es 95% confidence interval of the Difference Lower Upper t df Sig (2tailed) Pretest Equal variances assumed .41597 .13743 .13725 .69468 3.027 36 .025 Posttest Equal variances assumed .29956 .11614 -.03665 .43577 1.71 36 .047 Table 8 shows that there is significant difference between both intermediate and advanced experimental groups in pretest and post test results. Also, the amount of mean differences were positive, so it can be said that students at advanced level the participants showed better performance in performing the mentioned speech acts in both pre and posttest. Therefore, it seems that proficiency level and grammatical competence affect pragmatic appropriateness. 5. Discussion and Conclusion As mentioned earlier, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of explicit instruction of several strategies of apology speech act on Iranian EFL students’ pragmatics competence in terms of appropriateness of performing apologetic acts. In so doing, a total of 73 EFL learners in both intermediate and advanced level participated in the study during 25 sessions of instruction. They were asked to answer DCTs as pretest and post test. The DCTs consisted of 4 apology situations, and at the end of the term post test (4 situations) were administered. The pretests analysis of both levels indicated that both control and experimental groups had the same level of competence. To examine students’ performance of apology speech act after treatment, the differences between pre and post tests were investigated at both levels. Analysis of post test outcomes showed some degree of differences compared with pretest, because experimental groups post tests' results showed higher frequency of correct answers. At the same time control groups’ post test analysis did not show any meaningful difference in the performance of students, regarding apology speech act compared with pretest results.Moreover, comparison of pre and post test of experimental groups in both intermediate and advanced groups revealed that there were significant differencesin pragmatic performances between students at intermediate experimental and advanced experimental groups at pre and post tests. Thus, it can be implied that proficiency level has significant effect on the students’ pragmatic knowledge. Therefore, instruction is effective and results in learner pragmatic development in performing apology speech act. These findings are inline with Eslami- Rasekh and Mardani (2010) who investigated the effect of teaching apology speech act with focus on intensifying strategies on pragmatic development of EFL learners, the results revealed that learners who received explicit apology strategy instruction showed greater progress than the other group. ALLS 6(4):53-61, 2015 60 The findings suggest the necessity of incorporating consciousness-raising activities in theclassroom, and this research indicates that explicit instruction of pragmatic knowledge is more beneficial to the realization of request. Also, the results of this study, with regard to the proficiency levels, revealed that pragmatic knowledge is teachable and it should be taught along with grammatical knowledge. In addition, Bardovi-Harlig (1996) stated that teaching pragmatic could be successful since mere observation and implicit learning would not result in appropriateness. This could signal a requirement for raising the awareness of Iranian EFL teachers to become more aware of social and cultural norms of the target language while they are teaching, and students should be taught how to perform different speech acts appropriately in different social situations with different social values. The results of the presents study can be useful for EFL teachers in that these findings acknowledge the teachers to equip the learners with the enough knowledge to make proper choices for adopting appropriate socio-culturally bound rules in L2 pragmatic production in order to not convey the unintended messages inadvertently. References Afghari, A. (2007). A sociopragmatic study of apology speech act realization patterns in Persian. Speech Communication, 49, 177-185. Allan, D. (2004). Oxford Placement Test 1: Test Pack. Oxford University Press. Austin, J. L. (1962). How to do things with words. Cambridge: Harvard university press. Bachman, L. (1990).Fundamental consideration in Language Testing. New York: Oxford:Oxford university press. Bardovi-Harlig ,K.(1996). Pragmatics and language teaching : Bringing pragmatics and pedogogy together. Pragmatic and language learning ,7, 21-39. Blum-Kulka, S., House, J. & Kasper, G. (Eds.). (1989). Cross cultural pragmatics: request and apologies. New Jersey: Ablex. Brock , M. N ., Nagasaka , Y (2005) . Teaching pragmatics in the EFL classroom? Sure you can! TESL reporter , 38 (1), 17-26 . Brown. P., Levinson. S. ( 1987). Politeness: some universals in language usage. Cambridge university press, Cambridge. Chamani, F. &Zareipur, P. (2010).A cross-cultural study of apologies in British and Persian.Concentric: Studies in Linguistics, 36, 1, 133-153. Ellis, R. (1994). The studies of Second Language Acquisition. Oxford: Oxford university press. Eslami-Rasekh, & A., Mardani, M. (2010).Investigating the Effect of Teaching Apology Speech act, with a focus on intensifying strategies, on pragmatic development of EFL learners.The Iranian context.The interactional journal of language society and culture, 30, 96-103. Farahian, M. Rezaee,M. Gholami, A. (2012). Does direct instruction develop pragmatic competence? Teaching refusal to EFL learners of English.Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 3(4), 814-821. Fraser, B. (1981). On apologizing. In: Coulmas, F.(ed). Conversational Routine: Exploration in standardized communication situations and prepatterned speech. The Hague: Mouton, 259-271. Goffman, E. (1967). Repllis and Responses. Language in Society,5,257-313. Goffman, E. (1971). Relations in public: Microstudies of public order. Penguin, London. Holmes, J. (1995). Sex differences and apologies one aspect of communicative competence. In H.D. Brown & S. Gonzo (eds.), Reading on L2 acquisition(pp.362-385). Engle-wood cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall Regents. Hymes , D. (1962). The ethnography of speaking. Anthropology and human behavior, 13(53), 11-74. Hymes, D. (1977). Foundation in Sociolinguistics. London: Tavistock Publications. Istifci, I. &Kampusu, Y. (2009).The use of apologies by EFL learners. Journal of English Language Teaching, 2, (3), 15-25. Jaszczolt, K. M. (2002). Semantics and Pragmatics: Meaning in language and discourse. London: Longman. Karimnia, A. Afghari, A. (2012). On apologizing in Persian : A socio-cultural inquiry. Original scientific article JezikoslovliE 13, (3), 697-734. Kramsch, C. J. (1996). The applied linguistic and the foreign language teacher: Can they talk to each other? ING. Book & B. Seidlhofer (Eds.), Principles and practice in applied linguistics (pp. 43-56). Oxford: Oxford university press. Leech, G,N.(1983). Principles of pragmatics. Longman, London. National Academy of the Korean language, 1990.pyojungug-eodaesajeon.Dusan dong-a, Seoul. Levinson, S. C. (1983). Pragmatics.Combridge: Combridge university press. May, J. (1993).Pragmatics: An introduction. Oxford: Basil Blackwell. ALLS 6(4):53-61, 2015 61 Muhsin Mohammed, M.(2012). TEACHABILITY OF Pragmatic Competence: The Impact of Explicit Instruction on the Development of Iraqi freshmen EFL Learners' Pragmatic Competence. MajalatAlkhalijAlarabi ,40, 1-2. College of Education, Basrahuniversity Olshtain, E. Cohen,A. (1983). Apology: a speech act set. Wplfson, Nessa, Judd El-liot, eds. Sociolinguistics and Language Acquisition. Rowley, MA: Newbury House, 18-36. Owen, M. (1983).Apologies and Remedial Interchanges : A Study of Language in Social interaction. Berlin : Mouton, Walter De Gruyter. Robinson, P.W. (1981). Fundamental of experimental psychology. Prentice Hall: Englewood Cliffs. Savignon , S. J.(1983) . Communicative competence :theory and classroom practice . Reading , Mass : Addison – Wesley . Searle, J, R. (1975). Indirect speech act. I P. Cole, & J. Morgan(Ed.) Syntax and Semantics3:Speech acts (pp.59-82). New York: Academic Press. Suszczynska, M. (1999). Apologizing in English, Polish and Hungarian : different languages, different strategies.Journal of Pragmatics, 31, 1053-1065. Takahashi , S , (1996). Pragmatic Transfreability. Studies in Second Language Acquisition , 18 , 189-223. Tateyama, Y. (2001) 'Explicit and Implicit Teaching of Pragmatic Routines: Japanese Sumimasen', in K.R. Rose and Kasper(eds.), Pragmatics in Language Teaching (New York: Cambridge university Press): 200-22. Varghese, M., &Billmyer, K. (1996).Investigating the structure of discourse completion tests. Working Papers in Educational Linguistics, 12, 39-58. Verschueren, J. (1999).Undrestanding Pragmatics. London: Arnold. Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics.Oxford: Oxford University Press. Appendix A Pretest 1. You have borrowed your friend's notes and because of the rain yesterday Some of the notes have been wet and damaged. What would you say when you want to return the notes? 2. You have promised to deliver a lecture in class but due to a very bad cold you have not been able to even attend the class. What would you say to your professor the next session you attend the class? 3. You have been supposed to meet your close friend at the university library to exchange some books and you get there an hour later and find your friend still waiting for you at the library what would you say to your friend as you see her? 4. As you are talking to one of the university staff, you accidentally spill the cup of tea on his/her desk. What would you say? Appendix B Post test 1. 2. 3. 4. You forget to get- together with your close friend. You call him to apologize. What would you say? You completely forget a crucial meeting at the office with your boss. An hour latter you call him to apologize. What would you say? Spending an evening at a friend's apartment, you accidentally break a small vase belonging to her. What would you say? You accidentally bump in to someone at the shopping mall. What would you say? Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Comparing the Effects of Two Facets of Multiple Intelligences Theory on Developing EFL Learners’ Listening Ma’ssoumeh Bemani Naeini Department of English, Mashhad Branch, Islamic Azad University PO box 91735-413, Mashhad, Iran E-mail: mbemani.2000@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.62 Received: 16/03/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.62 Accepted: 25/05/2015 Abstract Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences Theory (MIT), however having been embraced in the field of language acquisition, has apparently failed to play a role in research on learning styles as an alternative construct. This study aims at examining the potential effects of MI-based activities, as learning styls, on the listening proficiency of Iranian TEFL university students. Based on two assumptions derived from MIT, one of the experimental groups (EG1; N=30) worked on activities across intelligences while the other experimental group (EG2; N=30) focused on the activities related to their most developed intelligence. McKenzie’s (1999) MI Inventory was used to identify the subjects’ preferred intelligences. There was a significant difference between listening scores on TOEFL before and after the intervention of MI-based activities as well as between the two experimental groups, indicating EG1 outperforming EG2. So, as the findings reveal, integration of MIT can significantly contribute to the enhancement of EFL learners’ listening comprehension and the effect is even more significant if teachers practice an integration of all intelligences rather than the most developed ones, only. Keywords: Multiple Intelligences Theory, learning styles, listening proficiency, Iranian EFL context 1. Introduction Listening has been considered the cornerstone of language development. For one thing, it has been estimated to be the most frequently used language skill. For instance, Asher (1982) calculated that “by the time a child reaches age six, he or she has listened to his or her native language for a minimum of 17,520 hours, equivalent to more than 50 years of college instruction” (p. 2). Also, owing to the development of communicative and proficiency approaches to the language teaching over the past decades, listening in the second/foreign language classroom is not regarded as a "passive" or "receptive" skill any more, but an active process in that meaning is constructed from a stream of sounds (Feyten, 1991; Field, 2000; Joiner, 1991; Richards, 1983). Moreover, listening plays an important role in students’ academic success (Feyten, 1991; field, 2003). In this respect, listening has been regarded as an enabling skill helping students with other skills. For instance, Dunkel (1991) maintains that the key to achieving proficiency in speaking is the proficiency developed in listening comprehension. Nord (1981) noted that proficiency in listening is “readily transferable to other language skills, (including speaking and reading)” (p. 72). More recent research testifies to the important role of modernity in people’s listening in everyday life. For example, Vandergrift (2007) links the development of listening to modern life condition. As he states, many learners tend to use “the rich variety of aural and visual L2 texts available today via network-based multimedia, such as online audio and video, YouTube, podcasts, and blogs” (p. 191). In this respect, EFL learners are no exception since they are encouraged to use authentic materials and such multimedia may provide them with good source of exposure. Nevertheless, in spite of a good deal of emphasis on the importance of listening skills in current textbooks, listening still remains as a source of difficulty for language learners. Second language and foreign language professionals have often neglected the importance of teaching listening due to the fact that it is the most difficult skill to teach/learn. As pointed out by Vandergrift (2006), the difficulty of its learning can be attributed to the implicit nature of the skill or the assumption that this skill would automatically develop from other skills as a result of the transfer of training; hence, calling for some strategy training practices to help out the learners. Thus, EFL and L2 teachers should explore innovative ways to help students improve their listening comprehension skills. Much remains to explore about how to best teach listening. One way for teachers to help EFL students to be more successful in learning English is to broaden their teaching approaches and methods. Due to the recent trend toward learner-centeredness, teachers are encouraged to work with learners’ preferences and cater for their learning styles and strategies. Yet, research on learning styles has not been as extensive as work on learning strategies. And literature reveals some gaps and limitations in recent work on learning styles and SLA. For instance, among many instruments developed so far to assess learning styles is Reid’s Perceptual Learning Styles Preference Questionnaire (PLSP). Using her proposed learning style model, Reid (1987) makes an ALLS 6(4):62-71, 2015 63 attempt to identify ESL learners’ preferences and correlates them with a number of variables; however, research on multiple intelligences is never cited. Reid herself (1990) admits that there were some inadequacies in the process of the development of this psychometric instrument and reports that the initial data on validation scores have been lost. However, many researchers in the field have been pervasively using it failing to validate the scores obtained in their surveys (Isemonger & Sheppard, 2007). Further, in an attempt to define learning and teaching styles relevant to ESL/EFL contexts, Felder and Henriques (1995) outline some of the teaching styles which only fit some of the students’ learning styles. They conclude by suggesting some ways to provide for meeting all educational needs of language learners. Such studies have brought the validity and utility of some of the existing learning style models and instruments under question because they do not encompass the totality of students’ individual differences. As yet, the question remains why scholars interested in the impact of learning styles on SLA have failed to include the use of Gardner's Multiple Intelligences model which has been so widely used and embraced in related fields. The present study proposes Gardner’s MI model, an under-researched approach to learning styles, as an alternative construct to problematic measures like PLSP. By taking individual differences into account in a sound educational system, Gardner (1993) believes that an individualcentered schooling will be more beneficial than standard teacher-centered education. He even extends the idea to the point that such a system will provide the learners with both the potential (i.e. intelligence) and tools (i.e. styles) not only during their formal education, but also for lifelong learning. MIs and learning styles are closely related concepts. Intelligences refer to the capabilities that the students bring into the classroom, while their learning styles are the certain ways in which they prefer to further develop that intelligence and express it in the language learning situation. To put it differently, intelligences or abilities refer to things one is capable of doing such as to perform skills or strategies, whereas styles refer to preferences in the use of those intelligences. For instance, learners with global cognitive style tend to organize information as a whole and prefer to have a whole picture before going into details, no matter what the content might be: verbal, visual, or any other (Messick, 1994). As Christison (1998) reports, in ESL/EFL courses, instructors tend to focus upon linguistic and visual clues to teach language, which may not reach students who do not respond to those clues. Then, there is the need to develop a model for using MIs and to develop content that touches upon a variety of individuals’ preferences. For instance, by varying instructional activities to accommodate learners' preferences (lectures, visuals, hands-on activities, songs) or by offering options for responses to instruction (write a paper, create a model, give a demonstration), teachers can support learners' access to and understanding of content (Christison, 1996; Gardner, 1993; Teele, 2004). 1.1 Multiple Intelligences Theory (MIT) Gardner’s (1983) Multiple Intelligence Theory (MIT) suggests that humans perceive and understand the world in a number of ways. Drawing on neurobiological research, Gardner (1983) recognizes a biological basis for MIs. To him intelligence is the bio-psychological potential to process information, indicating that learning is an outcome of the modifications in the synaptic connections in different areas of the brain. Furthermore, defining intelligence as “the capacity to solve problems or to fashion products that are valued in one or more culture setting” (Gardner, 1983, p. 42), he points out to the significant role of culture in developing the intelligences in that some cultures value some intelligences more than others; thus, providing motivation for the individuals to activate such a potential and master in the related areas. The theory proposes a re-consideration of measurable intellectual ability which is used in testing intelligence (Gardner, 1983, 1993). Such outlook on intelligence varies from the traditional one which recognizes only two types of intelligences: Linguistic (verbal) and mathematical (computational). However, Gardner claims that as individuals tend to solve problems or develop skills, these intelligences complement each other, operating independently. He proposes a list of nine intelligences which are summarized in Table 1. Table 1. Summary of Multiple Intelligences Intelligence Potential for Using language, Verbal/ Linguistic memorizing, thinking in words, telling stories Learns best by Needs Hearing and seeing words, Books, tapes, paper writing tools, dialogue, speaking, reading, writing, discussing and debating discussion, debates, stories, etc. Math, logic, Mathematical/Logical problem-solving, reasoning, understanding cause & effect and patterns Working with relationships and patterns, classifying, working with the abstract Things to think about, science materials, manipulative, trips to science museums, etc. ALLS 6(4):62-71, 2015 Visual/ Spatial 64 Representing spatial world in one’s mind like reading and drawing maps, charts, mazes, Working with pictures and colors, Visualizing, using the mind's eye, drawing Video, movies, slides, art, Imagination games, mazes, puzzles, illustrated book, trips to art museums, etc. puzzles; Visualization Bodily/ Kinesthetic Using one’s body in athletics, dancing, crafts, using tools, acting Musical/ Rhythmic Thinking in music; recognizing & remembering sounds, melodies, rhythms; singing processing knowledge through Bodily sensations, Role-play, drama, things to build, movement, sports and physical games, tactile experiences, handson learning, etc. Rhythm, singing, melody, listening to music and melodies Sing-along time, trips to concerts, music playing at home and school, Musical instruments, etc. Touching, moving, Leading, organizing, Interpersonal Friends, group games, understanding Comparing, relating, people, sharing, interviewing, cooperating communication Intrapersonal Understanding nature, making Naturalist distinctions, identifying flora and fauna Existential Understanding human conditions and truths about life and death, religion, mysticism, higher truth community events, clubs, mentors/ apprenticeships resolving conflicts, selling Recognizing strengths and weaknesses, setting goals, understanding self social gatherings, Working alone, having space, reflecting Working in nature, exploring living things, learning about plants etc. Reading, watching films and discussing moralities, spiritual matters and fact of human’s life Secret places, time alone, selfpaced projects, personal choices, etc. Order, patterns same/different, connections to real life and science issues Peace and quiet to concentrate on materials dealing with Spiritual and moral The methods, presented in Table 1, by which learners learn best, are actually suggestive of the learning styles which help learners to process the information. Felder and Henriques (1995) opine that the dimensions of learning styles should be defined in terms of the type of information students perceive (i.e. sensory or intuitive), the type of modality they perceive the sensory information (i.e. visual, verbal or tactile), the way of processing information (i.e. actively or reflectively) and the way of understanding (i.e. sequentially or globally). By comparison, MI model encompasses almost all the dimensions of learning styles suggested above. For instance, musical intelligence can be associated with the ability of understanding “sensory” type of information in a “global” way as people with this potential are among right-brain thinkers who are better at learning language music and rhythm. Intrapersonal people perceive information “intuitively” and process it “reflectively”. Those who fall in the kinesthetic profile process the information “actively”, using “tactile” modality. Therefore, one may come to the understanding that MI framework is much more detailed and nuanced than PLSP introduced by Reid (1984) and used by herself and many others to study learning styles in SLA. Reid’s model tends to measure six constructs including, auditory, visual, tactile, kinesthetic, group and individual while by comparison, MI model encompasses more variety of constructs. Also, comparing the reliability estimates (Cronbach’s alfa) of the scores from six scales of PLSP, as reported by a number of studies, Isemonger and Sheppard ALLS 6(4):62-71, 2015 65 (2007) found the model defective. In accordance with the results of their comparative study, they found that, among all six constructs, visual and auditory constructs were the least reliable (i.e. with the reliability scores of .37 and .39, respectively). 1.1.1 Pedagogical Implications of MIT Gardner (1993) points out that a shift from intelligence to intelligences could have major educational implications. Describing his MIT, Gardner (1993) refers to two complementary facets of the theory. The first implication is that all students, as human beings --if not totally impaired-- possess these intelligences, but they are different in the degree to which each has developed them. So, it is possible to teach to their specific strong intelligences, develop them and through drawing on those strengths, better convey educational materials. It is also possible that teachers recognize all the intelligences on the part of their students so that they teach to a broad range of skills and talents; i.e. learning styles and multiple intelligences, not just one or two of them. The second facet, as Gardner (1993) recalls, is that each individual, even identical twins, possesses their own individual strengths and weaknesses that make up their distinctive idiosyncratic intelligence profiles. Such differences, he presumes, are related to different factors like having different experiences and motivations. In addition, knowing that each individual has their own set of intellectual strengths and weaknesses, teachers will choose appropriate kinds of tasks and activities for presenting the material to meet those individual needs (Lazear, 1999). One of the main concepts congruent with MIT is the possibility to make progress once the individual dominant intelligence is accounted for. As pointed out by Maker, Nielson and Rogers (1994), students may make progress in learning by exhibiting their potentials either across all intelligences or within only selected intelligences. Also, as Chapman (1993) maintains, there are two facets to the implications of MIT: 1) accommodating the different range of strengths on the part of students, trying to strengthen the weaknesses; 2) accommodating the particular strength of students recognizing students’ specific preferences. Hereby, the present study aims at investigating whether MIs play a role in developing listening. If so, which one of the two conditions mentioned above provides ground for students’ making progress in listening. In other words, how can EFL instructors enhance listening instruction by considering students’ diverse intelligences and learning styles? 1.1.2 MIT and Listening Although there are a number of advocators of MIT who have described and realized the beneficial contribution of the theory to English learners’ academic achievement (e.g. Armstrong, 2000; Campbell, Campbell & Dickinson, 1996; Lazear, 1999), there is scare reference to the role of MIs in higher achievement of listening proficiency and the strategies and tasks involved. From one perspective, “learner-centered listening” refers to “activities in which second language listeners are encouraged to share … their understandings of a spoken text. The focus of attention is the exchange of individuals’ reasonable interpretations, rather than the retrieval of correct answers from the text” (Lynch, 2009, p. 134). Thus, exchanging individual insights and perceptions of the learning process lies at the heart of such approach, allowing for the learner’s use of a number of skills and styles to get their interpretations across. Here, MIT provides different ways to lead to this final interpersonal relationship. From another perspective, listening involves “the active and dynamic process of attending, perceiving, interpreting, remembering and responding to the expressed (verbal and nonverbal) needs, concerns and information offered by other human beings” (Purdy, 1997, p. 8). So, it can be hypothesized that above-mentioned processes involved in listening can be associated with different MIs. To put it differently, listening activities involve almost all the subscales proposed by MIT. For instance, visual intelligence and abilities are needed for remembering and interpreting the context, topic, background knowledge or schematic knowledge. Interpersonal intelligence and skills are needed for responding through interaction. Linguistic abilities can facilitate verbal processes while kinesthetic intelligence can contribute to the process of nonverbal interaction. Musical intelligence can contribute to the process of perceiving the sound system of the language. Intrapersonal intelligence is needed for self-perception which is, in turn, needed for responding. Logical intelligence can facilitate analyzing information about semantic and structural elements of the input and naturalist intelligence is needed for perceiving, interpreting and remembering patterns of speech in the incoming input. 1.2 Statement of the problem The neglect of listening instruction is especially prevalent in EFL settings where English is taught as a school subject and is used only inside the classroom. EFL students have practically very little exposure to the real target language as produced by the native speakers. Consequently, these students face great difficulties understanding English when they have to communicate in English. In this regard, EFL teaching and learning in Iran is no exception. However, in addition to an international call for a change of teaching strategy to achieve the goal of enhancing listening proficiency (e.g. Goh, 2000; Hasan, 2000; Vandergrift, 1999), locally, it has also been realized that focusing on traditional methods would ultimately result in depriving students of getting actively involved in using the language naturally as well as meeting their individual needs; thus, making students passive (Askarzadeh Torghabeh, 2007; Hayati, 2009; Jahangard, 2007). With regard to this, it has been noted that “learning must become personalized for all students” (Teele, 1996, p. 75). Thus, it calls for some empirical investigation to find out whether it also holds true to deal with Iranian EFL learners’ deficiency of listening competency. More specifically, an investigation of the related literature reveals that the missing link is a study on the intervention of MI-based activities in Iranian EFL context focusing on listening. ALLS 6(4):62-71, 2015 66 1.3 Research Objectives and Questions This study aims at accommodating learners’ MIs based on the assumption that each individual is empowered to learn and to act more effectively if both learners and teachers are aware of those differences (Christison, 1996, 1998; Gardner, 1993). So, in order to find out how developments in instructional design through incorporating different facets of MIT can impact on learning outcomes, mainly listening proficiency, this study aims at answering the following research questions: 1. To what extent is there a difference between Iranian TEFL students’ listening proficiency scores before and after the intervention of MI-based activities for each of the experimental groups? 2. Is there a difference of performance on listening between the experimental groups? 2. Method 2.1 Participants The whole group (about 300) of Iranian university students majoring TEFL were chosen as the statistical population, from whom a total of 60 students were randomly selected based on their year of enrolment in the university. The subjects of this study, then, were a total of 60 Iranian TEFL university students consisting of 50 females and 10 males, with an age range of 19 to 26 years old. They were sophomore students who were attending Conversation 2 classes (for four credit units) upon their successful completion of Conversation 1. The subjects were equally divided into two groups as randomly assigned as Experimental Group1 (EG1) and Experimental Group2 (EG2) with a number of 30 students in each group. Since the main researcher had to attach to the protocol of the university regarding the appointing of students to classes, she had no control over deciding the number of participants, nor over appointing them into groups. Thus, the intact group of the study was randomly assigned to the experiment by the decisions made by the university administration. The two groups were assumed to be homogeneous since they were all in the same grade at the same learning situation. Also, the participants’ scores on the listening proficiency test at the beginning of the program showed no significant difference between the two groups of the study, indicating that they were almost at the same level of proficiency. Besides, cares were taken to make sure all the subjects received the same teaching materials and tests throughout the semester. All the subjects had studied English as a compulsory course for an average of four to six hours per week over a period of seven years at high school level. 2.2 Instruments One of the instruments used in this study was McKenzie’s (1999) MI inventory which was downloaded from http://surfaquarium.com/MI/inventory.htm. This inventory is a 90-item survey which has been developed to measure nine distinct dimensions of intelligence as proposed by Gardner. Each of the sections or subscales contains ten items. The respondents are instructed to score themselves “one” for each item they feel they identify with. If they feel the statement does not accurately describe them, they are advised to leave the space provided blank. The scores measured by each subscale range from zero to ten. A total score for each section would indicate the participant’s rate of tendency toward that particular type of intelligence. Thus, the respondents’ MI profile would be identified according to the highest score they gain in any section. A total sum of their scores in all different sections would indicate their total MI score. The content validity of the inventory was verified by a panel of experts consisting of three academic members of the English department with an average experience of fifteen years of teaching and research in the field of Applied Linguistics. There was no need to make alternations. Also, the internal consistency was measured as .76 Cronbach alpha (CA) to assure reliability. As for English comprehensibility for the participants, care was taken to evaluate the matter by having the participants review the content of the inventory and raise their questions. Everything was explained and clarified for them in both English and their mother tongue; i.e. Persian (Farsi). Also, two standard published tests of listening proficiency (TOEFL, 1986) were used. Each of the tests contains fifty questions of the type of PBT to measure the participants' listening proficiency. The test has been reported to have a reliability rate of .86 as measured by the method of CA. There are two separate listening tests which are found in the third unit of the book. There was a time limit of thirty minutes for the test takers to complete. Thus, the subjects of the study were rated for their listening proficiency by taking two different versions of this test. The researcher administered the tests twice throughout the study: at the beginning as a pre-test and at the end, as a post-test. 2.3 Procedure and Design Based on the rationale derived from two perspectives of MIT, the participants were divided into two groups as randomly assigned to Experimental Group 1 (EG1) and Experimental Group 2 (EG2). “EG1” was intended to practice activities across all intelligences while “EG2” was formed based on selected designated intelligences. “EG1” received the treatment in the form of random assignment of the activities across MI profiles. The grouping was formed by students’ own selection so that each group consisted of a variety of MIs. However, for the “EG2”, the students were divided into MI groups according to their MI profiles. This class worked on the activities which were related to each particular MI group. Lesson plans were adapted to individual MI profiles in order to presumably increase positive motivation. To do so, drawing on ideas from Armstrong (2000), MI-based activities were incorporated into classroom activities. For instance, hands-on activities were used to tap bodily/kinesthetic intelligence. Cooperative group and pair works fit best for interpersonal intelligence. Visual-based activities were adapted to visual/spatial intelligence while inference activities ALLS 6(4):62-71, 2015 67 would draw out logical/mathematical skills. Those activities which required the exchange of the information would best follow up verbal/linguistic while the activities requiring reflection on the ideas would best fit intrapersonal intelligence. Those activities dealing with elements of nature and patterns were designated for the naturalist. The design of the study is shown in the diagram below: EG1 O1 → X1 → O2 EG2 O1 → X2 → O2 As seen above, O1 is the pre-test data, O2 is the post-test data, and X1, X 2, are two different programs. Both study groups were informed about MIT through class discussion and examples. McKenzie’s (1999) MI inventory was adopted and distributed among the participants. The participants were given the MI inventory to identify their MI profiles based on the type of intelligence for which they obtained the highest score. Care was taken throughout the research procedure to clarify every item for the students. For example, the researcher explained all the difficult words in either English or Persian in cases where the participants had difficulty to understand the items. They were also assured that the information would be kept confidential and used for research purposes, only. The way each group; i.e. EG1 or EG2, was instructed differed from one to another. EG1 was instructed based on the regular procedure suggested by the design of their course book titled as “Interchange 2” by Jack C. Richards with Jonathan Hull and Susan Proctor (2005). The approach adopted for the book is based on Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). However, for EG2, the activities of the same teaching materials, for both the classroom and English laboratory, were selectively assigned to the MI groups in relation to the profile they fell in. In cases where there were no activities in the book to be matched with some of the MI groups, the researcher either alternated some of them or developed new ones. Lesson plans for the whole semester were designed for both groups, accordingly. Thus, having two groups of subjects to investigate the research problem and because it was not feasible to randomly assign individuals to each of the groups and use a true experimental design, as contended in literature (e.g. Creswell, 2003; Gay, Mills & Airasian, 2009), a quasi-experimental design model, of the kind of “the pre-test/post-test nonequivalent control group design”, as an “intervention” design, seemed to be best applicable to this study. It was the intact group who was randomly assigned to the treatment, not random assignment of the individuals to each group. In order to provide answers to the research questions, the researcher first analyzed the collected data descriptively using measures of central tendency. Besides, paired Sample t-test revealed the differences between two sets of scores; i.e. those obtained from pre- and post- listening proficiency tests to determine if the intervention had any impact on the participants’ listening proficiency. 3. Results and Discussion Of all nine intelligence profiles, the participants were divided into eight groups at different rates. The only intelligence profile which was excluded from the study was existential intelligence since there was only one participant who gained the highest score in that intelligence and thus could not be considered a group. This particular participant was added to the visual group due to her second highest score which was obtained for that intelligence. Then, the distribution of the subjects in intelligence profiles was identified for each study group. As for the comparison of the subjects’ performance on listening before and after the intervention, Table 2 presents the difference. Table 2. Descriptive Statistics for Pre-listening and Post-listening Scores for All Subjects Pair 1 Mean N Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Pre-listening 27.07 56 6.111 .817 Post-listening 31.12 56 5.88700 .78668 By looking at the results of the t-test, we can see that the number of cases was reduced from 60 (at the time of pre-test) to 56 (post-test) since one participant from EG2 and three from EG1 dropped the course towards the end of the semester. The missing data was automatically excluded from the analysis. As tabulated in the above table, the mean score on the listening test before the intervention (Time 1) was 27.07 and the mean score at Time 2 was 31.12. Therefore, it can be concluded that there was an increase in listening proficiency from Time 1 (prior the intervention) to Time 2 (after the intervention). The data presented in Table 3 demonstrate the statistical differences between the participants’ performance on pre- and post-tests. ALLS 6(4):62-71, 2015 68 Table 3. Results of Paired-samples T-test on Pre-listening and Post-listening for All Subjects Paired Differences 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Mean Pre-Post Listening -4.053 SD 4.69 Std. Error Mean Lower .627 -5.310 Upper t df Sig. (2tailed) -2.797 -6.46 55 .000 Based on the results of paired-samples t-test presented above, the probability value indicates a significant difference between the two scores obtained from the pre- and post-listening tests. The value of eta-squared obtained for this test was .4314 which indicates a large effect size. So, it can be concluded that there was a large effect size of the intervention with a substantial difference in the listening scores which were obtained before and after the interventions, regardless of the type of intervention; i.e. whether the tasks are given to the MI strengths or across the MIs. This is a support for Schumann’s (1997) who states that the use of MIT in lesson can better maintain learning. Table 4 presents the data about each group’s number of participants, mean scores on listening, standard deviation (SD), maximum and minimum of scores for both pre- and post-tests. Table 4. Descriptive Statistics for Pre-listening and Post-listening for Each of the Study Groups Stage Group N Minimum Maximum Mean SD PreListening EG1 30 16.00 39.00 27.03 5.933 EG2 30 17.00 40.00 26.63 6.122 PostListening EG1 27 22.00 45.00 31.77 5.713 EG2 29 20.00 41.00 30.51 6.080 Table 5 presents a comparison of study groups’ listening scores before and after the intervention. Table 5. Statistical Results of Paired-sample t-test for the Study Groups Paired Differences 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Group Mean SD Std. Lower Upper Error Mean EG1 EG2 Pre-Post Listening Pre-Post Listening T df Sig. (2-tailed) -4.370 4.55 .877 -6.173 -2.567 -4.98 26 .000 -3.758 4.87 .905 -5.612 -1.94 -4.15 28 .000 Thus, having conducted a paired-samples t-test, the impact of the intervention on the experimental groups’ listening proficiency scores could be determined. There was a statistically significant difference in EG1’s listening proficiency scores from pre-intervention to post-intervention with the eta-squared statistics (.48) which indicates a large effect size. By the same token, the impact of the intervention for EG2 was significant. The eta-squared statistics (.38) shows a large effect size. So, according to the results of the t-test, there was a significant difference in the listening scores of both study groups from the beginning of the study to the end, indicating the positive effects of the interventions. However, the experimental group who received the activities across intelligences (EG1) outnumbered those who were taught only to their strengths; i.e. their most developed intelligence. Such a difference may be accounted for by the fact that, as once put by Stanford (2003), “. . . no one set of strategies will work best for all students at all times” (p. 82). In addition, the findings suggest that including a wider spectrum of MIs in instruction means catering to a wider variety of individual learning styles. 4. Conclusion The results demonstrate that the participants possessed all nine intelligences to some degree, providing support for Gardner’s hypothesis who believes that each individual from any culture possesses “core abilities in each of the ALLS 6(4):62-71, 2015 69 intelligences” (Gardner, 1993, p. 28) but the level these intelligences function in people varies from one person to another. The subjects’ responses to the MI inventory items suggest that MIs are prevalent in their lives. The findings support the hypothesis that the incorporation of MI-based activities by touching upon a combination of MIs is more effective than when they are assigned to the students’ intellectual strengths, only. Thus, the findings testify to one of the important aspects of MIT which focuses on the interaction of Multiple Intelligences. An aspect of MIT proposes that individuals should be perceived as “a collection of aptitudes” (Gardner, 1993, p. 27), rather than being identified with only one intelligence. In every culture, these intelligences should interact with each other to present a cultural role. Language learning, like any other skills, is a complex interaction of a number of intelligences, not just “linguistic” (Gardner, 1983, 1993; Campbell, 1994). The findings of this study suggest that a combination of different intelligences should be accommodated to provide for better improvement of listening proficiency in Iranian EFL context. This is in accordance with what Felder and Henriques (1995) propose as “a multi-style approach to foreign language education”. To them, information should be presented in a variety of modes in that instead of using only students’ preferred modes, their less preferred modes should be accommodated as well because they may encounter problems that require the use of those less developed learning styles. Since the ultimate objective of this study was to explore the potential ways to help with the problem of listening deficiency, it can be concluded that one effective way is to encourage active participation in oral courses. Students should learn not to rely on their teacher’s instruction and use their own strategies to learn to listen. They should realize that they themselves should be active in listening tasks (Goh & Taib, 2006; Vandergrift, 2003). The other conclusion to draw is that MIs function differently in different cultural contexts and the L2 learner responsibility to adapt to the cultural norms of the L2 community differs from one culture to another. In this respect, Iranian learners of English have been raised to develop certain intelligences like linguistic and mathematical throughout their academic life whereas they should also experience developing other intelligences such as kinesthetic and musical which are valued in English speaking communities. Doing so, they are more likely to promote their listening proficiency as cultural knowledge of the L2 speaking community can be influential (Bakhtiarvand & Adinevand, 2011). Further, although literature does not provide us with much implication of the MI theory in the tertiary level, especially for English majoring students, it does not mean that MIT is not applicable for adult learners. As a matter of fact, as the results of this study indicate, since there are a number of components common in both MIT and andragogy, the theory could be incorporated into an adult learning setting, too. However, since the MI theory has not introduced a pedagogical framework, educators can use the concepts of the theory in various ways until an approach is justified to be practiced in a particular pedagogical setting (Campbell, Campbell & Dickenson, 1996). 4.1 Suggestions Through an interaction between the learning context, university instructors and students, Iranian TEFL students can be empowered to improve their listening proficiency. To this end, the learning context can provide for the success in two dimensions: the collaborative environment of the classroom by designating a variety of activities to be practiced in groups of MIs and personalized atmosphere of the language laboratory focusing on particular activities like linguistic aspects of listening. Instructors, as reflective practitioners, are required to be familiar with the nature of MIs and the way they can be related to different processes of listening. Thus, they can use their knowledge to awaken students’ strengths and preferences through selected activities. Then, by making informed choices about their teaching strategies, teachers should use a broad range of techniques to fit those individual differences. Teachers should also help their students to not only rely on their own strengths, but also try to extend more intelligences to solve problems. In other words, “what must be done to achieve effective language learning is to balance instructional methods, somehow structuring the class so that all language learning styles are simultaneously-or at least sequentially-accommodated” (Oxford, 1990, as cited in Felder & Henriques, 1995, p. 28). Finally, university instructors can contribute to reflective learning by encouraging the students to reflect on their preferred MIs and use them in real life situations. Students, as reflective partners, are allowed to make choices about learning activities; thus, deciding for the right activities for developing listening proficiency. References Armstrong, T. (2000). Multiple intelligences in the classroom (2nd ed). Arlington, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. Asher, J. (1982). Learning another language through actions. Los Gatos, CA: Sky Oaks Productions. Askarzadeh Torghabeh, R. (2007). EIL, variations and the native speaker's model. Asian EFL Journal, 9(4). Retrieved June, 2009, from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/Dec_2007_rt.php Bakhtiarvand, M. & Adinevand, S. (2011). Is listening comprehension influenced by the cultural knowledge of the learners? A case study of Iranian EFL pre-intermediate learners. RELC Journal, 42(2), 111-124. Doi:10.1177/0033688211401257 Campbell, B. (1994). The multiple intelligences handbook. Stanwood, WA: Campell & Associates. Campbell, L., Campbell, B. & Dickinson, D. (1996). Teaching and learning through multiple intelligences. Needham Heights, MA: Allyn & Bacon. ALLS 6(4):62-71, 2015 70 Chapman, C. 1993. If the shoes fit: How to develop multiple intelligences in the classroom. Palatine, IL: IRI/Skylight. Christison, M. A. (1996). Teaching and learning language through Multiple Intelligences. TESOL Journal. 6(1), 14 10- Christison, M. A. (1998). An introduction to multiple intelligence theory and second language Learning. In J. M. Reid (Ed.), Understanding learning styles in second language classrooms (pp. 1-14). New Jersey, NY: Prentice Hall Regents. Creswell, J. (2003). Research Design: Qualitative, Quantitative and Mixed Methods Approaches. London: Sage Publications. Dunkel, P. (1991). Listening in the native and second/foreign language: Toward an integration of research and practice. TESOL Quarterly, 25, 431-457. Felder, R. M. & Henriques, E. R. (1995). Learning and teaching styles in foreign and second language education.Foreign Language Annals, 28(1), 21-31. Feyten, C. M. (1991). The power of listening ability: An overlooked dimension in language acquisition. Modern Language Journal, 5(4), 173-180. Field, J. (2000). Finding one’s way in the fog: Listening strategies and second language learners. Modern English Teacher, 9(1), 29-34. Field, J. (2003). Promoting perception: Lexical segmentation in second language listening. ELT Journal, 333. 57(4), 325- Gardner, H. (1983). Frames of mind: The theory of multiple intelligences. New York: Basic Books. Gardner, H. (1993). Multiple intelligences: The theory in practice. New York: Basic Books. Gay, L. R., Mills, G. & Airasian, P. (2009). Educational research: Competencies for analysis and applications. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education. Goh, C. (2000). A cognitive perspective on language learners’ listening comprehension problems. System, 28, 55- 75. Goh, C. & Taib, Y. (2006). Metacognitive instruction in listening for young learners. LT Journal, 60(3), 222-232. Hasan, A. S. (2000). Learners’ perception of listening comprehension problems. Language, Culture and 13(2), 137-153. Curriculum. Hayati, A. M. (2009). The impact of cultural knowledge on listening comprehension of EFL learners. English Language Teaching, 2(3), 144-152. Retrieved August, 2010, from http://www.ccsenet.org/journal/index.php/elt/article/viewFile/3704/3305 Isemonger, I. & Sheppard, C. (2007). A construct-related validity study on a Korean version of the perceptual learning styles preference questionnaire. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 67(2), 357-368. Doi:10.1177/0013164406292073 Jahangard, A. (2007). The evaluation of EFL materials taught at Iranian public high schools. Retrieved June, 2009, from http://www.asian-efl-journal.com/June_07aj.php Joiner, E. G. (1991). Teaching listening: Ends and means. In J. E. Alatis. (Ed.), Georgetown University Round Table on Languages and Linguistics: Linguistics and Pedagogy (pp. 194-214). Washington DC: Georgetown University Press. Lazear, D. (1999). Eight ways of teaching: The artistry of teaching with multiple intelligences. Illinois, USA: Skylight Publishing Inc. Lynch, T. (2009). Teaching second language listening. Oxford: Oxford University Press. McKenzie, W. (1999). Multiple http://surfaquarium.com/MI/MIInvent.htm intelligences survey. Retrieved May, Maker, C. J., Nielson, A. B. & Rogers, J. A. (1994). Giftedness, diversity, and problem solving. Teaching Children, (Fall), 4-18. 2008, from Exceptional Messick, S. (1994). Cognitive styles and learning. In T. P. Husen. (Ed.), International Encyclopedia of Education (pp.). New York: Pergamon. Nord, J. R. (1981). Three steps leading to fluency: A beginning. In H. Winitz. (Ed.), The Comprehension Foreign Language Instruction (pp. 69-100). Rowley, Mass: Newbury House. Approach to Purdy, M. (1997). What is listening? In M. Purdy and D. Borisoff (Eds.), Listening in Everyday Life: A Personal and Professional Approach (pp. 1-20). Lanham, MD: University Press of America. Reid, J. M. (1984). Perceptual learning style preference questionnaire. Laramie: University of Wyoming Reid, J. M. (1987). The learning style preferences of ESL students. TESOL Quarterly, 21(1), 87-109. Reid, J. M. (1990). The dirty laundry of ESL survey research. TESOL Quarterly, 24, 232-338. Richards, J. C. (1983). Listening comprehension: Approach, design and procedure. TESOL Quarterly, 17(2), 219-240. Richards, J. C., Hull, J. & Proctor, S. (2005). Interchange 2 (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ALLS 6(4):62-71, 2015 71 Schumann, J. (1997). The neurobiology of affect in Language. Boston, MA: Blackwell. Stanford, P. (2003). Multiple intelligence for every classroom. Intervention in School and Clinic, 39(2), 80-85. Teele, S. (1996). Redesigning the educational system to enable all students to succeed. National Association of Secondary Principals, NSSP Bulletin, 80, 65-75. Teele, S. (2004). Overcoming barricades to reading. California, USA: Corwin Press. Vandergrift, L. (2003). Orchestrating strategy use: Toward a model of the skilled second language listener. Language Learning, 53(3), 463-496. Vandergrift, L. (2006). Second language listening: Listening ability or language proficiency? The Modern Language Journal, 90(1), 6-18. Vandergrift, L. (2007). Recent developments in second and foreign language listening comprehension research. Language Teaching, 40(3), 191-210. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy A Postcolonial Survey of “A House for Mr. Biswas” by V. S. Naipaul Bahareh Shojaan Faculty of Foreign Languages, Department of English Literature Central Tehran Branch, Islamic Azad University, Iran E-mail: baharehshojaan@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.72 Received: 19/03/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.72 Accepted: 28/05/2015 Abstract The present study tries to apply the postcolonial approach to V.S. Naipaul's A House for Mr. Biswas. It has been tried to investigate what happens to the people of other nations immigrating to a creole society.In this novel by Naipaul, the writer draws our attention to the characters who are immigrant Indian people spending their lives in the creole society of Trinidad under the dominance of colonial power. By studying the three generations of Indian in this novel we can observe how the characters of the novel change their identity, religion, education, customs, etc. as a result of living in the creole society. It is seen that as the generation changes the belief of the characters on their original culture fades away and they merge into the colonial power. The characters in the novel, when encountering the colonizer's culture, change their identity and become who they want them to be. Moreover, during the course of the novel, the characters find ambivalent personality as a result of experiencing unhomliness in the society of mixed cultures. This ambivalence makes them have a double consciousness, to be attracted toward the colonizer's culture and at the same time repulsed from it. Keywords: Ambivalence, Creolization, identity, language 1. Introduction Naipaul's A House for Mr. Biswasis a tragicomic novel set in Trinidad in 1950s, and was published in 1961. It deals with an East Indian's struggle for a place to settle his identity. "The novel takes its subject matter from the excluded peoples who have been alienated from societies to which they apparently belong, and who are in search of an identity"( RecepTas 2). It also explains about the Indian society's segregated, traditional way of life which "contents to live in its shell and preserve its own special religious identity"(3). More importantly, the novel is considered as a dedication to Naipaul's father, depicting his father's misfortunes in the creole society of Trinidad. As Rob Nixon explains:"nothing since has equaled the inventiveness and emotional generosity of that homage to his father's misfortunes in the straitened circumstances of colonial Trinidad" (14). The story tells us how as the generation changes, the cultural identity of the Indian people living in the creole society of Trinidad changes too as a result of the interaction they have with one another or with the colonizer's culture. These changes mainly occur in the religious, educational, and cultural systems. Moreover, this is the story of Mr. Biswas for whom "to be housed permanently means that one's "privacy and dignity is safeguarded" and his identity recognized (Barnouw 51). 2. Creolisation Creolisation is a cultural process during which the colonized in order to attain identity undergo serious psychological, spiritual, and educational changes when entering the colonial destination, where various races are already inhabiting; a mixed population. This process to a large extend depends on how an individual or a culture responds to that Creole society. If they are absorbed to the dominant culture's norms in which diverse races are embracing, this process is called acculturation. However, if they interact with the dominant culture as a reciprocal activity, it is called interculturation. A House for Mr. Biswas is the story and history of three generations of Indian people living in the Creole society of Trinidad. The three generations in the novel are viewed through the eyes of Mr. Biswas who is the protagonist and the focus of the novel. During this encounter, as the generations are passing before our eyes, we, as readers of the novel, become aware of the cultural changes in the rituals of the Indian people of the novel as a result of which their identity and beliefs undergo drastic changes. As Rosmary Pitt argues "the main changes which are recorded are the decline of the Hindu culture and rituals as they undergo the process of creolisation and the accompanying changes in attitude" (8). These cultural changes, which form their identity during their encounter with the colonizer and the other people of their race, are psychological, spiritual, religious and educational. What is of great importance in the novel is that these changes occur along with the changes in the Creole society in which different cultures are clashing with one another and they all are to adopt themselves to the norms and values assigned to them by the dominant culture. ALLS 6(4):72-79, 2015 73 3. Language and Identity One of the significant issues that the colonized may face in the creole society of Trinidad is the matter of language among the Indian people, immigrating there. As the story goes on and we are confronted with changing generation of India, we see how the native language of the people changes and is supplanted by the language of the colonizer. However, the interesting thing even among the characters occupying the space of the novel is that they use Indian or English language in different situation and according to their needs. Language marks one's identity and losing the original language means losing one's origin. This is what happens in these three generations in the novel. The culture Mr. Biswas was born to speaks Hindi but as the time goes on because they are living in a creole society of mixed cultures, they begin to use English instead of Hindi in public. Tara, Mr. Biswas's aunt, speaks in English with the photographer in his father's funeral as English is becoming the prevalent English in Trinidad: "Leave them, the photographer said in English. Is a nice little touch. Flowers on the ground" ... Five people all together,” the photographer said to Tara. Hard to know just how to arrange them. It look to me that it would have to be two one side and three the other side. You sure you want all five?" (A House for Mr. House 13). It shows how the dominant culture is influential in shaping one's identity and culture that they begin to use the colonizer's language in public. Another instance that shows how English has become their public language is when the widows use Hindi as a secret language while visiting Mrs. Tulsi's house: "the women ... heedless of stares, they stared; and made comments in Hindi, unusually loud, unusually ribald, because in the city Hindi was a secret language, and they were in holiday mood"( H B 172) 1. Hindi has become a secret language, which is their native language. As we will see, as their language changes their identity will also change in the generations to come. Mr. Biswas himself uses English at Hanuman House as an act of rebellion against the other members in the house "even when they spoke to him Hindi". He uses "English as a gesture of rebellion and independence" (Pitt 10). 4. Language as Intimacy and Rejection As said before, native language is used in different situationxs implying various meanings for the characters. For example, when they feel comfortable with each other they use Hindi. "Ghany could follow their conversation. He disliked the way Indian women had of using Hindi as a secret language in public places, and asked impatiently, “Date of buth?”(H B18). Here as they are speaking to Ghany on how to get certificate for Mr. Biswas they speak Hindi. Both Bipti and Tara use Hindi as they do not feel comfortable using English in front of a foreigner, which makes Ghany angry. As Ludic Caribbean argues:"in the novel A House for MrBiswas, the use of Hindi is a sign of intimacy and tenderness, whereas the use of English shows distance and rejection" (125). Here, Hindi language is used a sign of friendship and relation. When Mr. Biswas after a period of absence from the family and Hanuman House, comes back and talks to Mrs. Tulsi, he spontaneously talks in a friendly Hindi language as he now feels at ease with her and calls her Mai meaning mother: "Mr. Biswas didn’t want to talk to Mrs. Tulsi in Hindi, but the Hindi words came out. “How are you, Mai? I couldn’t come to see you last night because it was too late and I didn’t want to disturb you” (HB 94). In another occasion, when Mr. Biswas has thrown a letter to Shama to express his love to her_ the letter falls into the hand of her mother, Mrs. Tulsi. Seth, who while not being related to, is working for the family and a part of it, tells Mr. Biswas that Mrs. Tulsi wants to see him. Seth speaks in English instead of Hindi, which makes Mr. Biswas distraught as he knows that speaking in English here is not a sign of good news for him: "The old lady want to see you before you go". "Mr. Biswas resented the tone, and was disturbed that Seth had spoken to him in English" (HB38). The same Seth speaks in Hindi when he wants to show his dissatisfaction about Mr. Biswas behavior as he feels that in this way he could make himself understood better: “Eh?” For the first time there was impatience in Seth’s voice, and, to show his displeasure, he began talking Hindi. “This is gratitude. You come here, penniless, a stranger. We take you in, we give you one of our daughters, we feed you, we give you a place to sleep in. You refuse to help in the store, you refuse to help on the estate. All right. But then to turn around and insult us!”(HB 49).Seth is very upset with Biswas' behavior as Biswas is not working and instead eating the readymade food at Hanuman House and insulting the members of Tusli's family. Even when Mr. Biswas wants Tara's opinion about Shama since Tara has seen her, he speaks in English, as he sees that Hindi is not smooth enough for the situation he is not at ease with: "He paid no attention to Ajodha and asked Tara in English,"You like she?" Hindi was too intimate and tender" (HB 46). The striking thing is that he even talks with his wife, Shama, in English as he sees no friendship between them: "But there was yet little friendliness between them. They spoke in English" (HB 47). 5. Cultural change Another important thing, which alters during the generation's change, is the culture affecting the identity of people living in the creole society. The cultural change can be observed in Tara's speech as she says: “Tara said, “fashions are changing all the time these days. I am just old fashioned, that is all.” She stroked her gold nose-flower. “It is expensive to be old fashioned" (BH15). She is the representative of the first generation and talks about the changes that occurres in fashion.The first generation of Indianan is strictly following the rules and customs of their culture but as we gradually come to the following generations, they change. The culture and customs are dealt with, differently from the first generation born in India and the next ones that were born in Trinidad. The first generation of these migrants with representatives such as Mrs. Tulsi, Seth, Mr. Biswas's aunt- Tara- and her husband- Ajodha- strictly follow the rules and 1 HB Stands for A House for Mr. Biswas ALLS 6(4):72-79, 2015 74 customs, never allowing diversion. Rules that inhibit mixing with other races, or even with Indians from an improper caste. As a case in point, when Ajodha's brother, Bhandat who has a mistress of another race is deprived of his helps and banished to loneliness as Tara has sworn not to mention his name again:"Bhandat had left his sons and gone to live with his mistress in Port of Spain. The boys were taken in by Tara, who added Bhandat’s name to those never mentioned by her again"(HB 34). It shows how the first generation is strict on following the customs in which getting wife of another race is a disgrace. Even when MrBiswas' sister has escaped with Tara's worker, Tara swears not to mention her name forever since she has caused disgrace for the family, escaping with a yard boy and when Mr. Biswas is expected to get angry,"he felt no anger or shame.His sister, Dehuti that runs with a yard boy, disgraces Tara since "the yard boy is the lowest of the low"(25). It shows that how the first generation is scrupulous about their customs and their caste while the second and third generations, Biswas and Dehuti are indifferent to the custom. Unlike their parents, the second generation does not believe in these rules, as it happens for Ajodha's nephews and Mr. Biswas's sister that neglect them. Shekhar or to put her name in M. Biswas words, the big idol is against the traditional way of choosing him his wife and does not accept the old rules: efforts were being made to find him a wife from among the handful of eligible families. He expressed his disapproval by random angry outbursts, tears and threats of suicide. This was construed as a conventional shyness and, as such, was a source of amusement to sisters and brothers-in-law. But the children were frightened when he talked of leaving the house and buying rope and soft candle; they were not sure what he wanted the soft candle for; and they stayed out of his way. (BH100) As we see he threatens to commit suicide if they force him to marry as he is against their conventional way of choosing him wife. The second generation is against the conventional way of selecting them their wives according to the traditional way. And even when Shekhar marries, he goes to live in his bride's house, instead of bringing his wife to the Hanuman House which was a long held belief and custom to the family: "The elder god, contrary to Hindu custom and the traditions of his family, did not bring his bride home, but left Hanuman House for good, no longer talking of suicide, to look after the lorries, cinema, land and filling station of his wife’s family" (HB 109). From the beginning, his wife sets the rule for the family and Shekhar's sister. She boasts about her education and wears clothes, which are in sharp contrast with Tulsi's tradition. Relations between the sisters and Shekhar’s wife had never been easy. Despite the untraditional organization of Hanuman House, where married daughters lived with their mother, the sisters were alert to certain of the conventions of Hindu family relationships: mothers-in-law, for example, were expected to be hard on daughters-in-law, sisters-in-law were to be despised. But Shekhar’s wife had from the first met Tulsi patronage with arrogant Presbyterian modernity. She flaunted her education. She called herself Dorothy, without shame or apology ... Added to all this she sometimes sold the tickets at her cinema; which was disgraceful, besides being immoral ... Dorothy’s daughters were of exceptional beauty and the sisters could complain only that the Hindi names Dorothy had chosen–Mira, Leela, Lena–were meant to pass as Western ones. (BH 175) Even as we see, she(Shekhar's wife) refuses to put Indian names for her children and instead uses western ones as an act of resistance against family's rules. Shekhar's wife as the representative of the second generation does not follow the custom and traditional culture of her ancestors and turns against all of them. In the old generation, it was an honor for a wife to be beaten by the husband. Even they talk about the way they have been beaten proudly: "most of the women he knew were like Sushila, the widowed Tulsi daughter. She talked proudly of the beatings she had received from her short-lived husband. She regarded them as a necessary part of her training and often attributed the decay of Hindu society in Trinidad to the rise of the timorous, weak, non-beating class of husband'' (HB 69). This is the traditional way of thinking of Hindu people in which being beaten by the husband is necessary and they are proud of it. However, as we see and as the time passes in the later generations we have a woman,Miss Logie, who is the head of the department of Community Welfare Officer. 6. Colonizer's Influence One also should not forget the influence that the other cultures and especially the dominant ones have on people's customs and way of behavior in the creole society. In one part of the novel, while the influence of American culture is quiet vivid on the behavior of people, the students at school are asked about the way they call their father and mother. While Anand tells that he calls them Bap and Mai, in the traditional way of calling their names which of course he lies about, Vidiadhar says that he calls them Mummy and Daddy, which shows the influence of the American people among them, and which causes them to take English language serious as well, as a way of communication with this new culture: When a new quiz was going round the school–what did the boys call their parents?–Anand, wishing only to debase himself, lied and said, “Bap and Mai,” and was duly derided; while Vidiadhar, shrewd despite his short stay at the school, unhesitatingly said, “Mummy and Daddy.” For these boys, who called their parents Ma and Pa, who all came from homes where the sudden flow of American dollars had unleashed ambition, push and uncertainty, these boys had begun to take their English compositions very seriously. (HB 210) ALLS 6(4):72-79, 2015 75 The presence of American has positive impact on the culture and economy of the people living there. As Pitt argues: the reader is made to sense the "inevitability of progress", and this is demonstrated as having some constructive aspects. The "flow of American dollars in to the island, with the growing American presence there during the Second World War, bringing prosperity, as well as growing spirit of competition" (9). Of course, the arrival of Americans, while bringing prosperity and progress for the people as providing them more jobs and foods, has side effects to the people too. As Miss Blackie believes that the reason the labors do not work as before is that they have become more greedy compared to the past and it is due to American's arrival which has made them greedy as they do not work even when the laborers do not have enough money and food. Miss Blackie blamed the Americans and said that rapaciousness was one of her people’s faults. Even after wages had been agreed Mrs. Tulsi was never willing to pay fully. Once, after he had worked for a fortnight, a burly mason, insulted by the two women, left the house in tears, threatening to go to the police. “My people, mum,” Miss Blackie said apologetically.(HB 253) As it is clear, the presence of Americans has both the positive and negative influence on the culture of people living in Trinidad. 7. Educational Changes Along with the cultural changes that happen in the island, we see drastic changes in the education of the people in the three generations of the Indian people living in Trinidad. We see how these changes in the encounter each generation has with education makes people's identity change too. During the course of the novel, we see how from the first generation to the third, their views towards the education change. As mentioned, the first generation believes more on superstitions and even when Biswas goes to school, he does not believe in the lessons he should learn. He thinks they are useless. At school, he learns both English and Hindi but in the next generation, it is the English language that is dominant and they forget even how to speak Hindi as the native language of their ancestors. However, the system of education is a progressive force in educating people as in the case of Mr. Biswas who is a literate person in contrast to his older brothers, which makes him question some unreasonable rules and traditions of his clan. It is also, as mentioned, "responsible for the decay of Hindu tradition"(Pitt 10). The system of education according to the colonizer's topics is remote from the Hindu's tradition. Mr. Biswas is taught about oases and igloos on his entry to the new world at school in Pagotes, topics as removed from his experience which makes him ignore them and do not pay attention to them: At Lai’s[ his teachrer] dictation he made copious notes, which he never seriously believed, about geysers, rift valleys, watersheds, currents, the Gulf Stream, and a number of deserts. He learned about oases, which Lai taught him to pronounce “osis”, and ever afterwards an oasis meant for him nothing more than four or five date trees around a narrow pool of fresh water, surrounded for unending miles by white sand and hot sun. He learned about igloos. The history Lai taught he regarded as simply a school subject, a discipline, as unreal as the geography. (HB 20) "In this extract, we also find that there is a huge gap between what was taught in school and the students' reality"(Bolfarine 2) and what happens in their real life in Trinidad. The same occurs when he is asked to write some essays as an assignment on the seasons in England of which he has no experience. However, as it seems, by the generation moving forward, they dissolve the problem and the third generation has no problem with this issue and they easily relate to the new topic. When he goes to Ramchan's house and meets his daughter studying new lessons, he says:“I didn’t know that at his age,” or as it is said "Mr. Biswas didn’t know anything about arithmetic either" (HB 148). As we see, Mr. Biswas as the second generation has problems with these topics but his sister's child has no problem with it. In another occasion when Mrs. Tulsi has decided to send Owad abroad to study medicine, some of her friends turn their back on her as she is ignoring their caste and custom by sending her son abroad. Here we see the difference in view of different generations to education. "Forgetting that they were in Trinidad, that they had crossed the black water from India and had thereby lost all caste, they said they could have nothing more to do with a woman who was proposing to send her son across the black water" (HB 167). Even though Mr. Biswas is from the second generation and his view is somehow traditional he lets his children, Anand and Savi, go abroad on scholarship, since he is afraid of their future. He does not want them to become a person as himself, a wanderer; therefore, he sends them on scholarship to go to England: As Pitt elucidates "Mr. Biswas fears for his son's future if the boy does not get some kind of education, but his fears are transformed into hope and optimism when his son goes abroad on a scholarship. This education system is viewed in an ambivalent way"(9). We see how three generations treat education differently and how education changes their culture and identity during the time. 8. Changing in Religious View Hindu people living in Trinidad are very religious people sticking hard to their religious views. Similar to the other cultural changes that take place in the various generations, we face, during the course of the novel that religious view also changes as the generation changes. The first generation being Mrs. Tulsi, Bipti, and Tara hold strong outlooks toward religion and follow the customs and rules of their caste. As an example, the daily puja is done at Hanuman ALLS 6(4):72-79, 2015 76 House as a tribute to the gods and everything, even the name of the house is a reminiscence of old India.However, this religious view fades as each generation emerges with their new mode of thought regarding religion. The view of each generation becomes more modernized and therefore we see the difference between the traditional Indian and the modern ones, declaring reformation of religion in their beliefs. As ImraanCoovadia asserts: "The novel sketches divisions between traditionalists and adherents of Reform Hinduism". In Biswas, each of the religious generation has become "more modern and more internally divided" (110). Mr. Biswas as being from a high caste is treated respectfully at the beginning of the novel whenever he goes to Tara's house. It shows how caste is important in their custom. "He became a different person ... In Tara’s house he was respected as a Brahmin and pampered; yet as soon as the ceremony was over, he became once more only a laborer's child "(HB 21). Even one of the reasons that Mrs. Tulsi agrees with Mr. Biswas's marriage to her daughter, Shama, is the fact that he is from a respected Brahman caste. As a child when he is a student, Tara does not want him to pursue education; therefore, she sends him to become a pundit, which he does not like very much. As a child, he is expected to become a pundit but he feels no compassion towards the religion and leaves, disgracing the holly tree. Later on, when he is married to the Tulsi family, he resents their idol worship and mocks them while they pray to the monkey god. To find a new way of teasing the family and also in search of a new community with which he would be able to construct a relationship, he turns to Aryanism, which was against caste, pundits, animistic ritual, parentally arranged and child marriage, and for the education of girls: He was speaking of the protestant Hindu missionaries who had come from India and were preaching that caste was unimportant, that Hinduism should accept converts, that idols should be abolished, that women should be educated, preaching against all the doctrines the orthodox Tulsis held dear ... after thousands of years of religion idols were an insult to the human intelligence and to God; birth was unimportant; a man’s caste should be determined only by his actions. (HB 52-53) He is the first one to rebel against the long held religious views of Tulsis. We see how in the creole society of Trinidad even the staunch perspectives will be supplanted by new ideas. However, we should not forget that Mr. Biswas is not against all their customs. As he does not sell pig's oil, Lard,: "Mr. Biswas’s Hindu instincts didn’t permit him to stock lard"(HB 80). Similarly, Anand comes to see the sacred thread ceremony merely as an excuse for absenting himself from school, for he and his father know that he could not go to school with a shaved head, inviting ridicule from the other children and his teachers. Mr. Biswas encourages him to spend his retreat learning school notes, and his performance of the puja at Shorthills is a mockery. The only thing Anand can do is sticking flower stem under god's chin, and cannot treat the rituals seriously. Anand as the third generation does not believe in the religious rituals and he takes the rituals just for fun and cannot accept to go to school with his head shaved. He does not take the ceremony serious in the developing society of Trinidad. The view toward their cast is changing. As Samuel Selvon argues: "Hindu society has traditionally been divided into groups called castes, based on heredity, which determine a person’s occupation and status. However, the influence of caste has been weakening, and discrimination based on caste is now frowned upon in democratic India"(12). Even Anand turns to reading Bible and its verses, which makes Mrs. Tulsi loses her temper: "At home one day Anand began singing, “Jesus loves me, yes I know.” Mrs. Tulsi was offended. “How do you know that Jesus loves you?”(HB 163). This changing in view is more obvious when Shekhar, called by Mr. Biswas the big god, is wearing stuff related to Christian and drinking wine as a mark of religious view of Christianity. This is when Mr. Biswas turns against him and Mrs. Tusli, saying that this is against Hindu religion: The elder god did wear a crucifix . It was regarded in the house as an exotic and desirable charm. The elder god wore many charms and it was thought fitting that someone so valuable should be well protected. On the Sunday before examination week he was bathed by Mrs. Tulsi in water consecrated by Hari; the soles of his feet were soaked in lavender water; he was made to drink a glass of Guinness stout; and he left Hanuman House, a figure of awe, laden with crucifix, sacred thread and beads, a mysterious sachet, a number of curious armlets, consecrated coins, and a lime in each trouser pocket. “You call yourself Hindus?” Mr. Biswas said. (HB 57) We see how Shekhar as the third generation is changing his religion to Christianity mixing his Hindu customs with that of Christianity. 9. House as Identity Mr. Biswas is in exile living in the country of Trinidad in which the other members of his folk are spending their lives in the creole society of Trinidad. The first thing, which comes of prior importance regarding living in a colonized country, is having a house of your own. Having a house which belongs to you signifies the fact that you have identity. Possessing a house equals identity in a colonized country. Mr. Biswas as a person living in a colonized country spends his whole life probing a house of his own. At the beginning of the novel, when Mr. Biswas after spending a period of time in the hospital returns home, he feels as if he has everything since, in his whole life he has been a wanderer looking for a place to accommodate. This extract taken from the prologue of the novel explains what a house means to him: ALLS 6(4):72-79, 2015 77 He thought of the house as his own, though for years it had been irretrievably mortgaged. And during these months of illness and despair he was struck again and again by the wonder of being in his own house, the audacity of it: to walk in through his own front gate, to bar entry to whoever he wished, to close his doors and windows every night, to hear no noises except those of his family, to wander freely from room to room and about his yard ... As a boy he had moved from one house of strangers to another; and since his marriage he felt he had lived nowhere but in the houses of the Tulsis, at Hanuman House in Arwacas, in the decaying wooden house at Shorthills, in the clumsy concrete house in Port of Spain. And now at the end he found himself in his own house, on his own half-lot of land, his own portion of the earth. That he should have been responsible for this seemed to him, in these last months, stupendous. (HB 2) He is free now. He can claim that he has identity. As Mehmet RecepTas asserts: Mr. Biswas is in search of a home by which he will be able to find his identity (3). Again when at the beginning the narrator is giving us an account of his life we see how precious the house is, compared to all the other stuff he has in the house: "but bigger than them all was the house, his house" (HB 5). This is the house, which gives the colonized an identity when living in a colonized country. He has left his family to live on his own without having money and a house to live. He also hates living with Tusli's family, which he leaves them several times to declare his freedom and now that he has alienated" from his folk, family and from the Tulsi's Hanuman House, for Mr. Biswas, a house of his own symbolizes freedom and a place to strike a root" (Ghosh 3). Mr. Biswas is an alien even in his own family since he was born with six fingers and feet first, signs for bad luck. Being considered as an unlucky baby, he stays as an outsider, a lonely individual in his own family. "His desire is to belong to house of his own in which he is no longer consider an stranger and he wants to be a part of the town not a wanderer looking everywhere for a place to stay, something which will give him an identity and selfhood "(Ghosh 2). He was no longer content to walk about the city. He wanted to be part of it, to be one of "those who stood at black and yellow bus-stops in the morning, one of those he saw behind the windows of offices, one of those to whom the evenings and week-ends brought relaxation"(HB 149). This image of "dispossession and rootlessness, of being homeless,becomes the recurrent metaphor in A House for Mr. Biswas– the search of a manwho is historically displaced, "floundering in a derelict land"(Ghosh 5). It seems he is not only displaced in his own culture in Trinidad, but also is a displaced in the colonizer's culture. His identity is floating and displaced. As Madhu Benoit in his "Cultural Representations : Stranger or Stranger ? Displaced identities in V. S. Naipul" says: This problem of a displaced and non-replaced cultural identity is poignantly depicted in A House for Mr. Biswas. Mr. Biswas is a man caught up in three cultures, and in the process, dispossessed of all three. Unable to integrate culturally in Trinidad where he lives, rejecting Hindu culture which he dislikes. (2) The house in factbecomes a substitute for the unconscious search for a lost identity, which haunts Mr. Biswas, a search which is hidden in the depths of his unconscious. Biswas is in search of a lost cultural identity as he is living in the creole society of Trinidad. As OindrilaGhosh believes: "The novel highlights the image of the house all through and embodies the protagonist’s ardent desire for a house of his own which actually translates into his attempt to acquire his unique social identity in a transitional society"(6). The focus on this aspect of the house acts as the "symbol and metaphor of an individual’s search for anchorage in a world of flux as well as expresses a rootless, exiled writer’s need for creating a tradition and culture devoid of the dregs of the receding tide of a colonial past" (Ghosh 5). Through Mr. Biswas's journey from one kind of house to another, until he finds himself in the house of his own, Naipaul "charts the unsatisfactory and difficult quest of a writer for anchorage and creation of a cultural identity"(Ghosh 5). Changing of different houses during which Mr. Biswas suffers a lot represent the different stages in the creation of an identity. For Mr. Biswas, the search for a house becomes a search for himself, a search for what he really wants out of life, a quest for individuality and a search for a place in the flow of seamless history he has endured. For him, to build a house of his own means freedom and recognition. And by the end of the novel, "in spite of all its deficiencies, he manages to buy this house which eventually brings him his wife's respect, and saves him from his sense of being rootless and alienated" (Mehmet RecepTas 3). We see how the cultural identity of a colonized is to a great extent dependent on claiming a house of his own which will bring him freedom and recognition by the others, even the members of his folk. 10. Identity: Reality VS. Appearance Mr. Biswas is a person who has no actual home. He is changing his house subsequently so as to feel at home somewhere, finally finding himself alone and wandered. As he is being crashed by the situation, he makes himself preoccupied by reading fiction as to be away from the reality he is in. He wants to be like the heroes of Samuel Smiles living in romantic world; however, waking up, he sees that he has lost a life behind and should start again. His identity gets fragmented and this is what mostly happens for the colonized living in a colonial country. From looking at magazines for their letters he began to read them for their stories, and during his long weeks of leisure he read such novels as he could find in the stalls of Pagotes. He read the novels of Hall Caine and Marie Corelli. They introduced him to intoxicating worlds. Descriptions of landscape and weather in particular excited him; they made him despair of finding romance in his own dull green land which the sun scorched every day; he never had much taste for westerns. (HB 34-35) ALLS 6(4):72-79, 2015 78 As we see here, he is drowned in the world of fantasies to escape, as a result of reading these fictional books,he forgets the reality of life. As Ludic Caribbean says: the intoxicating world of these fictional books makes him despair (182). He is talking to himself as he is talking to one of the characters of the stories he has read or written. As we know, he writes a story, Escape, which was never published, explaining his situation. As Helen Hayward explains: "Biswas's stories remain unfinished, unpublished and unread, except by Shama, and are confined to fantasies of romantic escape"(9). The feeling of homelessness has given him an unstable identity and has caused him to be after the fictional world to calm himself down. Nevertheless, when he is made aware of his situation with a family and children around and no money in the pocket, he goes mad and gets depression. His fingers were dusted with gilt from the pall-like cover of the book. As he studied them the clearing became overgrown again and the black cloud billowed in. How heavy! How dark! He put his feet down and sat still, staring at the lamp, seeing nothing. The darkness filled his head. All his life had been good until now. And he had never known. He had spoiled it all by worry and fear. About a rotting house, the threats of illiterate labourers. (HB 127) For him,stability and serenity which he seeks in life has been perished. We can see the effect reading books has had on his life, separating him from the real world where there are laborers working. However, this is through these illusory worlds of the books that he can experience the other places, transferring him to the other worlds in which he can experience happy moments. As Ludic Caribbean explains: To Mr. Biswas, book "is an inspiring vision of the larger world, which is denied to the protagonist. However, literature remains the basic stimulus; in its imaginary realm, Biswas is able to dream that he leaves his native island" (184). 11. Mr. Biswas's Ambivalence Ambivalence is referred to an idea when two opposing feelings and actions happen simultaneously. This feeling is that of attraction and repulsion to an object, action or a person at the same time. What is meant by this is that the colonized is at the same time attracted toward the colonizer and repulsed from them. It also refers to a "simultaneous attraction toward and repulsion from an object, person or action" (Ashcroft 12). Moreover, ambivalence denotes that in the interaction between the colonizer and the colonized complicity and resistance accompany each other. Simply put, when you hate something and at the same time, you like it, this is ambivalence in postcolonial term. This way of behavior is seen in Mr. Biswas’ reaction to various events around. Although he at times claims to reject religious views:"Sooner or later someone was bound to surprise him, in dhoti, top-knot, sacred thread and caste-marks, reading The Manxman or The Atom"(HB 145), and the rigid caste system as illustrated when he enjoys the Aryans, he enjoys Brahmin customs, mostly when he is respected greatly by Tara and Ramchandduring the time he is in their houses. In another part, he refuses to stock salt beef and lamb in his shop at the Chase. Moreover, in the moment of fear and stress he chants Hindu phrases to help him relax. 12. Conclusion This paper, which is the outcome of my thesis, submitted on Jan. 2013, illustrates the changes that occur in the three generations of immigrant Indians living in the creole society of Trinidad. The first generation that comes to this mixed society still holds their customs and rituals in different cultural conventions being educational, religious, etc. However, as the generation passes, their beliefs on their customs and religious issues fade away and in the case of the third generation, they lose their own original language and forget to speak Hindi and absorb the dominant cultures. Their educational system is based on the British conventions and they even lose their Hindu religion and some of them become Christians. Mr. Biswas as the protagonist of the story is one of these characters who suffers from unhomliness which results in finding an ambivalent character in Trinidad. To him, house means identity in the colonial environment. All his life, he is trying to find a house in whichhe can rest his floating identity which he finally succeeds to obtain. References Akai, J. (1997). Creole… English: West Indian Writing as Translation. TTR :traduction, terminologie, redaction, 10, 165-195. Ashcroft, B., Gareth, G., and Helen, T (2000). Post colonial Studies: The Key Concepts. London: Routledge. Bansal, Sh. (2011). Naipaul’s quest for roots, identity and order in the novels with the Third World setting; A House for Mr. Biswas and The Mystic Masseur. International Journal of Research in Social Sciences & Humanities, 1, 1-7 Benoit, M. (2007). Cultural Representations: Strange or Stranger? Displaced Identities in V.S. Naipaul.Représentation, 3, 40-46. Barnouw, D. (2003). Naipaul’s Strangers. Bloomington: Indian University Press. Bhabha, H. K. (2004). Of Mimicry and Man: The Ambivalence of Colonial Discourse. Location of Culture. London: Routledge. Bolfarine ,M. (2010). Literacy and Imagination in A House for Mr. Biswas".Celli- Coloquio de EstudosLinguisticos e Literario, 11. ALLS 6(4):72-79, 2015 79 Caribbean, L. (2006). Cultural Representations of Trinidad in V. S. Naipaul’s Fiction".Diss. Julius-MaximiliansUniversitätWürzburg. Christian, R. (2002). Coolie Come Lately: the making of The Suffrage of Elvira". Abstracts for the conference: A world in tension: the work of V. S. Naipaul, 15,1-48. Coovadia, I. (2009). Authority and Authorship in V. S. Naipaul. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Dooley, G. (2006). Naipaul’s Fraudulent’ London Novel: Mr. Stone and the Knights Companion. Flinders University: Carolina Press. Dooley, G. (2005). Naipaul's Women. South Asian Review, 26(1). Ghosh, O. (2011). To Lay Claim to One’s Portion of the Earth: Leaving a Mark on History in A House for Mr. Biswas". Rupkatha Journal on Interdisciplinary Studies in Humanities, 3(4)578-585. Heyward, H. (2002). The Enigma of V. S. Naipaul: Sources and Contexts. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Khoja, H.I. (2007). Community and Customs in V.S. Naipaul’s The Mystic Masseur" .Diss. Effat College Jeddah. King, B. V. S. (2003). Naipaul.Second Edition.New York: plagraveMacmillian. Mohan, Ch. (2004). Postcolonial Situation in the Novels of V. S. Naipaul. New Delhi: Atlantic Publishers and Distributors. Mustafa, F. (1995). V.S. Naipaul. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Naipaul, V.S. (1971). The Mystic Masseur. Oxford: Heinemann. Nixon, R. (1992). London Calling:V. S. Naipaul, Postcolonial Mandarin. New York: Oxford University Press. Pitt, R. (2001). York Notes: V.S. Naipaul's A House for Mr. Biswas. London: Longman. Qasim, A. M. (2012). A Study of the Autobiographical Elements in V. S. Naipaul’s The Mystic Masseur".Lapis Lazuli – An International Literary Journal, II(1), 1-12 RecepTas, M. (2011). Alienation, Naipaul and Mr. Biswas. International Journal of Humanities and Social Science. 1(11), 115-119. Selvon, S. (---). Study Guide: A Hosuse for Mr. Biswas. New York McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc, Nd. Singh, B. (2011). Naipaul's Mystic Masseur: A Quest for Identity amidst Deracination". Ajrsh: Asian Journal of Research in Social Science and Humanities,1(3). Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Iranian EFL Teachers’ Attitudes towards Lesson Planning based on their Gender Mina Heidari Department of English language Teaching, Ilam Branch,Islamic Azad University, Ilam, Iran Akbar Azizifar (Corresponding author) Department of English language Teaching, Ilam Branch,Islamic Azad University, Ilam, Iran E-mail: Akb1354@yahoo.com Habib Gowhary Department of English language Teaching, Ilam Branch,Islamic Azad University, Ilam, Iran Zahra Abbasi Department of English language Teaching, Ilam Branch,Islamic Azad University, Ilam, Iran Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.80 Received: 18/03/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.80 Accepted: 29/05/2015 Abstract The purpose of this study was to examine Iranian EFL teachers’ attitudes towards lesson plan based on their gender. The research is a quantitative study in which the data is obtained to get a great understanding on the relationship between lesson plan of Iranian English as Foreign Language (EFL) teachers and teachers’ gender. The population included 93 teachers in Eyvan and Ilam, Iran high schools and institutes. Participants in this study answered a Modified Questionnaire, adopted from Ramaila et al (2014). Independent sample t-test was computed to determine the difference between teachers’ attitudes towards lesson plan and their gender. Through statistically analysis it was found that, the female teachers were more interested in use of lesson plan than the male teachers. This paper recommends that more seminars workshops and in-service courses be organized for all science teachers to help train and boost their attitudes on the significance of lesson plans in teaching/learning of English in schools. Keywords: Teachers’ Attitudes; Lesson Plan; Gender; Iranian EFL 1. Introduction Lesson planning is an effective way for increasing the quality of education. Lesson planning is a process for defining the goals and understanding the needs, specifying available tools and possible limitations. According to Asfaw (2002), planning is the primary step of teaching & learning employed in the class & also organizes some activities for the class. So lesson plan seems to be helpful for a teacher to present the materials effectively. On the other hand, lack of a welldefine lesson plan may result a more problematic atmosphere for a teacher & consequently less beneficial achievement outcomes. Saberian and Salemi (2002), defined lesson plan as a process for the determination of appropriate educational goals and diagnosis of issues, needs, facilities, and limitations which are on the way of reaching educational goals. Having appropriate curriculum and lesson plan, creates a lively and active atmosphere in the class and encourage students to participate in the process of learning-teaching. Ghazi and Fallahi (2011) argued that lesson plan is the written description of the learning process in which it is shown what, how, when, and where should be learned and is evaluated. According to Steinert (2005) planning training courses are based on learner needs and training is based on lesson plan lead to effectiveness of training courses. Harmer (2007), viewed a lesson plan as a teaching preparation developed based on the teacher’s thought about what will be suitable for the students and on what the curriculum or the syllabus expects them to do. As asserted by Richards and Bohlke (2011), “planning a lesson before teaching is considered essential in order to teach an effective lesson” (p.35). According to van der Walt (1990:30-36) the teacher should plan the materials in the syllabus in a way that will reflect his/her own theories about language learning & teaching. A well-developed plan reflects the interests & needs of students. The lesson plan correlates with the teacher’s philosophy of education, which is what the teacher feels is the purpose of educating the students (Boston et al 1999). A lesson plan must correlate with the text book the class uses. The school usually selects the text books or provides teachers with a limited text book choice for a particular unit the teacher must take great care & select the most appropriate book for the students (Boston et al 1999). Format of a lesson plan based on Brown (2001) theory: 1) Goal(s) : to define your purpose which you try to accomplish by the end of the class and it is may be generalized 2) Objectives : to relate explicitly what you ask your students to achieve, This is helpful for you to: ALLS 6(4):80-83, 2015 81 a) Be sure that you actually are aware of what you want to do in the class b) Preserve the unity of the lesson c) Predetermine whether or not you are trying to accomplish too much d) Assess learners’ achievement after the lesson. 3) Materials and equipment: listing materials and equipment required for teaching is considered to be of a great significance while designing a good plan. 4) Procedures : it includes : a) Warm-up activities e.g.an opening expression b) Set of activities & techniques in which you have determined appropriate periods of time for I. Whole-class work II. Small-group work III. Teacher talk IV. Student talk c) Closure. 5) Evaluation: it is an assessment, formal or informal, that you make after students have enough opportunities for learning & with no evaluation you can’t assess your students’ achievement and adjust your lesson plan for the future. 6) Extra-Class Work: it is sometimes misnamed ″homework″, but is defined as applications or extensions of classroom activity found by teacher aiding the students do some learning after the class (Brown, 2001). In very basic terms: a lesson plan is the teacher’s guide for running a particular lesson, and it includes the goal (what the students are supposed to learn), how the goal will be reached (the method, procedure) and a way of measuring how well the goal was reached (test, worksheet, homework, etc.) A review of existing literature on lesson plan suggested a need for further research in this field. The research on lesson planning in Iranian context seems to be inadequate and researchers have recently started its investigation. Although, some of the previous studies explored teacher's attitude towards lesson plan in different context. The previous related literature review indicated that many studies conducted on university professors and few studies included secondary school, high school or institution. The current study conducted on secondary school, high school or institution teachers. This study aims to replicate the same survey in a different context (Ilam) based on their gender. 1.1 Research Question This study aimed to explore the following research question: Is there any significant relationship between teachers’ attitudes towards lesson planning and their gender? 1.2 Research Hypothesis There is a significant relationship between teachers’ attitudes towards lesson planning and their gender. 2. Methodology 2.1 Participants The participants in this study were 93 EFL teachers from high schools and institutes in Eyvan in the province of Ilam and city of Ilam- west of Iran, 53 of whom were female and 40 were male. Selection was done from all available professional experienced teachers having university education. Table 1 shows the characteristic of participants according to their gender. Table1. Frequency distribution of teachers by gender Teachers Number Gender 93 Female Male 53 40 2.2 Instruments In the present study which is a Likert-type measure, a questionnaire was used to elicit information from participants. This questionnaire, developed by Ramaila and Ramnarian, consists of 29 items. The scale was answered as follows: 1strongly Disagree, 2- Disagree, 3- Uncertain, 4- Agree and 5- Strongly Agree. Total score of the answerers showed the extent to which they agreed with lesson planning. In this study, the reliability coefficient of questionnaire was computed by Cronbachsʼ alpha. The result indicated that reliability coefficient was 0.78. 2.3 Procedure In this study, for collecting the data, questionnaires in the form of papers and online (using email) were spread up to different English Language teachers. Collecting data started at November to December 2014. The probable needed time for filling out questionnaire was about 10 minutes. ALLS 6(4):80-83, 2015 82 2.4 Statistical procedure To compute teacher’s scale score, the researcher entered each teacher’s response from the items of questionnaire into an Excel file then the Excel file was uploaded into the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). The scales scores were computed. 3. Results To investigate teachers’ attitudes towards lesson planning and their gender, independent sample t-test was used. This section presents the findings along with the discussion about teachers’ views of lesson planning based on their gender. Table 2. Mean and Standard deviation of teachers’ attitudes towards lesson planning Group Statistics Gender teachers’ attitudes towards lesson planning N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error Mean Male 40 97.2250 10.19926 1.61265 Female 53 102.3396 11.16475 1.53360 As seen in Table 2 above, the means of two groups are very close and so are the standard deviations and standard error of means. Male group has a mean of 97.2250 with a standard deviation of 10.19926 and the mean for the female group is 102.3396 with standard deviation of 11.16475. Therefore a small difference can be observed between the answers given by the two groups in terms of gender. In order to test teachers’ attitudes towards lesson planning according to their gender, T-test was used (see Table 3). In order to see if the difference between the means of the two groups was statistically significant or not. The results of using t-test is shown in Table 3 below. Table 3. T-test for investigating the relationship between gender and teachers’ attitudes towards lesson planning Levene’s Test Equality of Variances 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Equal variances assumed Equal variances not assumed F Sig T Df Sig.(2tailed) Mean Difference Std. Error Difference Lower Upper 1.509 0.223 -2.269 91 0.02 -5.11462 2.25398 -9.59187 -0.63737 -2.298 87.6 0.02 -5.11462 2.22543 -9.53744 -0.69181 According to the obtained results (Table 3) on “teachers’ attitudes towards lesson planning” score used by male and female, it is seen that there is meaningful relationship between gender of participants and teachers’ attitudes towards lesson planning, since the obtained T of respondents is -2.269, and the level of significance is less than 0.05, so this hypothesis is accepted and it can be concluded that there is a significant difference between teachers´ views on Lesson Plan based on their gender. 3.1 Discussion In this study the conceptual analysis of the results is reported. The goal of this study was to explore the teachers’ attitudes towards lesson planning based on their gender. The statistical results indicated that there is a significance difference between male, female and their views, so the second hypothesis was accepted. Females were more interested in lesson planning compared to males. The results were congruent to those of Taghipour (2013); Kamran & Sharghi (2011) who found that gender played a key role in this field and female were more favored lesson planning. The results of Saberian et al. (2003) showed that both male and female professors, consider lesson planning a necessity. Of female professors, 29% believed that heavy workload and lack of knowledge about lesson planning are two main obstacles in this regard, and admitted that lesson planning did affect the quality of their classes. ALLS 6(4):80-83, 2015 83 4. Conclusion Because of the important role teachers play in an educational system, this present study explored English teachers' attitudes at high schools and institute towards use of lesson plan in the class based on their gender. This result indicated that there is a significant difference between teachers' views according to their gender, and females were more interested in use of lesson plan compare to males. It sounds that since lesson plan provides the teacher a framework based on which the procedure of teaching is shaped, it will be beneficial for teaching experts to plan their lessons prior to enter the class. On the other hand, according to the views made by the participants, designing a wellstructured lesson plan helps the teacher manage time appropriately and make appropriate decisions during his/her teaching process. Most of the teachers believed in the role of lesson planning in improving the quality of education. This paper recommends that more seminars workshops and in-service courses be organized for all science teachers to help train and boost their attitudes on the significance of lesson plans in teaching/learning of English in schools. Therefore, it is suggested that education development centers offer workshops on lesson plan actively and all the teachers be asked to participate in these workshops at least once. Moreover, all teachers must be asked to prepare lesson plans and use them in their education. Lesson plan committee is suggested to be made within education development centers. Teachers should take part in in-service educational courses in this regard. The sample of the study was drawn from a small cities (Eyvan and Ilam); therefore, results may not be generalizable to the whole country. Also, the number of participants in all levels (secondary, high school and institution) was not equal. This issue may be affected the result. In this study, the instrument was limited to a questionnaire then future studies can employed other instrument such as interview. Next limitation can be sample size of this study which was 93 participants. Structural equation modeling or path analysis usually requires a large sample size (n > 200) to avoid unstable estimates in case of small samples (Klein, 2011). In many of these studies, the effects of these thinking and beliefs on improving teaching process seem to be neglected to some extent. This existing gap in educational planning of related organizations calls for further researches on Iranian EFL teachers from different aspects of cognition, thinking and beliefs, so that results can be used to pave the way for adopting effective decision making, planning and consequently progress in teachers' practice, References Asfaw, A. (2002). Analysis of Lesson plan: The case of English Zone.Retrievedfrom:etd.aau.et/dspace/bitstream/123456789/…/Abebe%20Asfaw.pdf teaching in Kafa Brown‚ H.D. (2001). Teaching by principles. An interactive approach to language pedagogy. (Second edition). New York: Pearson Education Ghazi, S.H., Fallahi, E. (2008). Evaluation of the conformity of confirmed syllabus in lesson plans of Lorestan medical University teachers in the year of 1387. Green Quarterly Journal of Medical Education – Special Education Proceedings of the tenth National Congress of Medical Sciences - Shiraz, p: 256 [Persian]. Harmer, J. (2007). The practice of English language teaching. (4th ed). Harlow: Pearson Education. Kamran, A., & Sharghi A. (2011). : Knowledge and Attitude of Academic Staffs of Ardabil University of Medical Sciences on Lesson Planning. Journal of Health and Hygiene, 2(4),31 - 39. Kline, R. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York: Guilford Press. Ramaila, S., & Ramnarain, U. (2014). Lesson planning practices of South African Physical Sciences teachers in a new curriculum. South African Journal of Education. University of Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa Richards, J. C., & Bohlke, D. (2011). Creating effective language lessons. New York: Cambridge University Press. Saberian M, Salemi S. (2002) How to write a lesson plan? 2nd ed, 2002 salemi Pub Co, Tehran: 40. [Persian] Saberian, M, Haji Aghajani, S, Ghorbani, R, et al (2003), Instructors’ point of view about lesson planning, Semnan Medical University, 2002, Journal of Babol University of Medical Sciences, 5(2), 33-36. Saberian, M., Aghajani,S., Ghorbani, R.,& Malek, M. (2003). Medical faculty members' attitude on lesson planning Semnan University of Medical Sciences. Journal of Medical Education, 2(2). Steinert, Y. (2005). Staff development for clinical teachers. The Clinical Teacher; 2(2),104-10. Taghipour, M, (2013). English Teachers' Attitudes towards Lesson Planning. The Iranian EFL Journal, 9(6), 354-363. Van der Walt, J. L. (1990). The role of the teacher in communicative language teaching. Journal for Language Teaching, 24(1), 28-40. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Dialect and Cultural Contact, Shift and Maintenance among the Jordanians Living in Irbid City: A Sociolinguistic Study Ibrahim Abushihab English Department, Faculty of Arts/English Department, Amman - Jordan E-mail: facultyofarts2@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.84 Received: 21/03/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.84 Accepted: 30/05/2015 Abstract The paper investigates the issue of dialect and cultural contact among Jordanians living in Irbid city in the north of Jordan. The objective of the paper is to find the extent of dialect and cultural shift and maintenance among them. The data are collected by means of interviews and observations. A sample of 100 participants has been selected on the grounds of availability. The sample includes different ages, gender and educational background. The results show that the Jordanians living in Irbid city in the north of Jordan are experiencing a continuous shift in their dialects and culture because of the direct contact among them. This is a result of a mixture of dialects and cultural elements used in Irbid city. Keywords: Language shift, Language maintenance, Language attitudes, Dialects and Jordanian culture 1. Introduction Recently, language and cultural shift and maintenance have been the core of interest by many sociolinguists such as Clyne (1982), Ferguson et al (1981) and Fishman (1989) .They reveal that languages and cultures are experiencing a kind of shift as a result of language contact and some sociolinguistic factors. Languages and dialects are not stable. They are in state of change and development. Most societies are experiencing a gradual shift in their languages, dialects and culture. Fishman (1964) stresses the importance of analyzing language shift and language maintenance for the understanding of the consequences of multilingual language contact. Fishman (1966) points out that language maintenance and language shift are important issues in analyzing the change and stability in habitual language use or cultural processes. Arabic language includes two major versions: Modern standard Arabic and colloquial dialects used in different parts of the Arab world. Khalil (2010) states that modern standard Arabic is the language of publications, the media and academic institutions. Al-Saidat and Al-Momani (2010) point out that modern standard Arabic is taken from classical Arabic which is the language of literature and the noble Quran. Al-Saidat and Al-Momani (ibid) add colloquial Arabic is a collection term for the spoken varieties of Arabic; it includes a number of regional varieties and the everyday spoken language. Dialects vary from one place to another because of the geographical factors and sociolinguistic variables. In Jordan, there are four major dialects: Urban, Rural, Bedouin and Palestinian. The objective of the current paper is to study and investigate these dialects and the cultural situation in Irbid city. 2. Literature Review Language is a means of communication and it is an effective tool for communication among human beings and for sharing ideas and expressing feelings and emotions. Language may be preserved as native language from generation to generation where a variety of elements may lead to the loss of the language or dialect. Many sociolinguists such as Fishman (1964, 1989), Ferguson (1981), Dweik (2000),Yeldiz (2000) and Nofal (2011) are interested in these phenomena. Holmes et al (1993) list different factors that foster language maintenance. Some of which are: 1) using the mother tongue at home; 2) positive attitude towards the language; and 3) resistance to mixed marriage. Garcia (2003) asserts that if we study language maintenance and language shift, we ought to take into consideration the domains of the language: the family, the school, subject of instruction, language of entertainment, the church, literature, the press, the military, the courts and the governmental language. Fishman (1966) emphasizes the psychological, social and cultural processes and their links to stability or change in habitual language use. He focuses on positive attitude toward the language to be maintained. Fillmore (2000) states internal and external reasons which lead to language loss. The major internal reason is the necessity to communicate with specific group in a language other than the native language of the speakers. The external reason comes from the sociopolitical factor. The society opposes differences and divergence. Most immigrants try to use the target language instead of their own native language. Nawaz et al (2012: 73) ALLS 6(4):84-91, 2015 85 remark that “language death occurs in unstable bilingual or multilingual speech community as a result of language shift from regressive minority language to dominant majority language.” Male and female speakers mostly have different attitudes towards dialects. Females tend to use the dialect which has a prestigious status. Habib (2005) states that the glottal stop sound /ʔ/ in Madani dialect has more social prestige and high status than the voiced velar stop sound /g/ in rural dialect. Most females in Jordan replace /g/ with /ʔ/ for prestigious reasons. Gal (1979) goes side by side with this trend. He asserts that language shift is progressing faster among females as a result of social prestigious reasons. Accordingly, females do not accept the rural dialect. Kloss (1966) states six factors for fostering language maintenance. Some of which are religio-societal, time of immigration and Pre-immigration experience with language maintenance efforts. Landweer (2000) states many factors which affect language loss. Some of which are: a) domains in which the language is used; b) frequency and type of code-switching; c) population and group dynamics; and d) language prestige. The relationship between the young and the old who do not speak the host language well is decisive and essential in keeping the ethnic language and dialect because the young are obliged to communicate with the old by using their ethnic language. Clyne (1982) emphasizes the role of home and family in maintaining the ethnic language. Fillmore (2000) is consistent with Clyne. He urges parents to find time or create time to talk with their children about their ethnic language. Dorain (1981) states many factors which maintain the language. One of which is using the ethnic language in different domains. This helps in maintaining the language and in transmitting it to the next generation. Othman (2006) states that using Arabic among Arabic-English bilinguals in the recent Arabic community in Manchester helps in maintaining it in the second generation because of some factors such as the use of Arabic at home, using Arabic at schools and mosques and following up Arabic satellite channels. Cho and Krashen (2000) point out that Korean language is maintained in the United States. It is widely used in different domains such as home and neighborhood. Al-Obaidi (2013) emphasizes that there is a strong relation between language maintenance and other non-linguistic factors such as home, religion and positive attitudes towards the ethnic language. 3. Methodology 3.1 Sample The sample of the current study consists of 100 participants who are residents of Irbid city. The sample consists of 56 males and 44 females. Some of them are originally from Irbid city; others are Palestinian refugees coming from different areas of Palestine following the Israeli-Arab wars in 1948 and 1968. They were forced to find safe shelter in Jordan. Some of them were born in Irbid city. The sample also includes some participants who are originally from villages and towns of Jordan and live in Irbid city for work or for some other social factors such as social status, marriage, etc. The choice of the sample is based on availability. The sample covers different ages, gender, educational background, place of birth, occupation, etc. It is divided into four age groups, following the works done by Dweik (2000), Al-Khatib (2001) and Al-Khatib and Al -Ali (2010) as the following table shows: Table 1. Distribution of the sample by age, gender and marital state Age 14 - 29 30 – 45 46 - 59 60 Total No. Sex Male 20 11 15 10 56 30 20 25 25 100 Female 10 9 10 15 44 Marital State Married 14 18 25 25 82 Single 16 2 18 Other demographic characteristics are shown in table 2. Table 2. Distribution of the sample by place of birth and level of education. Place of Birth No. Level of Education No. Irbid City 35 Basic Stage 25 Palestine 35 High School 30 elsewhere 30 B.A 30 M.A 10 PhD 5 Total 100 100 ALLS 6(4):84-91, 2015 86 3.2 The Instrument of the Study To achieve the objectives of the study, the researcher designed an interview questions, following the methods used in Dweik (2000), Al-Khatib and Alzoubi(2009) and Al-Khatib and Al-Ali (2010). To the researcher, interviews and personal observations are effective methods to achieve the objective of the study. It is also not possible to study the dialect situation in Irbid city without interviewing the participants and recording their spoken dialects .Data are gathered, recorded and transcribed to study the dialect and cultural situation in Irbid city. The researcher of the study belongs to the people who are living in Irbid city. This will facilitate carrying out the interviews and gathering data via interviews and personal observations. The questions of the interviews consist of different elements such as demographic data, communications, and cultural aspects as shown in Appendix A. The researcher starts each interview by giving a summary about the objectives of the study. Extra questions could be asked when necessary. 4. Findings and Analysis The age of the participants plays an essential role in the realization of the dialects used among the participants. Younger generation especially females whose age ranges from 14-29 years old tend to use Urban (Madani) dialect. This may be due to its higher status. The participants over 60 years old use their ethnic dialects and they are proud of them. This result goes with Al-Wer (2007) who assures that Ammani female speakers tend to use /ʔ/ in Madani dialect which has prestigious status over other dialects. The following table shows the distribution of the sample by dialects and age. Table 3. Distribution of the sample by dialect and age Age No. Horani Tirawi Bedouin Urban (Madani) Gorani Percentages 14 - 29 30 10 - - 17 3 30% 30 - 45 20 7 3 - 10 - 20% 46 - 59 25 12 5 4 2 2 25% 60 - 25 11 4 5 - 5 25% Total 100 40 12 9 29 10 100% Table 4 below shows the percentages of the dialects used in Irbid city and the distribution of the sample to dialect and sex .The results show that the majority of the participants use Horani dialect at the percentage of 40% while 29% of them use Urban (Madani) dialect. 12% of the participants use Tirawi (Palestinian) dialect. Similarly, 10% of them use Gorani dialect.The results also show that the least percentage of the participants is 9% which goes to Bedouin dialect. Table 4. Distribution of the sample to Dialects and Sex Dialects Sex Total Percentages Male Female Horani dialect 30 10 40 40% Urban (Madani) 8 21 29 29% Tirawi(Palestinian) dialect 7 5 12 12% Gorani dialect 6 4 10 10% Bedouin dialect 5 4 9 9% Total 56 44 100 100% dialect The results reveal that the highest percentage of the distribution of the sample to dialect is the Horani dialect with 40% of the total. This is because the Horani dialect is originally the ethnic dialect to the people of Irbid city. The most important feature of Horani dialect is that the voiceless uvular stop /q/ is articulated as voiced velar stop /g/ as in /qamaa/ stand up which is pronounced as /gaama/. The participants who speak the Horani dialect use special words and expressions as follows:/Jiditti/ my grandmother; /gdeesh/ mule; /ʃobadak/ what do you want, etc. The lowest percentage goes to Bedouin dialect. This is due to the places where they live. Bedouins live in the desert in the south and east of Jordan. Their dialect is rarely used in the urban areas. When the Bedouin participants are asked why they are living in Irbid city, they assure that they have come to Irbid city for work. The prominent feature of the ALLS 6(4):84-91, 2015 87 Bedouin dialect is the use of the voiced velar stop sound /g/ in place of the uvular stop sound /q/. This result goes side by side with Abdel-Jawad (1981) who remarks that the uvular stop sound /q/ has merged with different variants as voiceless velar stop sound /k/; voiced velar stop sound /g/; glottal stop /ʔ/. He adds that /q/ becomes voiced velar stop sound /g/ when rendered by Bedouins as the following example shows:/qalb/ heart in standard Arabic is pronounced as /galb/ in Bedoin dialect.. The voiceless velar stop sound /k/ is also pronounced as the voiceless affricate post-alveolar sound /tʃ/ as the following example shows: /Kalam Jamil/ good speech is articulated in the Bedouin dialect as “tʃalamin zain”. The word /zain/ which has the meaning of good, beautiful, nice, yes, O.K, etc is frequently used in the Bedouin dialect. In standard Arabic, the glottal stop /ʔ/ is followed by the back vowel /ɔ/ in some verbs of order as follows: /ʔɔqʕɔd/ sit down /ʔɔdrus/ study Bedouins of Jordan replace the back vowel /ɔ/ to front vowel /ɪ/ as following examples: /ʔigʕid/ sit down /ʔɪdrɪs/ study Bedouins of Jordan also use special words and expressions which are not mostly used in standard Arabic and other Jordanian dialects as follows: /ʔɪhrij/ speak; /yalaxu/ brother; /bnayah/ daughter; /ħina/ we, etc.29% of the participants use Urban dialect (Madani). Most of the participants who speak the Urban dialect are under the age of thirty five. They tend to use the Urban dialect for prestigious status even though they belong to parents who use other dialects. This result goes side by side with Habib (2005) who assures that the glottal stop sound /ʔ/ has more social prestigious status than using the voiced velar stop sound /g/ among women. The participants who use the Urban (Madani) dialect use special words and expressions as follows: /laʔɪlɪk/ for you (for female); /laʔɪlak/ for you (for male); /halaʔ/ now; /kɪfak/ how are you? (for male) ;/Kifik/how are you? (for female), etc. The glottal stop sound /ʔ/ is the distinctive feature of those who are speaking Urban (Madani) dialect.12% of the participants use the Tirawi dialect. It is spoken by the people who migrated from the Palestinian coastal town “Tirat Haifa” as a result of the Arab-Israeli war. The uvular stop sound /q/ is considered as the identity feature of Tirawis living in Irbid city. The uvular stop sound /q/ in standard Arabic replaces the glottal stop /ʔ/ in the Urban dialect; the voiced velar stop sound /g/ in the Horani and Bedouin dialects and /q/ in the Tirawi dialect as the following example /qaal/ say (Standard Arabic); /gaal/ (Horani and Bedouin dialects); /ʔaal/ (Urban dialect) and / qaal/ (Tirawi dialect) Tirawis use expressions and words that are used neither in standard Arabic nor in the other Jordanian dialects in Irbid city as follows: /qiʃnya/ dish, bowl; /fistyan/ female dress; /qarut/ orphan or child, etc. Table 3 shows that most participants who use Tirawi dialects are above the age of 46 years old. This result goes parallel with El-Salman (2008) who asserts that all Tirawis who keep their ethnic dialect belong to the old age. This is because they want to keep their ethnic dialect for self-assertion. 10% of the participants use the Gorani dialect. It is spoken by the black farmers who are living in the Jordan valley. Some of them came to Irbid city for the purpose of work or marriage. The distinctive feature of the Gorani dialect is the use of the voiceless affricate post-alveolar sound /tʃ/ in place of voiceless velar stop sound /k/ as in the following examples: /tʃalb/ dog; /tʃabir/ /big/; /tʃalam/ speech. etc. Goranis use the front central back vowel /ə/ in place of the /-t/ of feminine gender as follows: /ɣanama/ goat in place /ɣanamatun/ in standard Arabic. Goranis also use special words and expressions as follows: /widi/ I want; /Kubaya/ cup; /watˤa/ earth, etc. To conclude, each dialect spoken in Irbid city has special lexical items which are mostly different from others as table 5 shows: Table 5. The Lexical Items of the Irbid City Dialects Lexical Items in English Lexical Items in Standard Arabic Lexical Items in Horani Dialect Oranges Lamp Spoon Children burtuqal misˤbaħ malʕaqa ʔawlad burdgan lamba Maʕlaga wlad Lexical Items in Tirawi Dialect burdqan lamba zalfa qawari:t Lexical Items in Bedouin Dialect burdgan Lamðˤa xaʃoga ʕidʒjan Lexical Items in Urban Dialect burtʔan Lamda maʕlaʔa ʔawlad Lexical Items in Gorani Dialect burtugan Lamðˤa Maʕlaga ʕadʒab The interviews show that all the interviewees despite their ages like the Jordanian national food. ‘Mansaf’ which is considered as an important aspect of the Jordanian culture in general and the Irbidean culture in particular is presented as an expression of hospitality and generosity. Lamb meat is cooked with dry sour milk called “Jameed” in Arabic which is eaten by mixing it with cooked rice. Mansaf is served in special occasions like graduation celebration, ALLS 6(4):84-91, 2015 88 wedding, condolences, etc. Five female participants of the age 14- 29 do not like Mansaf. To them, Mansaf is not delicious. They like fast food instead. Magluba (upside down) is the second dish that is frequently cooked. It is cooked in a large pot then turned onto a platter. Maqluba consists of layers of rice, vegetables and meat. It can be covered with almonds and served with yogurt. All the participants like and enjoy it. Muskhan and Maftool are the Palestinians’ national dishes, and all the participants show positive attitude towards them. They like and enjoy them. These dishes are cooked frequently in Irbidean homes. Muskhan consists of roasted chicken over special bread baked for this purpose with fried onions, olive oil and sumac. Maftool is mostly cooked in winter. It consists of a mixture of cooked, parched and crushed wheat called (Bulgur) in Arabic, tomato paste, flour and roasted chickens. Some interviewees of Palestinian origin consider “ðan al-ʃajeb” food as a national Palestinian dish that they like and enjoy. “ðan al-ʃajeb” is literally translated “the ears of the old with white beard”.It is wheat dough parcels with a mixture of beef meat and spices inside which are cooked with yogurt or dry sour milk called in Arabic Jameed. The most common and popular breakfast dishes are Humus, foul muddamas and falafel. All the interviewees state that these dishes are delicious and they like and enjoy. Humus is boiled peas blended with tahini paste, garlic and lemon juice. It is served with olive oil. Foul muddamas is crushed broad beans with olive oil, lemon juice, pepper and sumac. Foul muddamas is considered the workers meal because it is cheap for the working class in Jordan. Falafel is also popular, delicious and favorite for most of the Jordanians. Falafel is balls of crushed fried chickpeas with spice. Falafel sandwiches are also favorite in Jordan. The sandwiches are made of a mixture of falafel and Humus. Hummus is spread inside fresh bread filled with falafel and salad. Falafel is a cheap and quick meal. The interviewees state that food is kept and preserved among generations. This is due to the fact that these types of food are cooked and prepared at home regularly. The way of cooking and preparing such meals and dishes was passed from generation to another. The results go in line with Chiu (2003) who states Indian Hakkas in Toronto preserved their ethnic identity through food. The results also agree with Glasgow (2012) who studies the Croatian language and cultural preservation in Kansas. He concludes that the Croatians preserve some of the Croatian culture such as food, greetings and music. Lee et al (2014) state that each ethnic group throughout Malaysia has its own distinctive cuisine and they keep their food .Hainanese, for example, are well-known for the Hainanese chicken, rice, coffee and toast. Omar (2014) goes towards this trend. She states that the Circassians of New Jersey keep some of their cultural elements that play a decisive role in their circassion ethnic identity. One of them is food. There are different sweet foods that are familiar to all participants. They all state during the interviews that they like and enjoy them. The best of the sweets the participants talk about is Kunafeh. It is a traditional Palestinian sweet transferred to Jordan. Nowadays, it becomes the most popular sweet in Jordan. It is served mostly in all occasions. It is prepared from buttery shredded filose pastry layered over goats’ cheese with sweets over it. Harrisa is focused on by the participants of the study. It is a traditional sweet of Jordan that has developed through decades. Harissa consists of a mixture of semolina, flour, butter and yogurt that are mixed together with water and olive. Almonds are put at the top. The mixture is put in a pan to be baked until it becomes almost golden. One of the most important national sweet foods in Irbid city is cake of pressed dates. The interviewees assure that it is the symbol of the two Muslim feasts: Ramadan feast and the feast of immolation. All the Irbidean families prepare cake of pressed dates a few days before the feasts to be offered for the guests of the feasts. It consists of a mixture of flour, butter, olive oil, sugar and special spices that are mixed together with water. The mixture takes the forms of dough circles with pressed dates inside and they are put in pans to be baked. Irbidian folklore is the essential issue for the participants who are above 60 years old. They are proud of their folklore whereas the young who are below 30 years old are not interested in the traditional Irbidian folklore. The Debkeh dance is performed by Jumping down and up with quick movements in different directions. It is used in different happy occasions like marriage, graduation, etc. Debkeh dance is performed in a harmony of traditional Jordanian songs like /ʕala dalʕona/ , /yazarif altˤoul/ , /dʒafra jaharabiʕ/. These titles are hardly translated into English because some words are used neither in standard Arabic nor in colloquial Arabic like /dalʕona/ and /dʒafra/, but they refer to happiness and motivate Debkeh dancers to do their dances well. Unfortunately, Debkeh and traditional songs are rarely performed nowadays because the young and coming generations are interested in western style songs and Arabic short songs with noise music followed by western dances. The study disagrees with Glasgo (2012) who states that Croatians of Kansas-USA have maintained some of their cultural aspects such as music. The current study among others show that Jordanians living in the Irbid city with different dialects preserve some parts of their culture such as food. The dialects of Jordanians living in Irbid city are experiencing a shift towards the Urban (Madani) dialect because the young tend to use it for prestige. The death of the old people who used the Horani dialect would have given the priority to the Urban (Madani) dialect to be superior over other dialects. This result goes side by side with Hijjo and Fannouna (2014: 35) who state that “younger generation shift from /g/ to the prestigious form /ʔ/ to show prestige in the society.” The results also go in parallel with El-Salman and Roche (2010) who emphasize that the Tirawi dialect goes to the point of extinction as a result of the death of old Tirawi people who used their ethnic dialect. The results also agree with Abdel-Jawad (1981) who remarks that the dialect variants used in Jordan, namely: /ʔ/ Madani; /k/ Fallahi and /g/ Bedouin reflect different social communities in Jordan. Jordanian food and sweet are ones of the cultural aspects that all participants enjoy and like regardless whether they are of Jordanian origin or of Palestinian one. This result goes hand in hand with Octu (2010); Alzoubi (2008); Al-Khatib and Al-Ali (2005) who assert that traditions and some cultural values are preserved and maintained in some communities. It is noted from the interviews that families of Irbid city mostly do not live in neighborhoods, so the ALLS 6(4):84-91, 2015 89 members of the same family may use different dialects because of their direct contact with other people who speak different dialects in schools, universities, works and in public, etc. and because of their shift towards the more prestigious dialect like the Urban (Madani) dialect. This result goes with Al-Rahal (2014) who states that living in a neighborhood is a decisive factor in maintaining the ethnic language. Concerning cultural associations, each family mostly belong to a social association that is used for special occasions. The interviewees assure that family associations do not help in keeping the cultural heritage and they do not also strengthen the social ties among the members of the family because they gather in these associations only in certain occasions. The interviewees add that they do not hold cultural events in these associations. These results go side by side with Omar (2014) who remarks that Circassion associations in New Jersey-USA do not play an essential role in keeping circassion cultural heritage. They do not address the linguistic, social and cultural struggles. 5. Conclusion The analysis of the results of the interviews and the personal observation of the researcher show that there are five major dialects used in the Irbid city: Horani; 40%, Urban (Madani) ;29% ,Tirawi (Palestinian) ;12% ,Gorani ;10%, and Bedouin ; 9% .The voiceless uvular stop sound /q/ has different variants as voiced velar stop sound /g/ (Horani ;Gorani ; Bedouin ); glottal stop /ʔ/ Urban (Madani) dialect ); and uvular stop sound /q/ (Tirawi dialect). The study also shows that the dialects used in Irbid city are experiencing a gradual shift towards the Urban (Madani) dialect. Most young participants tend to use it because it has higher prestigious status and more respect. It is shown that some dialects used in Irbid city may go to the point of extinction after the death of the old people who used these dialects. Most young participants in the interviews assure that the Urban (Madani) dialect gives them the confidence and it has more social prestigious status. They add the girls who use other dialects are considered old-fashioned and uncivilized girls. This is why it is expected that the Urban (Madani) dialect is considered prominent over other dialects in Irbid city. These results are in harmony with Holmes (1992) who states that there are three reasons for a language to go towards extinction: 1) migrants are monolingual and their ethnic language is shifting to the host language; 2) their children are bilingual. They use their ethnic language to communicate with their families and host language to communicate with people in community; 3) their grandchildren are often monolingual because they abandon their ethnic language. It is noted that the shift towards the Urban (Madani) dialect in Irbid city is not as a result of ideology or religion because all the dialects used in Irbid city belong to the standard Arabic which all participants respect and are proud of it. 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In J.Fishman (ED) Language Loyalty in the United States (PP.52-206), The Hague:Mouton. Landweer, Lynn (2000) A Sociolinguistic Profile of English in Kenya, World Englishes, 24(2), 176 – 180. Lee, Eileen et al (2014) Language Maintenance and Cultural Viability in the Hainanese Community: A Case Study of the Melak Hainanese, Athens, Journal of Humanities and Arts, April. Nawaz, Sana et al (2012) Language Shift: An Analysis of Factors Involved in Language Shift, Global Journal of Human Social Science, XII(X). Nofal, M. (2011) The Language Situation among the Indians of Yemen: A Sociolinguistic Study, Unpublished M. A thesis, MEU, Jordan. Octu, B (2010) Heritage Language Maintenance and Cultural Identity Formation: the Case of a Turkish Saturday School in New York City, Heritage Language Journal, 7(2), 112 – 137. Omar, Rana (2014) The Linguistic and Cultural Situation in a Multilingual Circassian Community in New Jersey/ USA, Unpublished M. A thesis, Middle East University, Amman, Jordan. Othman, M (2006) Language Choice among Arabic- English Bilinguals in Manchester, Britain, Unpublised MA thesis at the University of Manchester. Yildiz, E. (2000) The Aramaic Language and its Classification, Journal of Assyrian Academic Studies, 14(1), 23 – 44. ALLS 6(4):84-91, 2015 91 Appendix A I’d like to express my deep gratitude for taking your time and efforts in answering the following questions which serve a study about dialect and cultural situation in Irbid city. A. Demographic background 1- How old are you? 2- Where were you born? 3- Where were your parents born? 4- What is your job? 5- Are you married? 6- Are you originally from Irbid city? 7- What is your original city/ town/ village? 8- What is your educational level? B. Community profile Questions 1- What dialect do you use? 2- What are the dialects used in Irbid city? 3- If you are not originally from Irbid city, what reasons made you come to live in Irbid city? 4- Are your relatives living in Irbid city? 5- Do you live in neighborhoods with your relatives in Irbid city? 6- Do you send your children to private or government schools? why? 7- Are there any cultural associations in Irbid city? Are they effective in keeping cultural heritage? 8- How do you celebrate the feasts and other occasions like wedding, marriage, etc? 9- How is the funeral condolence taken place in Irbid city? 10- Are there special food/ dishes in Irbid city? Name them? How are they prepared? 11-Are there special sweet food in Irbid city? Name them? How are they prepared? 12- How strong are the social ties among the people of Irbid city? 13- What is the dialect which is dominant over others in Irbid city? Why? 14- What are the cultural parts which people of Irbid have lost and what parts are kept? 15- What are the cultural songs or dances used in Irbid city? Are they kept or lost? Why? 16- Talk about the history/ culture of Irbid 17- Are you interested in Irbid cultural heritage? Why? 18- Do you think that it is important to keep Irbid cultural heritage? Why? 19- Are you proud of using your own dialect? Why? 20- What is your attitude towards the dialects other than your own ethnic dialect? Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Writing Deficiency among EFL University Students: Causes and Solutions The Case of English LMD Students at Djilali Liabes University Miloud Bouchefra Djilali Liabes University, Sidi Bel Abbes B.p N° 89 Sidi Bel Abbes 22000, Algeria E-mail: miloud.bouchefra@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.92 Received: 22/03/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.92 Accepted: 31/05/2015 Abstract Writing is a basic skill in language and believed to be the hardest one to teach and learn (Walters, 1987) as the writer must transcribe his/her thoughts while maintaining control over a number of aspects varying from word choice and spelling to overall text structure and layout. In addition to its multifaceted nature, writing requires a huge amount of effort and practice on the part of the learner in order to reach a standard acceptable level. The aim of the present paper is to analyse the process of teaching/learning of writing and address learners’ writing deficiencies at the level of English language department at Djilali Liabes University. Additionally, through a number of research tools, reasons lying behind this problem have been identified and areas that students find most challenging in writing have been pinpointed. More importantly, the present study also puts forward a number of suggestions and solutions, most important of which is the adoption of an instructional framework for writing based on purposeful eclecticism. Keywords: Writing deficiency, written expression, module, approach, practice 1. Introduction Hundreds of students enrol annually in English language department at Djilali Liabes University, for the degree of Bachelor of Arts in English language didactics. As part of their studies, those students are required to write essays throughout the six semesters they are supposed to spend at the university, and sit for written examinations at the end of every semester. However, their inability to write adequately affects their grades negatively and sparks off the everlasting debate over students’ writing deficiency. The reasons behind this deficiency have been traditionally attributed to poor English language instruction at medium and secondary schools’ levels as low entry requirements permit the admission of all students, even those who lack the rudimentary basics of English language. Regarding the mediocrity and deterioration that Algerian educational system is witnessing, raising the entry requirements and imposing higher admittance standards will result in nothing but depriving students, who are victims of the poor educational system in the first place, from pursuing their studies in a field of their choice. Furthermore, even after joining the university, students find themselves in an environment, which does not cater for their needs appropriately, and lack some of the basic requirements needed to support and enable them to develop their language skills properly, especially writing that has a direct impact on students’ academic pursuit. 2. Writing Instruction Writing instruction has been widely subjected to constant change of views, as the principles underpinning the teaching of this skill have been highly controversial. Driven by the disputation over which skill(s) contributes the most to effective writing, teaching of writing fell within two conflicting categories. The first one entails the supporters of “Product-oriented approach”, who see writing as a means of presenting information rather than informing, and whose primary concerns are the final results and accuracy of grammatical and syntactical structures. As imitation and transforming model texts are the main activities in which learners are engaged (Jones, 2006), this approach failed to recognize that writing has a purpose and an audience, and that ideas are generated and modelled during the process of writing. Whereas the second stream is represented by the advocates of “Process-oriented approach”, who view writing as a creative process of self-discovery and to whom “the development of good writing practices” is far more important than “the imitation of models” (Tribble, 1996, p. 156). Based on the recursive framework of Prewriting-DraftingRevising-Editing-Publishing model, students in process approach are invited to draw on their personal experiences and have their personal imprint put on the piece of writing. Rather than supporting one side to the exclusion of the other, a third stream emerged endorsing eclecticism and interchangeable use of strategies and techniques from the aforementioned mainstream approaches and the ensuing ones. This is in line with the argument put forward by Raimes (1983), who indicated that “all approaches to writing overlap, and the teacher should not be so devoted to one approach that she excludes all others.” (ibid., p. 11). In fact by exclusively committing him/herself to a one single approach or a method, the teacher risks limiting his/her options, ALLS 6(4):92-102, 2015 93 making his/her practice less flexible and adaptive, and depriving his/her students of the opportunity to develop their skills more fully. Therefore, teachers are challenged to form a holistic understanding of all learning theories and related pedagogies (Gao, 2011), and engage in a process of “diagnosis, treatment, and assessment” (Brown, 2002, p. 13) in order to devise their own blend according to their learners’ proficiency, needs and objectives. Characteristics associated with successful writing instruction have been the subject of a growing body of literature, resulting in setting a number of guidelines that might help usher teachers to come up with their own eclectic approach. The main criterion associated with successful writing class is the incorporation of practices applied by real writers, as this will take writing out of its dull theoretical academic shell and present it in a more meaningful and realistic way. Furthermore, as writing is the full time job of many professional writers, who is better than them to inform the instruction of this skill. Though the term “practices” sounds too broad and generic, it can be highlighted in terms of the following points 1. Students should be engaged in a meaningful experience where they tackle authentic topics, write for a clear purpose and address a real audience (Whitaker, n.d.). 2. A routine must be established to familiarise students with class atmosphere, make them feel more comfortable, help them become acquainted with the different stages of writing process, and enable them to manage their time more efficiently. (The access Center, n.d.) 3. A common language should be put in place to help discuss the different aspects of students writing and facilitate provision of feedback. Being equipped with the needed language to address and discuss different aspects of writing enables students to profit from the feedback and encourages them to engage in group discussions with their teachers as well as their peers. (ibid.) 4. A careful balance between process and product approaches must be maintained. While guiding students through different stages of writing process, teachers must provide learners with a model that keeps them on the track and help them meet rhetorical conventions required by the genre they are writing in. (Brown, 2000) 5. Reading and writing must be connected, as the former informs the latter and represents an indispensable input source for students. Students learn to write by reading materials written by others, observing and analysing models, and imitating techniques and strategies. (Brown, 2000; Whitaker, n.d.) 6. Students must be allowed ample opportunity to write and practice what they have learned, as “students learn to write best when they write frequently, for extended periods of time” (Peha, 2003, p. 3). 7. Students should be provided the opportunity to work collaboratively in terms of pairs and groups; this entails ideas generation, peer reviewing, writing sharing and publishing opportunities. 8. Rhetorical and formal conventions of writing must be presented clearly and explicitly (Brown, 2000). 9. Students must be given some freedom over the choice of the topic; this promotes their sense of ownership and motivates them to engage more actively in assignments. (Whitaker, n.d.; Brown, 2000) 10. Constructive response must be provided to students in regards of their writing. The feedback must be provided throughout the writing process as this helps teachers cover issues beyond layout errors and steer students’ compositions in the right direction (Whitaker, n.d.). As no definition has been provided in regards of what constitute the best writing approach, last decades’ “try and err” have taught us a great deal of what can be termed as guidelines for effective writing instruction. Written expression teachers must be aware of the current writing approaches, keep in constant touch with the world of academic research, assume the role of researchers themselves, and draw on their own experiences to devise an approach that suits their learners’ style and meet their objectives. 3. Aim of the Study As far as writing at Djilali Liabes English department is concerned, students are unable to develop their composition skills properly. While the problem keeps being a matter of fact clearly apparent to the naked eye, the real reason(s) lying behind it remains a dilemma where both teachers and students exchange accusations for whose fault it is. Taking into consideration that dealing with the roots of the problem and resolving writing deficiency issues at medium and secondary schools’ levels can only happen through the intervention of the highest authorities, it is necessary to investigate this persisting problem at the level of university and find the appropriate solutions that help students overcome this deficiency and improve their writing skills. Therefore, the present study aims at investigating the reasons impeding English department at Djilali Liabes University from appropriately developing students’ English writing skills through answering the following questions 1. What are the writing areas in which students fail the most? 2. Where does the problem of writing deficiency stem from? 3. What can be done to help students develop their writing skills? In regards of the aforementioned research questions a number of hypotheses were formulated 1. Students face writing problems at different levels including organization, layout and content. 2. The reasons lying behind the problem of writing deficiency are numerous and multifaceted as they include: ALLS 6(4):92-102, 2015 a) 94 Inadequate teaching approaches and methods. b) The negligence of practice in writing instruction. c) Absence of well-defined syllabi. d) Lack of coordination and complementation between different modules. 1. e) Absence of reading module. f) Low readership rates among students. In order to overcome writing deficiency problem, the following actions need to be taken: a) An approach based on eclecticism needs to be adopted. b) More time should be devoted to writing practice. c) Writing syllabus need to be designed in coordination with other modules, namely grammar and reading modules. d) Reading module must be introduced to the curriculum of all the three grades. 4. Data Collection In order to answer the research questions listed above and test the aforementioned hypotheses, a number of research tools were employed. First, examination scripts of first, second and third year students were analysed in order to pinpoint the areas in which students’ writing fell short. It is worth pointing out that a total of 90 examination scripts of Sociolinguistic module, American Civilization module, Written Expression module and Literature module were examined. Second, a questionnaire was administered to both second year students and Written Expression module teachers to investigate the reasons lying behind writing deficiency. Furthermore, structured classroom observations were used to find out about the methods used in writing instruction and the time teachers allot to practice. Finally, first and second year curricula were examined for coordination and complementation between different modules, namely writing, grammar and reading. 5. Data Analysis and discussion As each research tool was chosen to help investigate a separate aspect or even cross check findings for more reliability, the analysis of obtained data rose a number of issues that the researcher did not anticipate leading to further investigation. 5.1 Classroom Observation Field observations were structured, as the researcher investigated three aspects of the lecture namely lecturing time, practice time and typology of practice activities. It is worth pointing out that there are four written expression teachers currently teaching at the level of our department, the observation of whom resulted in classifying them under two categories each one consisting of two teachers. The first category consists of teacher A and teacher B, who tend to devote between three to four sessions for lecturing and then dedicate between one and two sessions for composition, correction and feedback provision. Given that lecturing sessions are primarily preserved for grammar instruction and controlled activities at sentence level, teachers within this category employ in practice sessions activities that entail composition at paragraph and essay level. Though, in this category two sessions (33%) out of 6 are devoted to practice, practice sessions also entail significant time of remedial lecturing and copying from the whiteboard resulting in further reduction of actual practice time. Whereas the second category is represented by teacher C and teacher D, who devote each session for grammar instruction along with short tasks dealing with the taught grammar points directly afterwards. Teachers in this category employ fill in the gap, substitution and completion activities, yet paragraph and essay composition are pretty much ignored. In teacher C’s class lecturing and lesson copying counted for more than 80% of session’s time as the time devoted to practice did not exceed 18%. Whereas for teacher D, practice time was significantly higher counting for almost 40% of class time, yet the activities entailed little if ever writing as the main aim of the lecture was grammar and conventions. Despite the fact that “the primary needs of ESL writers consist of extensive and directed practice with global writing functions, as opposed to more extensive language instruction.” (Ferris & Hedgecock, 2005, p. 10), written expression module at the level of our department is predominantly devoted to grammar instruction and studying about writing rather than learning to write. Writing instruction in Djilali Liabes University is still stuck in audio-lingual era when writing was used as a tool to test students’ ability to apply grammatical rules accurately (Rivers, 1968). The current focus on grammar and controlled sentence level activities that require no real composition on the part of students has already been proven a major failure as students failed to contextualize what they learned and apply it at essay level during semestrial examinations. Furthermore, teachers seem to be ignoring practice that entail extended composition where students actually engage in a real writing process of developing ideas into paragraphs and essays, depriving them of a meaningful experience to enhance their writing abilities. 5.2 Examination Scripts Analysis The Students’ examination scripts were analysed according to “University of Maryland’s Freshman Writing Program” and “Six Traits Criteria from NWREL” in order to provide a full description of students writing’ strengths and ALLS 6(4):92-102, 2015 95 weaknesses in terms of content, support, organization and mechanics. Though the researcher analysed examination copies of students from all the different grades, i.e. first year, second year and third year, the analysis revealed that students’ compositions could be identified in terms of three main categories, despite the grade they are currently in, as students demonstrated different levels of control over the aforementioned four criteria. Group One: compositions are characterized by the following: • Content: Writer maintains clear logical position. The assignment has been followed and fulfilled at a betterthan-average level. The paper appropriately addresses its intended audience. • Support: All major points adequately developed and supported. The evidence is detailed, understandable and well organized. The paper may sometimes rely too heavily on the obvious, though the writer does not consistently settle for the obvious. The reasoning is adequate and thoughtful, with awareness of other points of view. • Organization: The introduction and conclusion are clear, but perhaps not as forceful as they could be. Most paragraphs follow well and are appropriately divided, though one or two could be better placed and developed. Most points are logically presented and organized. • Mechanics: The expression is more than competent. Sentence structure is generally correct though some sentences could be improved. Subordination, emphasis, sentence length, and variety are employed with occasional misuse. Vocabulary is acceptable and used correctly. Spelling is accurate except for some complex and irregular words. Periods and capitals are used correctly and punctuation is beginning to be used within the sentence. Group Two: compositions are characterized by the following: • Content: The assignment is followed to some extent. Though the paper presents an appropriate thesis, there are some drifts or lapses in logic, poor sense of audience and a limited sense of purpose. The thesis is too broad or general and the paper consists of repetitions and redundancies. • Support: For the most part, the argument is supported with evidence. However, the evidence is likely to be obvious and the paper may even lack some pertinent information. The reasoning, while generally sound, is predictable and obvious; or the reasoning, while generally good, is occasionally flawed. There is some awareness of other points of view; however, some key points are developed by specific detail, some may be general and some may lack depth. • Organization: There is an implicit sense of organization, but several paragraphs and/or sentences within paragraphs are underdeveloped and misplaced to the extent that the organizational structure is recognizable but disjointed. Transitions are incorrect or missing and disrupt the progression of ideas. Conclusion is absent or only a verbatim reiteration of the introduction. • Mechanics: Sentence structure is generally correct, although the writer may show limited competence with sentence effectiveness, failing to use such elements as subordination, sentence variety, and modifiers to achieve emphasis. The writer demonstrates inconsistent facility in sentence formation and word choice that may result in lack of clarity and occasionally obscure meaning. The vocabulary is fairly simple, with occasional borrowings from French. The paper contains errors in spelling, subject verb agreement, tense choice, misuse of preposition and confusion between nouns and adjectives. Capitalization and punctuation are either misused or absent. Group Three: compositions are characterized by the following: • Content: Subject/position is vague with no unifying statement. There is a poor sense of audience and a limited sense of purpose. The thesis is unclear and cannot be discerned without significant work on the part of the reader as it is significantly characterized by drifts and lapses in logic. The paper moves confusedly in several directions. Writing is insufficient to show that criteria are met and the paper may even fall seriously short of minimum length requirements. • Support: Necessary evidence is out of order and/or missing, and irrelevant evidence may instead be present leading to insufficient or repetitious writing that fails to develop key points. • Organization: writing is flawed by serious disorganization and underdevelopment. The organization is difficult to discern as it seems to a significant degree haphazard or arbitrary. The introduction is unclear, too short or non-existent. As little attempt is made to paragraph writing, paragraphs are not well-developed or arranged, and transitions are incorrect or missing. Conclusion is most of the time missing. • Mechanics: Grammar and spelling mistakes at all the levels are so numerous and consistent that they interfere with understanding. The diction and/or syntax may be so weak that sentences are sometimes incomprehensible for the intended audience, although experienced readers can make sense of what is written. Besides frequent borrowings from French, the used vocabulary is limited, basic and simple. Capitalization use is incorrect and punctuation is absent. It should be pointed out that the great majority of first and second year students fall under either the second or third category, whereas the first category is mainly represented by a very small portion, fifteen per cent at best, of third year students. It is also worth mentioning that students performed in modules that require revision and memorization, such as ALLS 6(4):92-102, 2015 96 civilization and sociolinguistics, far better than modules that require free writing, ideas generation and extended composition, the case of written expression and literature; this difference can be inferred from the range of technical vocabulary and pertinent supporting evidence employed by students. However, even though students seemed to have memorized a great deal of information they tended to jot them down without careful planning or sufficient development, the fact that affected their marks negatively. Students seemed unable to present their ideas and information in a systematic and organized manner. It all starts with the introduction as their unfamiliarity with prewriting strategies makes students unable to figure out how and what to start with. Additionally, the absence of preplanning makes the ideas appear disorganised and disjointed, hampering transition from sentence to sentence and from paragraph to paragraph. Furthermore, students usually end up with premature ideas and underdeveloped paragraphs because they skip the different stages of writing process and attempt to come with one final polished piece of writing right from the first shot. Moreover, the lack of revision takes a heavy toll on students’ compositions as obvious and avoidable mistakes flaw the piece of writing and impair its comprehensibility. More importantly, even if a student wants to carry out a revision, he does not know what to look for, as s/he was not made aware of the traits and conventions of academic writing. Finally, all the emphasis that written expression teachers put on the decontextualized and fragmented grammar instruction counted for nothing, as students seem unable to employ what they have learned and ended up with copies seriously flawed by all types of errors at all levels. 5.3 Questionnaire Analysis Section Item level n° % Yes 28 38.35 No 45 61.64 Homework 31 42.46 Diaries 14 19.17 E-mail 20 27.39 Chatting on social networks 43 58.90 Other types 6 8.21 Never 2 2.73 Rarely 22 30.13 Sometimes 36 49.31 Often 8 10.95 Always 5 6.84 Arabic 12(5) 16.43 French 17(10) 23.28 English 47 64.38 1. Do you usually practice writing essays on your own to improve your English writing? 1 2. What type of writing do you do outside university? (respondents could pick more than one answer) 3. How often do you read outside the university? 2 4. In which language do you prefer to read? (respondents could pick more than one answer) Data from section one revealed that two thirds of respondents do not practice essay writing on their own, whereas chatting and emailing were favoured by 86% of participants as their preferable space for writing in English. Ignoring essay practice exacerbate the situation even more as the major problem of writing instruction in our department is the marginalization of actual essay writing practice. On the other hand, students’ interest in social networking and emailing should be exploited to provide more practice opportunities where students can compose in English while doing something they enjoy. As for the frequency of reading done by students, findings from section two indicated that 32% of informants can be referred to as non-readers compared to the mere 50% who read in a more or less a regular manner. This relatively low rate of readership among our university students can be reduced furthermore if we take into consideration that 20% of regular readers opted for either French or Arabic as the only language in which they read. Given that low readership rates is a national problem in Algeria, does not eliminate the fact that reading is a vital input source for any EFL student, and its lack or absence has a devastating effect on students’ academic pursuit. Moreover, it has been widely argued that “the amount of pleasure reading a... student does in English may be used as a reliable predictor of his/her English writing proficiency” (Janopoulos, 1986, p. 767); therefore, imposing reading as a module is one of the solutions not just for alleviating writing deficiency problems but also improving students English proficiency across other skills. ALLS 6(4):92-102, 2015 Section Item 5. How do you find the module of “Written Expression”? 3 6. How well did written expression module prepare you for the writing you do in the other courses? 97 level n° % Very interesting 9 12.32 Interesting 38 52.05 Not really special 23 31.50 Do not know 3 12.32 Very well 5 6.84 Well 15 20.54 Adequately 37 50.68 Not very well 12 16.43 Not well at all 4 5.47 Yes 6 8 No 67 92 Yes 2 33.33 No 4 66.66 Yes 20 27 No 53 73 Yes 14 70 No 6 30 Yes 51 70 No 22 30 Less than 25% of lesson’s time 11 15.06 25% of lesson’s time 33 45.20 50% of lesson’s time 6 8.21 75% of lesson’s time 1 1.36 More than 75% of lesson’s time 0 0 7. Are you familiar with the expression “Six Traits in Writing”? 8. If yes, have tackled “Six Traits in Writing” in written expression module? 4 9. Are you familiar with the expression “Writing Process”? 10. If yes, have tackled “Writing Process” in written expression module? 11. Does your “written expression” teacher give you time to practice writing in classroom? 5 12. If yes, how much time does your written expression teacher devote to practice? In the light of data gathered from section three, students at the level of our department can be said to have a positive attitude towards written expression module and its contribution in preparing them for writing they do across the curriculum. If properly employed, this attitude can be major boost for students’ motivation and involvement in written expression sessions. Whereas, concerning students familiarity with two major facets of any EFL writing class namely ALLS 6(4):92-102, 2015 98 “Six Traits” and “Writing Process”, the results obtained from section four raise a lot of questions as around 80% of respondents have no idea what it is meant by these two expressions. Results that may leave any field specialist wondering about the reasons for which such universal and pivotal aspects of EFL writing instruction are being ignored despite their effectiveness proved worldwide by a considerable body of literature and research. As for time written expression teachers devote to practice, participants revealed in section five that practice time does not exceed 25% of sessions’ time, confirming by that the findings of classroom observation. Additionally, even this limited practice time is predominantly dedicated to activities, which entail little if ever composition and primarily focuses on controlled fragmented grammatical aspects rather than actual ideas development. Section six revealed that 78% of informants do not receive their exam answer sheets to review their mistakes, whereas mere 19% stated that other modules’ teachers do correct students’ writing mistakes, though they predominantly focus on essay structure (78.5%), vocabulary choice (85.7) and mechanics (100%). If a student makes a mistake and then s/he does not get to identify it and learn from it, s/he will end up repeating the same mistake again. In fact, by depriving students of the opportunity to identify their mistakes and receive appropriate feedback on how to avoid them in the future, teachers are missing the whole point that examinations are not just for giving a mark but rather evaluating students’ performance and helping them improve and progress. Furthermore, other modules’ teachers should stop hiding behind “this is not my area of speciality” excuse and assume their share of responsibility in helping students improve their writing as this is a shared duty. Equally important, as writing is not the main objective of modules other than written expressions, teachers need to focus on other aspects that may help students fulfil tasks and address questions more properly. 5.4 Syllabus analysis The analysis of first and second year curricula revealed three main drawbacks. First, writing syllabi designers’ perception of students’ preliminary knowledge seems unrealistic, as they expect the new baccalaureate holders to be able to • Identify different types of discourse and text ideas. • Master different reading strategies. • Compose different types of short texts according to a particular genre. • Understand nature of language system and different parts of discourse (single words, simple sentences, complex sentences). • Use language correctly across different situations. Only a handful of secondary schools’ third year pupils can be considered proficient enough to meet “some” of the aforementioned requirements, a fact that can be confirmed by any Algerian secondary school teacher of English. These perceptions of freshmen preliminary knowledge cannot be met simply because at the level of secondary schools the aim of English language instruction is not to teach the “language” but rather to prepare pupils for “end of secondary cycle examination” (baccalaureate examination), and that is the result of pupils’ parents pressure and “mass production” policy adopted by the ministry of national education. Furthermore, as writing composition counts for mere five marks, and speaking and listening are not included at all in the examination, all the focus is on reading comprehension and grammar activities, which count for 75% of the overall mark. Second, reading skill is completely excluded from the curriculum despite the fact that “writing competence results somehow from exposure to reading, and that good readers make good writers” (Carson, 1993, p. 85). Moreover, as a tinkering measure, reading is included within written expression module under the name “reading comprehension”; bearing in mind that written expression is taught for mere three hours a week, including another skill in its syllabus will result in nothing but limiting time even further and preventing teachers from covering the syllabus with the needed depth and practice. Equally important, classroom observation and personal conversations with written expression ALLS 6(4):92-102, 2015 99 teachers confirmed that these latter do not allocate any time for reading comprehension activities as time constraints do not allow them to do that. Third, the syllabi lack clarity and precision as objectives and content are described by a very broad and generic language, the fact that impedes traceability and makes it very hard, if not impossible, to verify whether syllabus’ objectives are met and content is fully covered. 6. Limitations of the Study Respondents’ reluctance was a major hurdle, as out of 150 student questionnaires only 73 were handed back. The problem exacerbated even more with teachers, as out of five written expression teachers, to whom questionnaires were originally administered, only one teacher handed it back. Therefore, teachers’ questionnaire was dropt as the number of respondents is insufficient to crosscheck the validity of responses. Furthermore, the unplanned and random arrangement of archive made the identification and localization of a particular sample of students’ examination scripts through their first, second and third year impossible, therefore the researcher tried to focus on the same group yet not necessarily the same individuals. 7. Solutions and Recommendations The analysis of the gathered data revealed a number of problems that impair students’ writing ability and impede them from achieving the level of proficiency they are aiming for. Additionally, a number of issues that hamper written expression teaching at the level of our department have been identified. On the light of these problems a number of solutions and recommendations are suggested, they are as follow: First, a writing instruction framework must be put in place to ensure limiting time devoted to lecturing, guarantee enough time for practice and integrate writing process and six traits as central and permanent facets in written expression module. Goals that can be achieved through principled and purposeful eclecticism. Therefore, the researcher suggests the combination of four different approaches, namely genre approach, writing process, writers’ workshop and six traits approach, in the following way. Figure 1. Eclectic Writing Instruction Framework. Writers’ approach serves a scaffold that ensures limiting lecturing time to minimum and freeing more class time for essay level practice, conferencing, feedback provision and sharing. This approach progresses through three main stages that allow the teachers to establish a routine for lessons and provide students with a predictable and unthreatening environment where they can hone their compositional skills. The second approach included in the blend is genre approach, which comes very handy at the first stage of the lesson (mini lesson), not only to teach students particular genres that they need control of in order to fulfil certain functions and help them identify aspects they should include in their compositions, but also to help shift the attention away from grammatical sub-skills and focus more on other major rhetorical and formal conventions of writing. In addition, writing process is to be employed during the second stage (writing time) and final stage (sharing) of the lesson. The inclusion of this approach is intended to develop and improve students writing by familiarizing them with the same steps that professional writers go through, and help them break down the process of composition into ALLS 6(4):92-102, 2015 100 manageable chunks as they focus on one stage at a time. Going through the different stages of writing process will 1) assist students generate ideas, thoughts, and connections, and plan them logically using effective prewriting strategies; 2) help them write a draft without premature editing and develop their ideas more fully; and finally, 3) encourage them to use revision strategies to make one’s draft as reader-friendly as possible and detect any layout or language errors (Zaher, 1994). Finally, six trait approach goes hand in hand with writing process as students focus on particular aspects of writing during different stages of composition. Getting students habituated to six traits of writing will help them focus at one aspect at a time and carry out revisions that are more efficient. Concentrating on each trait separately helps students 1) break cognitive processes of writing into six key components, 2) provide students with the needed vocabulary to identify, classify, and discuss their own mistakes as well as those of their peers, and 3) help them carry out revisions that are more systematic. At the other end of the spectrum, teachers will have 1) a common language to discuss with their students all the different aspects of their compositions, 2) a framework upon which they may create, plan and deliver their lessons, in addition to 3) assessing their students’ compositions more effectively using “Six Traits Scoring Rubric”. Second, introduction of a module for reading is a must as “Our experience as academic writers and teachers of writing confirms our belief that meaningful writing instruction is literacy instruction and that one cannot successfully teach writing without also simultaneously teaching reading” (Ferris & Hedgecock, 2005, p. 22). Reading must be included as an independent module to ensure appropriate instruction of this neglected skill, rather than including it in an ad hoc manner within written expression as the limited time devoted to this latter does not allow that. Therefore, introduction of reading module should happen at the level of first, second and third year curricula to alleviate the seriousness of low readership rates among our students. Third, written expression module, grammar module and reading module must be designed and taught in coordination. As all the three are dependent on one another, both reading module and grammar module should inform written expression module. Whereas the latter will be a great opportunity for students to practice what they have learned in the other two modules and employ it in a more meaningful and productive way. Furthermore, such a coordination will help written expression teachers avoid teaching grammar as extensively as they are currently doing. First step towards this coordination is by designing the syllabi of the three modules so that they address the same points at the same time, be it in term of grammar, theme, genre or register. Then, the syllabus of each module must be detailed and framed within clear time limits to enable such coordination. Finally, teachers of the three modules should hold regular meetings to ensure that all the modules are progressing in tandem. Figure 2. Complementation and Dependability between Reading Module, Grammar Module and Written Expression Module Fourth, three hours a week is a very limited time for the instruction of such a significant and complex skill like writing. Written expression module must be taught three time a week (one hour and a half for each session) in order to allow teachers enough time to apply writers’ workshop and give students enough time to go through the different stages of writing process and practice as much as they should. Fifth, students must be allowed the chance to see their examination answer sheets after correction, so that they can identify their mistakes and learn from them. Furthermore, all teachers must hold a compulsory correction session after each semester examination, in which they provide students with a model answer and address the most common errors committed by students. ALLS 6(4):92-102, 2015 101 Sixth, as the Algerian pre-tertiary education has been proved unable to equip students with the needed rudimentary writing skills, therefore, the university has to assume that extra burden by lowering the expectation towards students’ preliminary knowledge and compensating that by providing thorough and effective curricula that help freshmen build their basic skills and further develop them. Finally, by preventing students from writing their bachelor degree thesis and replacing it by “a mere seven page proposal”, students are deprived of a huge opportunity to conduct a scientific research, read extensively and put pen to paper to compose extended essays. Given that it is a significant learning opportunity, bachelor degree thesis must be reintroduced and students should be required to write a conventional thesis for their bachelor degree. 8. Conclusion As it was revealed by data analysis, students writing problems go far beyond mechanics and layout issues. Besides being unable to address topics in a clear and systematic manner, students face organisational and ideas development issues. All these problems stem from students unfamiliarity with writing process and six traits, as the adoption of these two approaches would help students write in a more effective manner. As for the problems lying behind students’ deficiency, they have been attributed to a number of reasons, the most important of which is teaching methods adopted by written expression teachers, who overwhelmingly focus on grammar instruction and neglect the importance of practice that entails purposeful extended composition beyond sentence level. Lack of coordination between grammar and written expression modules in addition to the absence of a well-defined syllabus are also deemed to be among the major reasons perpetuating writing deficiency problem. Moreover, lack of reading done by students and absence of a reading module contributed to the exacerbation of the problem. In regards of these issues, a number of solutions were suggested including the adoption of writing instruction framework based on eclecticism and systematic use of a set of approaches and techniques in a way that helps cater to students needs more effectively. Furthermore, first and second year curricula need a thorough revision as a module of reading must be included, and the design of writing, grammar and reading syllabi in a coordinated and complementary manner is a must. Additionally, a set of regulations that ensure the provision of correction sessions and allow students the opportunity to identify their mistakes and receive appropriate feedback is one of the potential solutions. Broadly speaking, current practices that nurtured and perpetuated this everlasting writing deficiency problem needs to be addressed in a direct way and eventually eradicated. As previously adopted tinkering and partial solutions did not help alleviate this problem, not even a bit, decisive decisions and long-term solutions need to be taken. References Brown, H. (2002). English language teaching in the “post-method” era: Toward better diagnosis, treatment, and assessment. In Richards, J. & Renandya, W. (Eds.), Methodology in Language Teaching: An Anthology of Current Practice. (9-18). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brown, D. (2000). Teaching by Principles: An Interactive Approach to Language Pedagogy (Second Edition). Longman: USA. Carson, J. E., & Leki, I. (Eds.). (1993). Reading in the composition classroom: Second language perspectives. Boston: Heinle. Ferris, D.R. & Hedgecock, J.S. (2005). Teaching ESL Composition: Purpose, Process, and Practice (Second Edition). London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Gao, L. (2011). Eclecticism or Principled Eclecticism. Scientific Research, 2 (4), 363-369. Hamadouche, M. (2010). Developing the Writing Skill through Increasing Learners’ Awareness of the Writing Process: The Case of Second Year Students at the University of Constantine. University of Constantine. Unpublished Master Thesis. Hillocks, Jr. G. (1986). Research on Written Composition: New Directions for Teaching. Illinois: ERIC Clearinghouse. Janopoulos, M. (1986). The relationship of pleasure reading and second language writing proficiency. TESOL Quarterly, 20, 763-768. Jones, S.J. (2008). Blogging and ESL Writing: A Case Study of How Students Responded to the Use of Weblogs as a Pedagogical Tool for the Writing Process Approach in a Community College ESL Writing Class. University of Texas. Unpublished Doctorate Thesis. Ouskourt, M. (2008). Developing Efficient Writing Strategies through the Process Approach and Teacher’s Feedback a Case Study: Second Year Students in Setif University. University of Constantine. Unpublished Doctorate Thesis. Raimes, Ann. (1983). Techniques in Teaching Writing. New York: Oxford University Press. Rivers, W. (1968). Teaching foreign language skills. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Tribble, C. (1996). Writing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. University of Maryland’s Freshman Writing Program. (2002). Grading Student Papers: Some Guidelines for Commenting on and Grading Students’ Written Work in Any Discipline. Maryland: The Center for Teaching Excellence. Waters, A. (1987). Participatory course evaluation In ESP. Journal of English for Specific Purposes, 6, 3-12. ALLS 6(4):92-102, 2015 102 Zaher, C.A. (1994). The Development And Implementation of A First Year Undergraduate EFL Writing Programme for English Department Of Egyptian Universities. University of Wales college of Cardiff. Unpublished Doctorate Thesis. Web-References Collins, J. (n.d.). Introduction to Writing Traits and Writing Strategies. Retrieved November 13, 2014 from http://gse.buffalo.edu/org/writingstrategies/pdffiles/1_6Traits_Intro.pdf NWREL. (n.d.). Six Traits Criteria. Retrieved November 13, 2014 from http://educationnorthwest.org/northwestmatters Peha, S. (2003). Writers’ Workshop. Retrieved November 8, 2014 from www.ttms.org The access Center. (n.d.). Teaching Writing to Diverse Student Populations. Retrieved November 11, 2014 from http://www.adlit.org/article/22323/ Whitaker, C. (n.d.). Best Practices in Teaching Writing. Retrieved http://www.learner.org/workshops/middlewriting/images/pdf/HomeBestPrac.pdf November 13, 2014 from Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy The Comparative Effects of Comprehensible Input, Output and Corrective Feedback on the Receptive Acquisition of L2 Vocabulary Items Mohammad Nowbakht (Corresponding author) Department of English Language, University of Isfahan Hezar Jarib St., Isfahan, Iran E-mail: mohammad.nowbakht@yahoo.com Mohammadtaghi Shahnazari Department of English Language, University of Isfahan Hezar Jarib St., Isfahan, Iran E-mail: m_t_shah@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.103 Received: 25/03/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.103 Accepted: 01/06/2015 Abstract In the present study, the comparative effects of comprehensible input, output and corrective feedback on the receptive acquisition of L2 vocabulary items were investigated. Two groups of beginning EFL learners participated in the study. The control group received comprehensible input only, while the experimental group received input and was required to produce written output. They also received corrective feedback on their lexical errors if any. This could result in the production of modified output. The results of the study indicated that (a) the group which produced output and received feedback (if necessary) outperformed the group which only received input in the post-test, (b) within the experimental group, feedback played a greater role in learners’ better performance than output, (c) also a positive correlation between the amount of feedback an individual learner received, and his overall performance in the post-test; and also between the amount of feedback given for a specific word and the correct responses given to its related item in the post-test was found. The findings of this study provide evidence for the role of output production along with receiving corrective feedback in enhancing L2 processing by drawing further L2 learners’ attention to their output which in turn may result in improving their receptive acquisition of L2 words. Furthermore, as the results suggested, feedback made a more contribution to L2 development than output. Keywords: comprehensible input, output, interaction, corrective feedback, modified output, receptive vocabulary acquisition 1. Introduction Form focused instruction (FFI), as opposed to meaning-focused instruction (MFI); focuses on the question whether explicit attention to formal aspects of language, and instruction of forms of language can be beneficial for successful language learning. Meaning-focused instruction; on the other hand, concerns the natural process of language acquisition in which it is widely believed that teachers’ intervention may impede the acquisition of a language. In fact, MFI was developed as a response to the drawbacks of traditional approaches to language teaching which emphasized the mastery of language forms (Hedge, 2000). Hence, in MFI language teachers should avoid focusing on language forms and let students attend to meaning alone. This is called the noninterventionist view (Long & Robinson, 1998) in which focusing on the formal aspects of language is discouraged. Meaning-focused instruction; however, had its own shortcomings. One of the shortcomings, for instance, was a lack of grammatical accuracy in learners who were instructed based on this approach. Doughty and Williams (1998) contended that MFI does not provide any solution for this problem. In fact, as Long and Robinson (1998) argue, exposure to language use and meaning is not sufficient for learners to gain accuracy, and they should have some degrees of focus on form to achieve this purpose. The problems observed in MFI; accordingly, led to a debate between the form-focused approach and meaning-focused approach, as a result of which some developments were made in this field. Examples of such developments were new perspectives in the field of FFI such as Schmidt’s noticing hypothesis (1990) and Long’s focus on form (1991). Long (1991) and Long and Robinson (1998), for instance, believe that FFI and MFI are both very essential for language learning and they should complement each other. The new approach emerged from this notion, was called focus on form (Long, 1991). Long’s definition of focus on form (FONF) is as follows: ALLS 6(4):103-114, 2015 104 Focus on form overtly draws students’ attention to linguistic elements as they arise incidentally in lessons whose overriding focus is on meaning or communication. (Long, 1991, pp. 45-46) Therefore, in focus on form, students temporarily and incidentally focus on some forms while they are engaged in a communicative activity. Long (1991) contends that some attention to form is necessary. Furthermore, with respect to the new idea that comprehensible input is not sufficient for language learning and that the input learners receive may not be used as intake for learning, the focus of studies shifted from attention to meaning to noticing the form (Izumi, 2002). These studies (Robinson, 1995; Schmidt, 1990, 1995; and Tomlin & Villa, 1994) have all reached the general consensus that attention and noticing are essential for learning to happen. For instance, the “noticing hypothesis” proposed by Schmidt (1995, 2001) maintains that learners will not learn something unless they notice it; and intake is the part of the input that they notice. However, the issue which is of a greater importance is the way through which a form can be noticed. 1.1 Pedagogical Means of Noticing the Form Noticing the form may be possible through some pedagogical means such as “visual input enhancement” (Sharwood Smith, 1993), “focus on form” (Long, 1991; and Long & Robinson, 1998) explained briefly above, “output” (Swain, 1985) and “interaction” (Long, 1991) where L2 learners have an opportunity to receive corrective feedback on their erroneous utterances. In his focus on form approach, for instance, Long (1991) argued that meaning-focused instruction alone, may not be sufficient for language acquisition to take place, and that some degrees of attention to formal elements of the language may be necessary. It should be noted that in FONF, as defined by Long (1991), attention is paid to form and meaning simultaneously. With regards to input enhancement (Sharwood Smith, 1991), L2 learners’ attention is focused on language forms by making the forms more perceptually salient. For example, Izumi (2002) contends that in input enhancement, attention is drawn to forms externally, i.e. through typographical means such as bolding or italicizing the forms. Output, which is another pedagogical means of drawing attention to forms, was put forward by Swain (1985, 1995) in her output hypothesis. Swain (1985) claims that students need to engage in language production in order to increase their language proficiency. In the same line, Izumi (2002) argues that output draws learners’ attention to forms internally, in which learners themselves determine what form is necessary to focus on during the process of production. 1.2 Output Production Swain (1985) believes that output production helps learners focus on language forms, and this can make the acquisition process easier. She contends that without pushed output, learners will only try to comprehend the input they receive, i.e. they only process the meaning, and this cannot guarantee acquisition. However, producing language is believed to enhance learning in which learners will be aware of what they can and cannot say in the target language. This will increase their sensitivity to certain aspects of language which are difficult and complex for them to do. The ideas about the role of output production in language learning were originated from the studies of immersion programs in Canada (Nassaji & Fotos, 2011). In the immersion programs, despite the abundant exposure to comprehensible input, learners’ language still contained inaccuracy in certain L2 aspects. Under these circumstances, Swain (1985) argued that exposure to meaningful language and comprehensible input was not enough for language acquisition. In other words, she noted that in immersion programs in which the focus was only on comprehensible input, there were not enough opportunities to produce L2, which “pushes learners beyond their current level of interlanguage”; this is what Swain called pushed output (Nassaji & Fotos, 2011, p., 104). In her output hypothesis; conversely, Swain (1985, 1995) claims that in order to acquire certain aspects of L2, comprehensible input is not sufficient and comprehensible output is needed. Swain believes that by producing output, learners can receive additional input from others (the teacher or other students). This implies that, output production may lead to interactions in which some communication problems possibly occur and accordingly, learners receive feedback from their interlocutors. According to Swain and Lapkin (1995), output helps learners become aware of their linguistic problems or notice the gap in their knowledge (through the feedback they receive) and it can determine what aspects of language they should pay more attention to. Swain (1995) and Swain and Lapkin (1998) contend that a convenient context for language production is conversational interactions where some communication breakdowns may occur, as a result of which learners might receive corrective feedback from their interlocutors. This is what Long (1996, 1985) called the interaction hypothesis, according to which, modified interactions i.e. interactions after a communication breakdown, and the feedback following it, may lead to comprehensible input which is absolutely essential for language acquisition Furthermore, Long (1996), argues that the interaction and the feedback learners receive on their erroneous output highlight the forms (grammar, vocabulary etc.) that are difficult for them to learn by the use of focus on form or focus on meaning approaches. Moreover, they help learners notice the gap in their knowledge (the gap between the input they receive and their own output); which may lead to modified output i.e. they try to modify their output and improve their accuracy to make them more similar to the input they receive. This process; nevertheless, needs focusing on language forms during the interaction to draw learners’ attention to some features of the input (form) and to help them compare their own output with the highlighted forms in the input (de la Fuente, 2006). ALLS 6(4):103-114, 2015 105 1.3 Output Production and Vocabulary Acquisition Three arguments support the investigation of output hypothesis for vocabulary acquisition (de la Fuente, 2002). First, research suggests that (Laufer, 1998; Pica, 1994, cited in de la Fuente, 2002), vocabulary negotiation is a common feature of interactions between native speakers and non-native speakers of a particular language. A study by Mackey, Gass and McDonough (2000) indicated that during interactions between learners and native speakers, most of the feedback received by learners was related to lexical items. They concluded that negotiation of meaning mostly involved lexis. Second, according to Gass (1997, cited in de la Fuente, 2002, p.85), “L2 learners’ selective attention focuses on specific identifiable units, vocabulary being the easiest part of the L2 to isolate.” Third, during vocabulary output production done through interactions, some of the functions of output proposed by Swain (1995) are in operation. The noticing function, for instance, may operate in lexical output production. de Bot (1996) also believed that one of the functions of output is that it may be helpful in turning declarative knowledge into procedural one which may be in operation in lexical output production as well. This means that by producing lexical output, learners may be able to send the vocabulary items into their active domain. Despite these findings, the role of producing lexical output in second language learning compared with that of comprehensible input and corrective feedback is not yet clear. Thus, in the present study, a comparison between teaching words through mere comprehensible input and through comprehensible input plus pushed output and corrective feedback was made in order to measure the effects of pushed output and feedback given to learners on the receptive acquisition of new L2 words. More specifically, building on earlier studies, this study was conducted to examine the idea of whether lexical output production and corrective feedback received in cases of lexical breakdowns, may lead to a better vocabulary acquisition; and if so, which one (output or feedback) explains the improvement in vocabulary acquisition. To test this idea, a comparison between the effects of output production and feedback was made through measuring the correlation coefficient between the amount of feedback given to an individual word, and the number of correct responses given to its corresponding item in the post-test. Furthermore, the correlation between the amount of feedback an individual learner received and his performance in the post-test was measured. Knowing the fact that all the learners (in the output production group) produced output (one written sentence) for each individual word, one could easily measure the effects of feedback given to learners by using the correlation coefficient method. In other words, it could rationally be argued that, since the amount of output was equal for each learner, this sought to investigate whether the differences among the individuals within the experimental group (if any) could be attributed to the provision of corrective feedback in the experimental group. 2. Review of Literature In output hypothesis, Swain (1985, 1995) believes that there are important roles for output in second language acquisition. She contends that comprehensible input is necessary, but not sufficient for L2 acquisition and learners need to produce language in order to “move from semantic processing involved in comprehension to syntactic processing needed for production” (Nassaji & Fotos, 2011). Swain (1993) stated three functions of output in language acquisition, i.e., noticing the gap, hypothesis testing and metalinguistic functions. In the first function i.e. noticing, when learners try to produce something, they may find themselves unable to say what they really want to. In other words they notice a gap in their linguistic knowledge. According to Swain (1995), when this happens, learners will become more aware and conscious of those gaps and consequently focus on them more, and finally this may contribute to acquisition. Hypothesis testing is the second function of output. According to Swain (1995), when learners want to say something, they make certain hypotheses about how to express that in second language. They actually test their hypotheses on the concepts they have formulated in L2 when they try to produce something in second language. If they are not successful in saying what they intended to say, they reject that hypothesis and test another one, i.e. they use another way to express the same meaning. In other words they try to find a solution for the breakdown in their communication by modifying their original output. Swain (1995, p. 126) contends that “erroneous output can often be an indication that a learner has formulated a hypothesis about how the language works, and is testing it out.” The third function of output, according to Swain (1995), is its metalinguistic function. This means that by producing output, learners will be able to consciously reflect upon language and will be aware of their problems. This helps them decide what they need to learn in their L2. Nassaji and Fotos (2011) stated some other functions for output in second language acquisition. They believe that output promotes fluency, provides students with feedback and also improves their communication strategies. de Bot (1996) also believes that output can enhance acquisition by turning declarative knowledge (knowledge about language) into procedural knowledge (knowledge about how to use language). Nation (1990) contends that in L2 vocabulary acquisition, learning starts from receptive knowledge (input) and progresses to productive knowledge (output). According to Laufer (1998), acquiring the productive knowledge (active knowledge of a word) is more complex than the passive or receptive knowledge. Laufer (1998) believes that due to the lack of tasks and exercises about new L2 words, learners’ passive vocabularies develop more than active vocabulary knowledge, and if students are not pushed to produce the language or use the new words in their speech or writing, the words may never come into their active domain. ALLS 6(4):103-114, 2015 106 In a study conducted by Ellis and He (1999), the effects of premodified input, interactionally modified input, and modified output on the acquisition of receptive and productive knowledge of new L2 words were investigated. The results of the study indicated that the modified output group outperformed either of the input groups in terms of receptive and productive knowledge of words. It has also been found that there was no difference between premodified input and interactionally modified input groups. However, Ellis, Tanaka and Yamakazi’s study (1994) displayed different results. The article investigated the effects of interactionally modified input, premodified input and meaning negotiation (interaction while producing output) on the vocabulary acquisition of Japanese high school students of English. The study suggested that interactionally modified input has a better effect on comprehension and vocabulary acquisition than premodified input. Also negotiation of meaning does not result in more comprehension and acquisition of words than interactionally modified input. The results of this study are contrary to the results reported by Ellis and He (1999). de la Fuente (2002) investigated the effects of three conditions on L2 vocabulary comprehension and acquisition (receptive and productive) by L2 learners, non-negotiated premodified input, negotiation without pushed output and negotiation plus pushed output. The results indicated that negotiated interaction plus pushed output promoted receptive and productive acquisition of words. de la Fuente (2002) argued that negotiated interaction plus output did not promote receptive acquisition more than negotiation without output; however, it was more effective in productive acquisition of words. Overall, de la Fuente (2002) concludes that output is very important for the productive acquisition of lexical items. Izumi (2002) investigated the comparative effects of visual input enhancement (an external attention drawing technique) and output (an internal attention drawing technique) on the learning of English relativization through reading tasks by adult ESL learners. In the study, Izumi addresses two questions: whether output production can enhance noticing of a form (in this case English relativization), and whether this noticing of form can have beneficial effects on learning of that form as compared with visual input enhancement. The findings of the study suggest that output production has indeed more beneficial effects on noticing the target forms than mere exposure to comprehensible input. Furthermore, the noticing induced by output production contributes to the learning of the form much more than the noticing induced by visual input enhancement. In a replication of Izumi’s study (2002), Russell (2014) compared the noticing effects of output production and visual input enhancement on the inductive learning of Spanish future tense among 55 students of Spanish. The study displayed similar results with that of Izumi’s. The noticing effect of visual input enhancement was not comparable to the noticing effect of output on the learning of the specific form. In other words, output production and the noticing induced by it enabled learners to learn the form inductively; however, visual input enhancement did not have the same results. As it is obvious from the literature, the number of studies on the effects of output production or the interactional feedback on vocabulary acquisition and retention is limited. Furthermore, the results of the previous studies are not completely consistent. For example, Ellis and He (1999) displayed that modified output was very useful for vocabulary learning, and that the group which produced output outperformed the group without any output. On the contrary Ellis et al (1994) suggested that the group produced modified output was not significantly different from the group with no output. It is apparent that the results of these studies are mixed; hence, conducting more research on this topic is quite warranted. In the present study, the differential effects of comprehensible input and pushed output plus feedback on the receptive acquisition of L2 lexical items were investigated empirically. For this purpose, the participants who were at the elementary level were randomly assigned to two groups. In the experimental group, learners were asked to produce the target language which led to interactions between the teacher and the participants in case a linguistic problem occurred. This interaction could result in giving feedback to learners. In the control group, learners received only input and they were not asked for any kind of output (oral or written); therefore, no interaction happened between the researcher and the students. The differential effects of each condition on the receptive acquisition of the target words were investigated empirically afterwards. Furthermore, a comparison was made between the effectiveness of output production and feedback students received within the experimental group. For this purpose, the experimental group was divided into two groups of high and low feedback receivers based on the amount of feedback each individual learner received. In other words, since there were 25 target words in the study, learners who received feedback for one to thirteen words in the treatment session, were assigned to low-feedback receivers; and those who received feedback for more that thirteen words to twenty five words were assigned to the high-feedback receiver group. Based on these conditions, this study was designed to answer the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 4. Are there any significant differences among the performances of the groups under three conditions? (a) the comprehensible input condition in the control group (b) the low feedback receivers in the experimental group (c) and the high feedback receivers in the experimental group. Do pushed output and corrective feedback following that (the condition in the experimental group) have a more beneficial effect on the receptive acquisition of vocabulary items than comprehensible input? Which factor (output production or corrective feedback) has a more positive effect on receptive vocabulary acquisition? Is there any correlation between the amount of feedback an individual learner received and his performance in the post-test? ALLS 6(4):103-114, 2015 5. 107 Is there any correlation between the amount of feedback given for an individual word and the number of correct responses given to its related item in the post-test? Research hypotheses: Hypothesis one: There is a difference among the performances of the groups in the post-test in the three conditions mentioned. Hypothesis two: Pushed output and feedback have a more positive effect on the receptive acquisition of vocabulary items in comparison with mere exposure to comprehensible input. Hypothesis three: There is no difference between the effects of output production and corrective feedback on the better performance of learners in the post-test. Hypothesis four: There is no correlation between the amount of feedback an individual learner received and his performance in the post-test. Hypothesis five: There is no correlation between the amount of feedback given for an individual word and the number of correct responses given to its related item in the post-test. 3. Method 3.1 Participants Thirty L1 Persian EFL learners participated in this study. They were homogenized in terms of language proficiency level. Their ages varied from thirteen to sixteen years old. The participants (N= 30) were chosen from a population of fifty male learners at the beginning level at the Iran Language Institute (ILI). Identification of their proficiency level was done based on the Total Placement Test published by Pearson Education (2006). They were required to complete this test two weeks before the administration of the pre-test. Learners whose scores were within one standard deviation above and below the mean score were chosen for participation in the study. Subsequently, they were randomly assigned to the two groups of the study. 3.2 Instruments In this study, the Total Placement Test was used to select a homogenized group of participants out of fifty L1 Persian EFL learners who were studying at the beginning level. A thirty-item pre-test which was designed and made reliable by the researchers, was given to the participants in order to measure their lexical knowledge of the 30 selected target words that were used in the study. To see how reliable the test is and identify poor items of the test, if any, prior to the administration of the pre-test, a pilot study was carried out, the results of which showed that there were five poor items in the pre-test. The poor items were removed, and as a result of that, twenty five items remained for our investigation. Fifty EFL students took the pre-test for pilot-testing. The reliability of the test was measured after the omission of five items from the test. The reliability was measured by KR-21 method, since the test was measuring vocabulary knowledge alone and it had internal consistency. The reliability of the pre-test was estimated as 0.89. During our treatment sessions, participants in both groups received input related to the words. The experimental group (pushed and feedback group) was also asked to write sentences (output production) with the target words. Thus, three activities were carried out in the treatment sessions. They included the participants’ production of written output, and if necessary, interaction between the researcher and each participant followed by the researcher’s provision of feedback in response to any potential language error. After the treatment sessions, the learners in both groups were asked to do some fill-inthe- blank exercises regarding the words they had just been presented. In these exercises, learners were asked to complete some sentences with the new words they had just been presented. The words which had to be put in the blank spaces were given to the learners in a separate list so this task is regarded as a kind of recognition task because learners were only required to identify the correct word for each sentence and not to produce any written form. Finally, a posttest was given to all of the participants in order to measure their ability in retention of the words. The pre-test administered earlier, was given to the participants without any changes in its form as our delayed post-test. The reason for this is that the time interval between the tests was rather long. The only difference between the pre-test and the posttest was that the distribution of the correct choices was changed in the post-test. 3.3 Procedure The participants (N= 30) were randomly assigned to two groups, a control group which received the comprehensible input about the words, and an experimental group which received input and were asked for output production. If there were any problems in their output, an interaction would arise between the researcher and the participants, and as a result of that learners would receive some feedback from the researcher. A pre-test, made by the researcher, was given to the participants of the study in order to determine if the target words were unknown to the participants prior to the treatment sessions. In the treatment session, 25 selected target words were presented to the two groups. In the control group, participants only received input about the words. The teacher would read each word aloud several times and provide students with appropriate definitions and examples. Then the participants were required to carry out some recognition fill-in-the blank exercises. Overall, twenty five fill-in-the blank sentences were completed by the participants. In the experimental group, students received the same input and were asked to produce language with the target words, and finally did the same exercises. In cases of any language problems in their output, the researcher and the participants would interact with each other (immediately after a problem was noticed) which would result into giving feedback to the participants via ALLS 6(4):103-114, 2015 108 clarification request, elicitation or sometimes recast which would always result in learners’ production of modified output. The feedback would be given to students in cases of an error in their output; hence, there were chances that some participants whose output was correct didn’t get any feedback from the researcher. Furthermore, the amount of feedback given for the words differed from one to another. Knowing about this condition, one may wonder whether the improvement and better performance of the experimental group; if any, was due to the effects of output or feedback. For this reason, the researcher divided the experimental group into two groups of low feedback receivers and high feedback receivers. Knowing that each participant in the experimental group produced an equal number of written output (one sentence) which was held constant between all participants, it was rationally concluded that the reason for the variety of participants’ performance within the experimental group could be due to the differential extent of feedback learners received. Consequently, a within group comparison between the low feedback receivers and high feedback receivers was made to see the effectiveness of feedback on students’ performance. Exposure time is considered as an intervening variable which was controlled in this study. Both groups were exposed to the instructions equally, i.e. the number of exposure hours for both groups was the same. The reason for this is that longer exposure may lead to better performance in the post-test; consequently the data would be misinterpreted. Finally, one week after the treatment sessions, a post-test was given to the students in order to measure their ability in receptive vocabulary acquisition. 3.4 Data analysis An independent sample t-test was carried out before the administration of the treatment sessions in order to compare the mean scores of the pre-test of both groups of the study. This would clearly show us if our two groups had any significant differences in their knowledge of the target words of the study. A one-way ANOVA was used in order to determine whether there were any significant differences among the three groups after the treatment sessions; the comprehensible input group, low feedback receivers and high feedback receivers. The Tukey HSD test was used as the post-hoc analysis to determine where these differences could lie. This test could provide answers for our research questions one, two and three. The correlation between the amounts of feedback each participant received throughout the treatment sessions and his overall performance in the post-test was measured through the Pearson formula. This measurement also displayed if feedback as opposed to output alone could play a greater role in participants’ enhanced performance. Also, the correlation between the amounts of feedback given for a specific word throughout the treatment sessions and the overall correct responses given to the word’s related item in the post test was estimated through the Pearson formula. It can vividly show if feedback, in comparison with output production, can be more helpful in receptive vocabulary acquisition. 4. Results The results of the between group pre-test indicated that the target words were unknown for the control and experimental groups before the treatment sessions. The mean scores of the experimental group and the control group are 6.06 and 6.2 respectively. The descriptive statistics of each group test scores are presented in Table One. Table 1. Descriptive Statistics for the Experimental and the Control Groups’ Pre-test N Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Experimental Group 15 6.06 1.53 4.00 Control Group 15 6.2 1.65 4.00 Maximum 9.00 9.00 As displayed in Table One, the performances of both groups were nearly the same. The descriptive statistics show that there is really not much difference between both groups’ performances in the pre-test, and that both groups had little knowledge of the words. This is supported by the nearly equal low mean scores obtained from both groups. In Table Two, the results of the independent sample t-test also support the claim that there was no significant difference between the two groups of the study. Table 2. Independent Sample T-test for the Pre-test T Equal Variances assumed -0.22 df Sig. (2-tailed) Mean Difference 28 .82 -0.13 Note. The mean difference is not significant at the .05 level. The result of the t-test shows that the P-value (0.82) obtained in the t-test is much bigger than the alpha level, (p > .05). This indicates that the groups did not have any significant differences in their performances in the pre-test which supports the claim that their knowledge of the selected target words was almost the same. The participants of the study within the experimental group have been divided into two groups of low feedback receivers (8 students) and high feedback receivers (7 students) based on the amount of feedback each individual learner ALLS 6(4):103-114, 2015 109 received. A one-way ANOVA test for comparing the mean scores of these three groups, comprehensible input group, low feedback receivers and high feedback receivers was conducted in order to determine if there were any significant differences among the groups after the completion of the treatment sessions. Table Three indicates the results of the one-way ANOVA test for the three groups. Table 3. One Way ANOVA for the Three Groups of Comprehensible Input, Low Feedback Receivers and High Feedback Receivers (post-test) Sum of squares Df Mean square F Sig. Between Groups 334.811 2 167.405 8.464 .001* Within Groups 533.989 27 19.777 Total 868.800 29 Note. *.The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. F (2, 27) = 8.464, p> .05 The results of the one way ANOVA indicates a statistically significant difference among our three groups in the post test (p=0.001). The results of the one way ANOVA provide an answer to research question one, i.e. there was a significant difference among these three groups after the treatment sessions. In Table Four, the Tukey test (as a post-hoc analysis) shows which group’s performance is significantly different in the post test. Table 4. Multiple Comparisons of the Three Groups through Tukey HSD (I) groups (J) groups Mean Difference (IJ) low-feedback high-feedback Control high-feedback Control low-feedback Control low-feedback high-feedback -5.94643* 2.42500 5.94643* 8.37143* -2.42500 -8.37143* Sig. .040* .437 .040* .001* .437 .001* Note. *. The Mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level. The multiple comparisons of groups in Table Four clearly show which groups made the difference significant. The results of the Tukey post-hoc test display that the high-feedback group is significantly different in the post test from the low-feedback group (p= 0.04) and the control group (p= 0.001); however, the low-feedback group and the control group are not statistically different from each other (p=0.43). Table Five displays descriptive statistics of the post-test for our three groups. Table 5. Descriptive Statistics for the Three Groups Groups Minimum Low-feedback 10.00 High-feedback 19.00 Control 5.00 Maximum 22.00 24.00 23.00 Mean 15.625 21.571 13.200 Std. Deviation 4.627 1.988 5.073 Note. High-feedback group (Mean= 21.57, SD= 1.98) The results displayed in Tables Four and Five reveal that the mean difference between the high-feedback group and the low-feedback group is statistically significant; and that the high-feedback group outperforms the low feed-back and the control group. The results of one-way ANOVA, Tukey post-hoc test and Table Five, signify that the group which received more feedback outperforms the other groups of the study (low-feedback group and control group). Furthermore, the results of the t-test for the experimental (low feedback+ high feedback) and the control groups (Table Six & Seven) indicate that the experimental group outperforms the control group in the post-test. Table 6. Descriptive Statistics for the Control and Experimental Groups Groups N Mean Std. Deviation Experimental 15 18.400 4.672 Control 15 13.200 5.073 Table 7. T-test for the Control and Experimental Groups in the Post-test t df Sig. (2-tailed) Equal variances assumed Note. *. The mean difference is significant at the .05 level. 2.92 28 .007 Mean Difference 5.20* ALLS 6(4):103-114, 2015 110 The results indicate that the experimental and control groups are statistically different in the post-test (p< .05). Also, the mean score of the experimental group is 18.4 while for the control group this score is equal to 13.2. Hence, it can be concluded that the experimental group, i.e. the group which produced output and was given feedback outperformed the group which received comprehensible input only. As a result, our second hypothesis is supported statistically. The results of the Tukey post-hoc test suggest that the high-feedback and low-feedback groups are significantly different from each other. It should be noted that the condition of these two groups was nearly identical, i.e. both groups received input, did some recognition fill-in-the-blanks exercises, and produced the same amount of output, all in equal periods of time; however, the amount of feedback given to learners of these groups was not equal. Rationally, it can be concluded that the significant difference between them and the better performance of the high-feedback group might be due to the positive effects of feedback. Hence, it may be possible to state that feedback plays a more significant role in the enhanced performance of the experimental group than output. These findings provide an answer to the third research question and reject our null hypothesis. So far, the superiority of feedback over output has been indicated through the Tukey post-hoc test. However, in the present study, one research question addresses the issue if the amounts of feedback could have a correlation of any kind with each learner’s score in the post-test and also with the number of correct responses given to a word’s related item in the post-test. For this purpose, the correlation between the amounts of feedback given to each learner, and his score in the post-test was measured through the Pearson Formula. Table Eight displays the results. Table 8. Pearson Correlation between the Amounts of Feedback Given to each Learner and his Score in the Post-test feedback posttest feedback posttest Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N 1 15 .747** .001 15 .747** .001 15 1 15 Note. **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). The results of the Pearson correlation show that there is a positive correlation (.747) between the amounts of feedback given to each individual learner and his performance in the post-test. In other words, the more feedback they received, the better results they gained in the post-test. Hence, our fourth hypothesis (null hypothesis) is rejected. Furthermore, the correlation between the amounts of feedback given for a specific word and the number of correct responses given to its corresponding item in the post-test was measured through Pearson formula. The results displayed in Table Nine shows a positive but not a rather strong correlation between the feedback and the correct responses given to a specific word. These findings suggest that feedback plays a more important role in learning the vocabulary items than output. Feedback has a positive correlation with the performance of each participant in the post-test, and also with the total numbers of correct responses given to a word’s item in the post-test. Table 9. Pearson Correlation between the Amounts of Feedback Given for a Word and the Number of Correct Responses given to its Corresponding Item in the Post-test feedback Correct responses Feedback Correct responses Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N Pearson Correlation Sig. (2-tailed) N 1 25 .594** .002 25 .594** .002 25 1 25 Note. **. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). 5. Discussion In the present study, the comparative effects of output, feedback, and comprehensible input on the receptive acquisition of L2 vocabulary items were investigated empirically. The results of the study indicated that the group which produced output, and if necessary received feedback from the researcher outperformed the group which only received comprehensible input in its performance in the post-test. Besides, and more importantly, the findings suggest that corrective feedback is more effective than output in the students’ enhanced performance in the post-test, i.e. corrective feedback is more responsible for this improvement than output alone. Also, a positive correlation was found between ALLS 6(4):103-114, 2015 111 the amount of corrective feedback a learner received and his overall performance in the post-test which itself substantiates the superiority of feedback over output. By the same token, a rather less strong positive correlation was found between the amount of corrective feedback given for a word and the number of correct responses given to its corresponding item in the post test. The first research question was concerned with whether there was a significant difference among the three groups of the study, comprehensible input group, low-feedback receivers and high-feedback receivers in the experimental group. The results obtained from the one-way ANOVA and the Tukey post-hoc test revealed that the high-feedback receivers had significant differences with the low-feedback and the control group. However, the low-feedback group and the control group didn’t have any significant differences. On the other hand, the results of the independent sample t-test indicated that the experimental group (low-feedback and high-feedback receivers) outperformed the group which only received input, i.e. they obtained more receptive knowledge of the new words. The reason for this may be relevant to the positive roles output, feedback and modified output could play in language learning. As Swain (1993) puts it, output has three important functions in second language acquisition, noticing the gap, hypothesis testing and metalinguistic function. The noticing-the-gap function suggests that when learners try or are pushed to produce output, they notice the gap in their knowledge, i.e. they notice that they cannot say what they intend to say. When this happens, learners pay more attention to the input they receive to remove the gap in their linguistic ability. Swain (1985, 1995) believes that this noticing can improve language acquisition. She contends that output plays a very significant role in language learning; and input, although very necessary, is not enough for the acquisition of language. Swain (1985) believes that when learners are pushed to produce output and modified output they may move from semantic processing to syntactic processing. In comprehension, semantic processing is involved. According to Swain, learners can take advantage of the top-down strategies, their background knowledge and context in order to comprehend something; however, in producing output syntactic processing is involved; learners have to pay attention to the means of expressing something. These arguments may only account for a part of the experimental group’s better performance in the post-test; however, the results show that within the experimental group, those who received more corrective feedback performed much better than others with lower amount of feedback. Hence, the high-feedback receivers outperformed the control group, and even its counterpart, the low-feedback receivers. Consequently, it may be rational to conclude that in spite of all the arguments for the effectiveness of output, feedback has a greater responsibility for the enhanced performance of the experimental group than output. In order to know the reason behind this phenomenon let’s review what happened in the experimental group. The participants of this group were asked to produce output after being exposed to comprehensible input. Their output was in written form. In cases of noticing any problems (especially lexical problems) by the researcher, an interaction would arise between the participant and the researcher through which some feedback in the form of clarification request would be given to the learner which would result in modified output. Results of this study suggest that those learners who produced output and received corrective feedback were engaged in both of the semantic processing and syntactic processing. According to cook (1991), when learners are pushed to produce output, and modify their output after having an interaction and receiving feedback, they are moving into a deeper level of processing, which are decoding and code-breaking. In the decoding stage, they have to understand the meaning of the word while negotiating for meaning. In the code-breaking stage, learners have to focus on the form to produce it in the desirable and acceptable way. This is consistent with the noticing hypothesis proposed by Schmidt (1990) which postulates that a form (lexical, grammatical, phonological, and pragmatic) cannot be acquired, unless it is noticed by the learners. Swain (1995) believes that producing output can facilitate the code-breaking ability of students, and this is very essential for acquisition. The question which still remains in mind is that what makes such a significant difference between high-feedback receivers and low-feedback receivers. The answer might be relevant to the superior effects of the corrective feedback they received. As it was stated before, output and interactional feedback are among the different attention drawing techniques. Attention and awareness are regarded as two cognitive processes that through interaction mediate input and second language learning (Gass, 1997; Long, 1996; Philip, 2003; Robinson, 2003). As long (1996) puts it, negotiated interaction and interactional feedback are useful attention drawing techniques that can draw learners’ attention towards a gap between their own output and the target or expected language form. Furthermore, feedback given to learners through interactions, provide them with opportunities to modify their own output (Swain, 1998, 2005). In other words, the feedback learners received through interaction focuses their attention on the parts of the input that are productively and receptively problematic for them. Hence, it may be true to state that interactional feedback given to learners in the experimental group plays some more roles in the students’ better performance than output. As Ellis (2013) stated, one of these roles is that, unlike output, feedback can be inputproviding, i.e. it can expose learners with the correct target forms. This input-providing role may have a noticing effect which can increase the saliency of those aspects of the input that were problematic for the learners. As Schmidt (1995, 2001) and Robinson (2001, 2003) argued, noticing is a very crucial factor in turning input into intake. Feedback can also be output-prompting, which means that feedback may push learners to self-correct and modify their own output. According to Lyster (2004), feedback, particularly clarification request “withhold correct forms and instead offer learners an opportunity to self-repair by generating their own modified response” (p. 405). The two roles mentioned for feedback might account for the enhanced performance of the experimental group, and specifically, the high-feedback receivers in comparison with the low-feedback receiver and the control group. ALLS 6(4):103-114, 2015 112 So, what distinguishes high-feedback receivers and low-feedback receivers from each other is that in the former, learners focused more on the lexical items and the way they are produced as a result of the interactional feedback they received. The low-feedback receivers may not have paid the same amount of attention to our target forms. This might be accounted for by the information processing model proposed by McLaughlin, Rossman and McLeod (1983). They distinguished between two processing mechanisms, controlled and automatic processes. Controlled processes are limited in capacity, while automatic processes are permanent and not limited. Controlled processes are like learning something new (a new skill) in which only a few aspects of it can be paid attention to (Brown, 2007). Hence, McLaughlin et al. (1983) thinks of learners as processors who have limited capacity and cannot notice all elements or aspects of the input (new information) simultaneously. That’s because it is controlled at this stage. When learners are asked to produce output with our target words, they focus on those specific forms (lexical forms) and when they receive interactional feedback on their language errors, they even pay closer attention to those forms. According to McLaughlin et al. (1983), our limited capacity does not let us pay attention to all forms at a given time. Consequently, the forms which have been paid more attention to are acquired better. The fourth and fifth research questions were concerned with whether there was a correlation between the amounts of feedback given to each learner and his overall performance in the post-test; and also between the amounts of feedback given for each word during the treatment sessions and the numbers of correct responses given to its related item in the post test. The results indicated a positive correlation in both cases. While the reason for this positive correlation can be found in all the explanations given above for the better performance of the high-feedback receivers, there may be other reasons for the presence of this positive correlation. The feedback given to learners in the experimental group was simple clarification request. It was given to learners “in an atmosphere of support and warm solidarity” (Ur, 1996, p. 255). This might have increased learners’ motivation rather than being considered as punishment or embarrassment for students. Besides, from the sociocultural theory (SCT) point of view, feedback is important for learning, since it helps learning to be scaffolded in social interaction and linguistic forms to be internalized (Aljaafreh & Lantolf, 1994). This empirical study provides evidence that producing output and receiving interactional feedback facilitate the receptive acquisition of words; however, corrective feedback can play a more significant role in vocabulary learning. These results are in conformity with Swain’s (1995) ideas about the positive effects of output on language acquisition, the idea which is in contrast with Krashen’s (1981) views that speaking and writing (output) are the signs of learning, i.e. if you are able to speak and write, this shows that you have successfully learned the language. Krashen believed that output is not a cause of learning. In this study it has been observed that output, and more importantly, feedback do in fact affect word receptive acquisition positively. The results of this study are consistent with those of Ellis and He (1999). They compared the effects of premodified input, interactionally modified input and modified output on the acquisition of both receptive and productive knowledge of new vocabulary items. The results indicated that the modified output group performed better than the other two groups in receptive and productive acquisition of vocabulary items. In the present study; however, the effects of output and corrective feedback on the receptive acquisition of new L2 lexical forms have been investigated. The motive behind our study was to examine the differential effects of comprehensible input, output and corrective feedback on vocabulary acquisition. In other words, if output production and interaction facilitate receptive knowledge of words, which one can be more responsible for this enhanced performance? de la Fuente (2002) also investigated the comparative effects of premodified input, negotiation without pushed output, and negotiation plus pushed output on receptive and productive acquisition of vocabulary items. The results were quite interesting. She found that negotiation plus pushed output and negotiation without pushed output promoted the receptive acquisition of words equally; however, for the productive acquisition, negotiation plus output was more effective than the other conditions. In another study, Mackey and Philip (1998) examined the effect of recasts on question forms development. In their study, learners who were studying at intermediate and advanced levels were asked to complete three information gap tasks. In the experimental group, learners received recasts in cases of problems in their utterances. However, in the control group, learners didn’t receive any feedback while doing the same tasks. The findings of the study indicated that learners who received recasts as corrective feedback produced more correct question forms in the post-test. Han (2002) also supported the positive roles of corrective feedback in enhancing second language knowledge. He concluded that in language classes, meaning focused tasks are not sufficient for language development, and the existence of teachers’ intervention through focusing on forms and corrective feedback is necessary. The effective role of interaction in which corrective feedback was given to learners, was also analyzed in a study by Shahraki & Kassaian (2011). In their study the effect of negotiated interaction on receptive and productive vocabulary acquisition was investigated. The findings of the study indicated that interaction and productive use of words lead to a development in receptive and productive knowledge of words. This study, along with few similar studies conducted in the same area (de la Fuente, 2002; Ellis and He, 1999; Mackey and Philip, 1998; Mackey and Silver, 2005; Shintani, 2013); suggest that English teachers need to give a special role to output and specifically corrective feedback (clarification request) in their teaching programs. Overall, this study has two ALLS 6(4):103-114, 2015 113 important implications. The first one concerns with the positive effect of output and corrective feedback on receptive acquisition of L2 words. And the second implication, as far as the results of the present study is concerned, emphasizes the superiority of corrective feedback over output on the receptive acquisition of vocabulary items. 6. Conclusion In the present study the effectiveness of output production and its positive role in the receptive acquisition of L2 new vocabulary items were displayed. Learners who were encouraged to produce written output for each vocabulary item could recognize more words than learners who didn’t produce any output. Furthermore, corrective feedback was displayed to be more effective that output production in improving learners’ receptive knowledge of vocabulary items. In other words, students who received feedback on their erroneous output, showed better learning of L2 words. it can be concluded that corrective feedback not only promotes receptive acquisition of words, but also can be more effective than output in second language learning. As a result, language teachers should not downplay the positive roles of feedback, particularly in the area of vocabulary learning. 6.1 Suggestions for Further Research in the current study, the comparative effects of comprehensible input, output production, and corrective feedback on the receptive acquisition of vocabulary items were investigated. 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Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia The Effect of Different Modes of English Captioning on EFL learners’ General Listening Comprehension: Full text Vs. Keyword Captions Sorayya Behroozizad (Corresponding author) Department of English Language Teaching, Maragheh branch, Islamic Azad University, Maragheh, Iran E-mail: Sorayyabehroozi@yahoo.com Sudabeh Majidi Department of English Language Teaching, Maragheh branch, Islamic Azad University, Maragheh, Iran Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.115 Received: 28/03/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.115 Accepted: 02/06/2015 Abstract This study investigated the effect of different modes of English captioning on EFL learners’ general listening comprehension. To this end, forty five intermediate-level learners were selected based on their scores on a standardized English proficiency test (PET) to carry out the study. Then, the selected participants were randomly assigned into two experimental groups (full-captions and keyword-captions) and one control group (no-captions). Research instrumentation included a pre-test and a post-test following an experimental design. Participants took a pre-test and a post-test containing 50 multiple-choice questions (25question for pre-test and 25 question for post-test) selected from a standard listening test PET, and also 15 treatment sessions. The findings showed significant differences among fullcaptions, keyword-captions, and no-captions in terms of their effect on learners’ general listening comprehension. This study provided some pedagogical implications for teaching listening through using different modes of captions. Keywords: Caption, full caption, keyword caption, listening comprehension 1. Introduction Listening, the most frequently used form of language skill, plays a significant role in daily communication and also in educational process. Mendelsohn (1994) found that of the total time spent on communication 45-50% is devoted to listening, 25-30% to speaking, 11-16% to reading, and 9% to writing. The first language mode that children acquire is listening (Krashen, 1985). When it is time for children to learn to read, they still have to listen so that they gain knowledge and information to follow directions. In the classroom context, students have to spend most of the time listening to what the teacher says, for example, giving lectures, asking questions, or telling directions. It is worth mentioning that nearly 90% of the class time in high school and university is spent in listening to discussion and lectures as estimated by Taylor (1964). Listening is one of the most important language skills in other words the "Cinderella skill" in second language learning (Nunan, 1997, p. 47). In spite of its importance, listening has long been the neglected skill in ESL/EFL teaching. Long ago, listening comprehension was considered as a passive and receptive activity, meriting little research and pedagogical attention (Jung, 2003; Thompson & Rubin, 1996; Vandrgrift, 2004). Traditionally, many teachers assumed that listening is a natural skill that is developed by children on their own through exposure and does not require teaching and instruction. The focus of earlier listening comprehension materials was mainly on testing students' ability to listen to oral discourse and then answer comprehension questions based upon the incoming information (Carrier, 2003; Field, 1998). However, in recent years there has been a great deal of attention devoted on L2 listening ability because of its perceived importance in teaching and language learning. With the emergence of technology, language learning environments have moved into a new era of teaching listening, which were based on the use of authentic audiovisual materials (Vandergrift, 2011). In recent years, with the increasing access to technologies such as, TV, DVD player, video equipment and more recently, the computers, many teachers have found more opportunities to use audio-visual teaching materials at all levels of foreign language teaching, and they have frequently used them effectively in language classes (Meskill, 1996). Satellite programs, feature films, talk shows and so forth have become a daily part of people's life and the request for improvement of listening comprehension has arisen (cited in Latifi et al, 2011, p. 19). However, soon it became clear that without the use of a help option, understanding these ungraded materials is very hard, as most learners don’t have enough linguistic knowledge (Flowerdew & Miller, 2005). Based on the view of Field (2004) in order to overcome this gap, the use of subtitles and captions has been suggested since they could help learners by allowing dual processing of input. Captions allow learners to use their reading skill to improve their aural comprehension (Garza, 1991). Captioning and subtitling were used in foreign language instruction for the first time in the 1980s. The purpose was to ALLS 6(4):115-121, 2015 116 increase learners’ attention and motivation, decrease the confusion and anxiety, give learners consistent stability of their understanding of what was heard (Burger, 1989; Froehlich, 1988; Grimmer, 1992; Vanderplank, 1988). Some empirical studies (Borras & Lafayette, 1994; Danan, 2004; Garza, 1991; Markham & Peter, 2003) have confirmed that combining captions with audio-visual materials is an effective instructional tools to enhance the listening and reading comprehension of a second language as learners can confirm the information they hear by the way of the support provided by the captions. Captions can facilitate second language learning by helping learners visualize what they hear, particularly if the input is a little beyond their linguistic capacity (Danan, 2004). Furthermore, captions might be conductive to language comprehension by facilitating additional cognitive processes, such as greater depth of oral-word processing (Bird & Williams, 2002). In the late 1999’s Guillory (1998) investigated the effects of keyword captions to authentic French video on learner comprehension. He compared the use of full text captions, keyword captions, and no captions on comprehension of two educational videos. The results of the experiment showed that the full captions group outperformed the keyword captions group and no captions group. This created a rational for the use of captions. This study is based on the Guillory (1998) and Park (2004) research project frameworks and investigated the effect of different modes of captioning on listening comprehension. It is worth mentioning that the researcher took the same keyword determination procedure as Guillory (1998) and Park (2004) procedure. In this paper it is important to distinguish the term captions from subtitles. Captions "refer to on-screen text in a given language combined with a soundtrack in the same language", while subtitles “refer to on-screen text in the native language of the viewers that accompany the second language soundtrack of the video materials "(Markham & Peter, 2003, p. 332).In this study the two terms, subtitle and captions are used interchangeably, with regard to this point that, our interpretation of subtitle in this study is English subtitle or captions. Originally, captions were intended as a service for the deaf and hard-of- hearing but they have long been used in language situations. While most of studies have investigated the benefits of captions, and its effect (presence and absence of captions) on listening comprehension, this study aimed to investigate the effect of different modes of captioning on general listening comprehension of Iranian EFL learners. 1.1 Research Questions The present study intends to answer the following research questions: 1. Does providing full captions for films (animated cartoon movies) have any significant impact on students’ general listening comprehension? 2. Do providing keyword captions for films (animated cartoon movies) have any significant impact on students’ general listening comprehension? 3. Which modes of captioning have the most significant impact on students’ general listening comprehension? 2. Method 2.1 Participants The participants of this study were 45 intermediate level learners who were selected from a population of 58 EFL learners studying English as a foreign language in one of the institutes in Shahindej, West Azarbayjan. The learners were selected based on their scores on PET (Preliminary English Test) test. Then, the selected participants were randomly assigned into two experimental groups, i.e., full caption (Group A) and keyword caption (Group B), and one control group, i.e., none caption (Group C), each group including 15 learners. All of the participants were female and their national language was Farsi. The participants aged from 15 to 18 studying the Four Corners series (Jack C. Richards and David Bohlke, 2012). The learners had studied English as a foreign language for almost three years at institutions in Shahindej. 2.2 Materials 2.2.1 Film Selection Two animated cartoon movies were selected for this investigation after piloting procedure. They included Justin and the Knights of Valour, directed by Manuel Sicilia, and Pirate Fairy, directed by Peggy Holmes. The language of the movies was English and also they were shown with English subtitles. The time of each film was nearly one hour and a half. The total time duration of the two films was approximately 176 minutes and also the films had the same degree of English difficulty. The movies were selected based on the content to be interesting, the level of the films to be appropriate for learner’s proficiency level (intermediate level), and lack of any offensive words or scenes. The three groups (A, B, C) of participants all watched the same movies and only the modes of captions were different. The first group (Group A) watched the two animated cartoon movies with full-captions, the second group (Group B) watched the same movies with keyword-captions, and the third group (Group C) watched them without captions. 2.2.1.1 Pilot Study Piloting was adopted to make sure of the appropriateness of the listening materials (two animated cartoon movies in this study). A total of 15 students with characteristics similar to those of the target groups were chosen. The aim of piloting two animated cartoons was to make sure whether the level of these films was appropriate to the participants’ proficiency level. Out of two films, one was selected randomly by the researcher and was presented to the pilot group. According to the results of the pilot study, the level of the film was approximately appropriate to the level of target groups. ALLS 6(4):115-121, 2015 117 2.2.2 Keyword Determination Procedure Keywords are defined as words that are important for the meaning of the sentences or paragraphs. In determination of keywords in two video clips, Guillory (1998) and Park (2004) involved five experienced lecturers of French to watch the clips, read the corresponding transcripts, and underline the words they considered important for understanding the sentences or paragraphs. Guillory’s (1998) framework in the determination of keyword was as follows: Guillory counted the underlined words and divided that count by the total number of respondents to calculate an initial percentage of selected words. Words receiving 50% or greater of the total number of underlined words were chosen as keywords. The percentage of keywords for each of the two scripts was almost identical 13.9% and 14.3% (Guillory, 1998, p. 94). We also used the same keyword determination procedures as Guillory (1998) and Park (2004), i.e., we asked five experienced teachers of two different institutions to watch the films (two animated cartoon movies) and underlined the words they considered important for understanding the sentences. We processed their selections and found that above 80% of the keywords were selected by all five teachers. In fact important words such as nouns, verbs, adjectives and some words that their rate speed was high were chosen from the full script captions by these five teachers. 2.3 Instruments The following data collection instruments were utilized in the present study: 2.3.1 Proficiency test The first instrument which was used in this study was a PET, which was a standardized English proficiency test assessing general English proficiency of learners at intermediate level. The Preliminary English Test (PET) was used to select three homogeneous groups of participants who were at the same level of language proficiency (intermediate). As the focus of attention was listening, the researchers used the reading and listening parts of the PET to estimate the general proficiency of the participants and to assure the homogeneity of the participants in terms of listening and reading. Thus two sections of this test were administered to the participants including reading and listening with 60 items in general. As the reading skill could affect the result (because of the captions’ availability), the participants’ scores on the reading section were analyzed carefully to make sure that the students were at the same level of reading proficiency too. The first section (reading) included 35 multiple-choice questions on grammatical structures and vocabulary. The second section (listening) included 25 multiple-choice questions which had to be answered after listening to a conversation or monologue. The main aim of administering the proficiency test was to choose those students (45 students in this study) who were at the same level of language proficiency. 2.3.2 Listening Comprehension Pre and Post tests A listening comprehension pre-test was administered to the participants before the treatment to check whether the participants were homogeneous in terms of listening comprehension. It was the listening part of the standardized PET test, which consisted of 25 multiple-choice questions. The learners were expected to listen to a conversation or a monologue and answer the questions. The ceiling score was 25 released by Cambridge ESOL exam (intermediate examination) for learners of English. A listening comprehension post-test (PET) was also administered at the end of the course (after 15 sessions treatment) to determine whether the participants have improved their listening comprehension. This test was similar to the pre-test in that it was the listening section of another version of standardized PET test, which consisted of 25 multiple-choice questions. The learners were expected to listen to a conversation or a monologue and answer the questions. The ceiling score was 25 released by Cambridge ESOL exam (intermediate level) for learners of English. The main justification for conducting post-test was to measure which group's (A, B, C) general listening comprehension has been affected by the treatment. 2.4. Procedure First, 58 intermediate EFL learners who had enrolled in an EFL course at Iran National Language Institution in Shahindej were given a general English proficiency test (PET) to verify their homogeneity. The results were analyzed and the means and standard deviations scores calculated. Then, the scores which were not between -1 SD and +1 SD were excluded. Thus, the number of the participants was reduced to 45. They were randomly assigned to three groups of 15 students: two experimental and one control groups. Then, in the first session of the semester a PET (listening section) was administered to the three groups as a pre-test. From the second session on, the teaching materials, apart from the usual class activities and materials included two animated cartoon movies titled” Justin and the Knights of Valour and Pirate Fairy”, with English audio and subtitle. 176 minutes of two animated cartoon movies were divided into 15 sections (10-15 minutes for each session) and presented to the participants at the end of the class time. Each session lasted about one and half hour; about forty minutes of each session was allocated to the treatment. Each session was held every other day, i.e., 3 days a week. In each session before the students wanted to watch the films, the teacher gave them preview and overall information about the film and then the students were asked to watch to the films very carefully. The learners were allowed to take notes during the films viewing and also consult their dictionaries. After the time of the film in each session was finished, the teacher asked students some questions about the content of the film. All students in three groups were given a short quiz containing a few questions about the movies at the beginning of the next session. This procedure lasted 15 sessions. In group A, participants watched two animated cartoons with full –text captions, in group B, participants watched the same movies with keyword- captions, and participants in third group watched them without ALLS 6(4):115-121, 2015 118 any captions. At the end of the experiment period, to probe the effect of the treatment on general listening comprehension, the listening comprehension post-test was administered to all three groups. This test was the listening section of another version of PET. It is necessary to state that the two animated cartoon movies were piloted on other group of 15 learners before being given to the experimental groups and control group. According to the results of the pilot study, the level of films was approximately appropriate to the participants’ proficiency level. 2.5 Data Analysis Data analysis in this study was done quantitatively via Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). In order to answer the first and second research questions, first, both the pre and the post-tests were scored and all test results were entered into SPSS to analyze the data, and Paired sample t-test was run to examine if there was a statistically significant difference between the pre and post-test results of the two groups (Q1, Q2). In order to answer the third research question, after analyzing the scores on SPSS, one-way ANOVA procedure was used to measure the between-group mean differences. In order to do paired comparisons among the three groups, the SPSS post hoc test was used to indicate where the significant differences lie. 3. Results and Discussion 3.1 Investigation of the First Research Question Q1: Does providing full captions for films have any significant impact on students’ general listening comprehension? Table 1. Descriptive Statistics of Listening Pretest and Posttest for Full-text Group N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Listening Pretest for Full-text15 group 13.00 26.00 20.8000 4.10922 Listening Posttest for Full-15 text group 41.00 49.00 45.8667 2.03072 Valid N (listwise) 15 According to the descriptive statistics in Table 1, the means of participants’ scores in post-test was higher than pre-test. While the mean score of the pre-test for this group (first experimental group) was 20.80, the mean of post-test was 45.86. Thus, it indicated an increase in the mean scores from the pre-test to the post-test situations in learner’s performance in listening comprehension through full captions films. But in order to see whether this increase was statistically significant, the researchers conducted a Paired sample t-test on SPSS (see Table2). Table 2. Paired Sample t-test of Scores of each group in Pretest and Posttest Paired Differences Mean -25.0667 Pair 1 Listening Pretest for Full-text group Listening Posttest for Full-text group Pair 2 Listening Pretest for -17.33333 Keyword group Listening Posttest for Keyword group Pair 3 Listening Pretest for -12.33333 No-text group Listening Posttest for No-text group Std. Deviation 3.57505 Std. Error Mean .92307 95% Confidence Interval of the Difference Lower Upper T df -27.04646 -23.08687 -27.156 14 Sig. (2tailed) .000 4.01189 1.03586 -19.55504 -15.11162 -16.733 14 .000 6.29815 1.62617 -15.82113 -8.84554 -7.584 .000 14 As Table 2 illustrated, there was a statistically significant increase in the full captions group after the treatment. The results of paired samples t-test indicates that the significant value (.000) was less than p<0.05 which revealed that the difference is significant. 3.2 Investigation of the Second Research Question Q2: Does providing keyword captions for films have any significant impact on students’ general listening comprehension? ALLS 6(4):115-121, 2015 119 Table 3. Descriptive Statistics of Listening Pretest and Posttest for Key- word Group N Minimum Maximum Mean Std. Deviation Listening Pretest Keyword group for15 14.00 26.00 20.8000 3.42679 Listening Posttest Keyword group for15 34.00 41.00 38.1333 2.16685 Valid N (listwise) 15 According to Table 3, the means of participants’ scores in post-test was higher than pre-test, which indicated the mean score of keyword captions group in pre-test was 20.80 which increased to 38.13 in the post-test. Therefore, the results showed that providing keyword captions for films had a positive impact on Iranian EFL learners’ general listening comprehension. In order to see whether this difference was statistically significant, the researcher conducted a paired sample t-test, the results of which are presented in Table 2. Based on Table2, there was a statistically significant increase in the keyword captions group after the treatment. The results of paired sample t-test indicates that the significant value (.000) was less than p<0.05 which revealed that the difference is significant. 3.3 Investigation of the Third Research Question Q3: Which modes of captioning (full-captions, keyword captions, and no-captions) have the most significant impact on students’ general listening comprehension? As it can be seen in these Tables, the full captions group achieved the highest mean score (mean= 45.86) at the post-test following by keyword captions group (mean= 38.13) and no captions group (mean= 33.86). In order to see whether or not the differences among the means of three types of captioning were statistically significant, the one-way ANOVA procedure was run. The results of the ANOVA procedure are presented in Table4. Table 4. ANOVA on the Students’ Scores of Listening Posttests Sum of Squares df Mean Square F Sig. Between Groups 1110.044 2 555.022 103.512 .000 Within Groups 225.200 42 5.362 Total 1335.244 44 Table 4, clearly indicated that the difference between the means of the three groups was statistically significant. F (2, 42) = 103.51, p<.01. However, in order to determine which group was superior to the others, a post-hoc was run and the results are as follows. Table 5, shows the results of multiple comparisons between two experimental groups and one control group. Table 5. Scheffé Post hoc multiple range test for Posttest (I) Group Type full text Key word No-text (J) Group Type Key word Mean Difference (I-J) Std. Error * Sig. Lower Bound Upper Bound .84553 .000 5.5876 9.8790 No-text * 12.00000 .84553 .000 9.8543 14.1457 full text * -7.73333 .84553 .000 -9.8790 -5.5876 No-text * .84553 .000 2.1210 6.4124 -12.00000 .84553 .000 -14.1457 -9.8543 * .84553 .000 -6.4124 -2.1210 full text Key word 7.73333 95% Confidence Interval 4.26667 * -4.26667 *. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level According to Table5, the full captions group performed better than the keyword captions group and both of them significantly higher than the no-captions group. ALLS 6(4):115-121, 2015 120 4. Discussion The main purpose of this study was to investigate whether providing captions for films (full and keyword captions) had any impact on students’ general listening comprehension, and that which types of captioning had a better effect on general listening comprehension of learners: full-captions, keyword-captions, or no-captions. In the current study, students’ general listening comprehension had improved after 15 session treatment. One of the reasons was that providing three (aural, visual, and captions) channels could help in reducing the level of stress or anxiety on the part of participants or, on Krashen’s words, lowering the affective filter so that the participants in the caption groups (either full or keyword captions) could take in more comprehensible input. We also should not deny the Paivio’s Dual Coding Theory. In fact , the reason for significant development in general listening comprehension of the two experimental groups in comparison to control group was supported by this theory that , if information is coded in dual systems (as with captions and verbal language), the learner keeps and remembers that information more easily. The results of the first research question in this study agree with the results of many previous studies which confirmed the positive effect that caption materials have on comprehension (Chung, 1999; Guillory, 1998; Huang & Eskey, 1999; Latifi et al, 2011, Markham et al, 2001; Markham & Peter, 2003). The result is also compatible with Bird &Williams, 2002; and Vanderplank, 1988 who stated that captions may facilitate speech segmentation and decoding. On the other hand, when students watch films with full captions, because of the availability of three channels (aural, visual, and textual), their listening anxiety might be reduced and this process leads to a better listening performance and also more confidence in their listening skills. This was also affirmed by the Vanderplank (1988) and Graham (2006) who believed that captions might reduce anxiety, and thus leads to a better listening performance. Captions can increase the students’ knowledge of the target language by the use of new lexicons and phrases in an appropriate context. This view is supported by Paivio (1971), Graza (1991), Krashen (1981, cited in Stewart and Pertusa, 2004) and Vanderplank (1988). Vanderplank (1988) also believe that "captions might have potential value in helping the language acquisition process, by providing language learners with the key to massive quantities of authentic and comprehensible language input"(272-273). In relation to the second research question, it is confirmed that when students watch films with keyword captions, since keyword captions would reduce the cognitive load of reading captions and have students concentrate on spoken language , can cause the students’ general listening comprehension to be improved from pre-test to post-test. Rooney (2011, cited in Yang and Chang, 2014) asserted that implementing partial captions (keyword captions) was effective but while learners performed better with 50% than 10% of the scripts, learners recommended even fewer captions at the proportion of 30% of total scripts. Guillory (1998) also suggested that keyword captions have better potential to focus listeners on listening rather than on reading off the screen. In other words, keyword captions could focus learners’ processing ability on the auditory channel and thus enhance general listening comprehension. In relation to the third research question, the results of one-way ANOVA of post-test, which were presented in Table 4, showed that there has been a significant difference among groups watching movies with different modes of captioning. Also, the results of multiple comparison of means showed that there has been a significant difference among full, keyword and no captions group concerning their performance on the post-test (Sig=.000). According to the results, full captions group has been the most effective mode of captioning in the improving general listening comprehension. The keyword caption and no captions are in the second and third stage, respectively. In other words, in this study, the participants in the full text captions group outperformed than keyword captions group, and both of them significantly acted better than the control group (no-captions).This findings were consistence with Guillory (1998) and one part of Park’s (2004) findings (the effect of full captions and keyword captions on intermediate level learners’ listening comprehension). In both studies the findings revealed that the full captions group and keyword captions group significantly outperformed control group. 5. 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(SSCI, A&HCI). Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Nordic Winter and Cold: Their Correspondence with Tomas Tranströmer’s Poetry Mohammad Akbar Hosain Lecturer, Department of English Comilla University, Comilla -3506, Bangladesh E-mail: arhosain81@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.122 Received: 01/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.122 Accepted: 05/06/2015 Abstract The Nobel Prize winning poet Tomas Tranströmer was born and bred in Sweden, a remarkably Scandinavian country. Topographically, Scandinavian countries1 are locations of extreme cold and snowing. This distinguishing climatic condition has had a dominant influence and impact on almost all Scandinavian art and literature, including Tomas Tranströmer’s poetry. The chief aim of this paper is to elaborately explore the impact of Nordic winter and its conditions on the body of Tranströmer’s poetry. My paper argues that this impact is of multiple facets, affecting both form and content of his poetry. It also argues that physical as well as psychological landscape is shaped by the penetrating Nordic winter conditions. To achieve the aim, two selections of his poetry (English translation from original Swedish) have been frequently consulted and interpreted, along with a wide range of secondary sources. Keywords: Scandinavian, Nordic, winter and cold, climatic conditions, Swedish, psychological landscape 1. Introduction Nordic countries are especially famous for their extraordinary geographical locations. Sweden, Tranströmer’s country is divided into two geographic locales: South Sweden and North Sweden. Because northern Sweden is within the Arctic Circle, it has long, very cold winters. In addition, because of its northern latitude, much of Sweden stays dark for longer periods during the winter and light for more hours in the summer than more southern countries.2 If we simply have a glance at the titles of Tomas’s poetry, the subject of cold and winter will not surely escape your attention. The biting, severe cold, snow, blizzard and their penetrating trails on human life are vividly present in many of his poems. One of the major aspects in Tomas Tranströmer’s poetry is his recurrent use of Nordic winter conditions such as cold, blizzard, snowing, and dark or bleak environment. His winter images on the one hand function as very powerful, rich and evocative symbols; on the other, they render the poet a rare privilege to explore some of his favourite themes- death, loneliness, repression, cohesion, subliminality, salvation and human paradoxes. Used as symbols, the winter conditions illustrate both positive and dark sides of human existence on earth. Surrealistic by nature, his prototypical winter images demonstrate a deep psychology that clearly corresponds to the Jungian tenets. 2. Winter as symbol of death Throughout the tradition of Continental as well as English literature, winter’s conditions- snow, blizzard and cold have been seen as the symbol of death. As death is an abstract idea, it is personified in poetry as cold winter and its other attributes. So death has a very vital association with cold winter. In one of Tomas’s poems titled as “After Death” (Bly, 28) the trails of death are described in the language of cold and snow: “…It makes the TV pictures snowy It settles in cold drops on the telephone wires.” Not only that: in the 2nd stanza of the poem, death is directly addressed as ‘cold’: “Names swallowed by the cold.” In “Snow is Falling”, falling snow is portrayed as ‘funerals.’ The whiteness of snow brings the image of the whiteness of funeral-goers. Again, another poem “Six Winters” (Tr. Robin Fulton) registers all aspects of a bitter winter: its bleakness, sickness, lethargy and its aftermath a sense of emptiness in the human soul. However, Tranströmer’s death poems do not end in ‘nothingness’ or void. Life and death walk in parallel in his poetry. Even, sometimes the cold death becomes insignificant in the face of warmth of human bond or relationship. The last stanza of “After Death” registers the love and warmth in the heart of human beings making it more vigorous and appealing as it is sharply contrasted with icy death: “It is still beautiful to feel the heart beat but often the shadow seems more real than the body. The samurai looks insignificant beside his armour of black dragon scales.” ALLS 6(4):122-127, 2015 123 3. Enjoying nature’s miracle and human responsibility In many of Tranströmer’s poems cold and silence have been simultaneously used. In such poems, a cold and snowy evening is usually marked by silence, quiet and solitariness. Winter and cold have a vital, though not essential, relation to loneliness, solitariness and brooding. At the same time they are associated with pin-drop silence. In many of his poems, Tranströmer broods over in a setting that is cold, silent and almost deserted. Such a poem is “Tracks” (Hass, 35) where a train stands still in the horizon of a plain that is cold with some flickering lights. The poet has created almost a magic scene full of cold and silence to the extent of timelessness. In the first and last stanzas of the poem, the time is 2.am. The poem opens with stillness and ends with stillness. There is no major development and digression. However, this stillness is not intolerable in the least. Rather, with ‘bright moonlight’ and ‘few stars’ the poem aspires to be a piece portraying heaven on earth. This poem is one of the best examples where Nordic winter makes miracles showing a fantastic side of cold and winter. This dark, cold and snow have a suitable parallel to one of Robert Frost’s poems, “Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening” in which a darkest winter evening is transformed into a heaven- the speaker’s allure which he can not relish for long because he has greater responsibility in life: “The woods are lovely, dark and deep. But I have promises to keep, And miles to go before I sleep, And miles to go before I sleep.” However, the speaker in Tranströmer’s poem seems to be completely absorbed in the beauty of cold and winter. He does not shun away from the present gift of Nature in the pretext of big responsibility. 4. Winter and the use of contrast and paradox Tranströmer, most of the time, introduces his themes in close contradiction. That’s why, love/hate, warmth/cold, winter/summer, centre/margin, physicality/spirituality come hand in hand in his poetry. “Fire Script (Bly. 82)” is a good example for illustrating this aspect of his poetry. Here both physicality and spirituality are set against each other. The ‘fire’ in the poem means fire in the blood or ‘libido’ (erotic feelings). The speaking voice very frankly disbosoms this eroticism to his beloved with no indirectness: “Throughout those dismal months, my soul sat slumped and lifeless but my body walked to yours.” The weather is dull, ‘dismal’ and deserted because the winter is very long and soul- consuming. On these days, the poet’s male body seeks his lover’s one to be warm and ignited. While his physicality is wide awake, his soul is indolent, almost in a state of hibernation: ‘…my soul sat slumped and lifeless.’ The sharp contrasts that the poet has developed are clear and attractive. ‘Life’, ‘sparked’, ‘love’, ignites’, ‘flashes’, ‘body’- these diction lay emphasis on one side of human life: warm physicality. On the other hand, ‘dismal’, ‘slumped’, ‘lifeless’, ‘fades’, ‘dark’- these emphasize the opposite, the antithesis: winter and cold. The vigour and vitality of life becomes sharper, intense and vivid as it is set against the dark and long winter. However, Tomas is a poet of paradoxes and his focus shifts to a spiritual feeling. He ends his poem with an optimism imbued with a transcendental feeling: “The night heavens gave off moos. We stole milk from the cosmos and survived.” 5. Cold winter and human relationship Tranströmer examines human relationships on the backdrop of freezing winter. Such an example is a prose poem entitled “Below Freezing” (Bly, 72). The very loveless relation between the unidentified ‘we’ and ‘the party’ is foreshadowing of what might happen in the latter part of the poem. Lack of love, warmth, cordiality and of friendliness predominates the poem. Here also Tranströmer deals with the contrast between appearance and reality. The party is not merely a gathering of guests laughing, chatting, eating and celebrating. And the ‘furnishings’ of the party are very ‘heavy.’ The poet reveals the other side of a seemingly warm and friendly party- ‘repressed violence.’ So the dark side of human beings lurks behind the friendly party. According to the speaker, the love and sincere affection of the party is merely a mask. When the party reveals itself, the speaker feels horrified to see ‘the cold giants’ standing on their tracks. However, all these overwhelming cold agents of darkness do not inevitably show that the evil will be the ultimate victor. Along with this cold demon, Tranströmer also points to a patch of sunlight that slips over the houses and the forests. People miss to see the warm sunlight because of the heavy ‘furnishings’ of the party. But, still sunlight, symbolic of love and warmth, is always there. And the last line of the poem confirms that love (symbolized by ‘light’) will not be defeated in the long run: “The light grows as gradually as our hair.” 6. Cold as a symbol of cohesive, natural life The use of nature images is a long-standing tradition in Swedish poetry. Poets like August Strindberg (1849-1912)3 and Gunnar Ekelöf (1907-1968)4 have extensively used images of nature. However, Tranströmer’s nature images are unique in their own right because they can be understood on various level of sub-consciousness.5 Tomas Tranströmer celebrates life with all its good and bad aspects. What he seriously dislikes is the wearing of a mask: formality and decoration of civilized people. That is why, most often, his poetic personae feels at odd in the company of sophisticated social crowds and dislikes their pleasantries. The poet shows cohesion and symmetry in a ALLS 6(4):122-127, 2015 124 natural and wild life. The speaking voice in “From March 1979” (Hass, 159) feels weary and fed up with civilized people because they try to communicate with the speaker in ‘words’, not in ‘language.’ So the speaker makes his way to ‘the snow-covered island’- the wild region and uninhabitable place. ‘The snow-covered island’ is the poet’s symbol of wilderness and symmetry. ‘The tracks of deer in the snow’ is the poet’s equivalent to a communicable language. Thus, ‘snow’ may be associated, in Tranströmer’s imagination, with language, symmetry, naturalness and wildness. 7. Winter and natural beauty In “The Glass House of Tomas Tranströmer”, Fred Stern aptly encapsulates the poet’s ability to have captured winter and its natural beauty: “If you have ever been to Sweden, especially in winter you can appreciate the crystalline beauty, the starkness of the trees and the brilliance of the stars one can see on any ordinary winter night. All of that is captured in the most unforgettable manner in Tranströmer’s poetry.” It is true that Tomas’s early poems are much more ornate and decorative than the later ones. His late poems are a mixture of imagism, symbolism, surrealism and most often they have employed less rhetorical devices.6 These poems are marked by a special feature of surrealistic type, that is, a certain ‘transformation’ giving the audience a feeling of awe and surprise. In “Winter’s Code” (Hass, 71-72), this ‘transformation’ magically occurs: the lighted bus in an winter night turns into a ship pacing on a dead canal: “The bus negotiates the winter night A flickering ship in the pine forest On a road as narrow and deep as a dead canal… If it stopped and switched off its lights the world would be deleted.” The last stanza (stanza-6), registers the speaker’s impression of marvelous beauty of ‘snow-haze’ moonlight. The amazing moonlight of winter night has totally transformed the ‘jellyfish’ into a wonder. And the poet ends the poem in a mode of affirmation of life and hope: “… Our smiles/ on the way home. Bewitched avenue.” This transformation also occurs more poetically in another of Tranströmer’s poems “From the Thaw of 1966” (Hass, 108). Thawing is a change process in which ice and snow turn into water. As deathlike snow in Nordic Sweden turns into water, the bridge is transformed into ‘a big iron bird sailing past death.’ 8. Cold winter, catastrophe and transcendental salvation Tranströmer’s poetry registers several shocks of experience and his intention is to “make the poem a place where these shocks can occur.”7And most often we see that these shocks of experience occur on the backdrop of winter and cold. On one hand, his poems are significantly marked by a characteristic tone of cold objectivity and dispassionate attitude. On the other, the poems are set in a cold and winter weather. The stylistic frigidity in his poetry is voiced in Tom Sleigh’s words: “The eerie coolness and detachment of his poems is a summons to these shocks that constantly forebode imminent catastrophe.”8 Such a poem of shock is “Loneliness” (Hass, 76). This poem is a telling example of the depiction of a terrifying experience in life, when the poetic personae goes very close to death by a car accident. However, he narrowly escapes, and now what is most important to note is that the mishap occurs in winter, more specifically, on a snowy February evening: “One evening in February I came near to dying here the car skidded sideways on the ice;” And, the poetic personae, when the accident is over and he is unharmed, is gifted with an other-worldly experiencealmost to the point of a transcendental experience- almost like seeing an angel in the cloud to resonate a Blakean term. But unlike William Blake’s use of angels Tomas’s one is unnamed -simply identified as ‘someone’ and this ‘someone’ does not seem to be crooked and deluding. Rather, this agent-of-other-world has appeared to the personae to know of his present condition as he has just returned from an encounter with death. As the previous one- the time of accident, now also the vision of a supernatural becomes visible ‘through the whirling snow.’ An interesting thing to note: both the shock (here the car accident) and salvation (here the vision of a supernatural being) occur significantly in the same setting of cold, snow and winter. Here, the implication might be- the climatic condition is not to blame- it’s not essentially an evil agent causing all harms and havocs to human beings. Still, Tranströmer’s poems set in winter and cold give his readers a feel of dimness and uncertainty that, somehow or other his characters are under a spell of foreboding catastrophe. To our mental relief and satisfaction, amid all accidents, calamities and mishaps, his characters are at last gifted with a rare metaphysical experience that sustains and saves them from the onslaught of contemporary complexities of life and living, and most importantly, the meeting of visionary experience saves modern people from sinking into the pitfall of ‘nothingness’ or ‘void.’9 However, Tranströmer reaches such metaphysical perceptions by using very simple pictures from our daily mundane life. Noted critic and reviewer Noah B. Salamon has admitted the poet’s inclination to such deep spirituality: “Reading the work of Swedish poet Tomas Tranströmer, one is struck by a sense of its ethereal power, its almost otherworldly presence.” 9. Realistic and indigenous images of cold and winter While awarding the Noble Prize to Tranströmer, the Noble Committee especially mentions a common and distinct feature of his poetry: “because through his condensed, translucent images, he gives us fresh access to reality.” Tomas’s ALLS 6(4):122-127, 2015 125 long-time friend American poet and critic Robert Bly also stresses the depth of Tranströmer’s imagery: “His images emanate from the deep heart’s core.”10 Along with this, the poet’s distinctness in creating store of imagery is his dependence on the local Swedish culture and colour with its long and penetrating winter tracing effects both on people and animals. He has rendered a big space on his poetic canvass to picture Swedish winter with all its attributes- good or perilous. From this standpoint, Tranströmer has been ranked as a poet true and devoted to his own soil though he has always deserved to be an international poetic voice as well. 10. Winter and music Music is a vital inspiration for Tomas Tranströmer and his poetic creation. Many of his poetry titles, seen at a glance, tell us something what they are about. Such a list can reveal his love and dedication for music- “Grief Gondola No. 2” (Bly, 95-97), “Allegro” (Hass, 60), “Balakirev’s Dream” (Hass, 39), “Lamento” (Hass, 59), “C Major” (Hass, 53), “Schubertiana” (Hass, 143) - all these titles are taken either from classical musical notes or they are titled after classical musicians’ names. And surprisingly, the poet has instilled images of cold and winter into these poems. In his famous music poem, “Grief Gondola No. 2” (Bly, 95-97), Tranströmer pays a tribute to Liszt’s piano pieces by the same title. The image of “the green cold of the ocean” transforms later in the poem to “the deep that loves to invade humanity without showing its face.” The transformation from ‘the cold’ to ‘the deep’ is largely perilous and ominous. The narrating figure has linked cold with transformation in a way that renders to threaten an individual being into a void. The wonder is devilishly changed into a form of evil- the void. Likewise, in “From the Thaw of 1966”, we also mark a vital drive of transformation occasioned by the impact of a severe cold and snow. To the narrator’s surrealist consciousness, the iron bridge turns into a bird with wings and narrowly evades the fate- death. At the same time, the narrator also demonstrates a feeling of fascination with thawing water (‘Old hypnosis’). Both of these images signal a route to emancipation from the void. And Tranströmer’s one of the artistic achievements is- he has successfully built a bridge between the void and the human position about it. In Tom Sleigh’s words: “Tranströmer’s work constructs spaces that allow us to penetrate to that void, but without denying the contingent nature of the poem’s historical moment. By this quiet way of confronting the void in which “the deep sea cold” rises into our being, he makes his poems hospitable to the abyss while still acknowledging vertiginous feel of too much emptiness underneath us.” 11. Psychology, surrealism and cold winter Tranströmer’s poetry has a close affinity with psychology. Many of his poems can be interpreted as the complex workings of human mind. Critics have noted that the poet himself was a psychologist by vocation and worked for some years in a juvenile rehabilitation centre. And his professional expertise, to some extent, influenced his poetry and lent his creative oeuvre a unique sense of universality. This is clearly acknowledged by the poet’s Hungarian translator Ferenc Mervel in the following words: “Perhaps this is precisely why this is not national, Swedish poetry but universal poetry with a meaning for everyone.” One term that has been occasionally used to mark Tranströmer’s imagery is ‘deep image.’11 In 1970s, the critics categorized him as a follower of Jungian tenets12 of psychology with their emphasis on ‘deep image’. Afterwards, he has been deemed as a proponent of surrealism13 and automatic writing as, they argued, his imagery was drawn from ‘elemental antimonies’: light/dark, stone/water, fire/ice. And with no surprise, we note that many of his poems use the image of winter and cold for the stylistic purpose. An exemplary one may be “Street Crossing” (Bly, 71) which uses contrasting surrealist imagery for the stylistic need. “Cold winds hit my eyes and two or three suns dance in the kaleidoscope of tears, as I cross this street I know so well, Where the Greenland summer shines from snowpools.” The antimonies have been developed by ‘cold wind’/’two or three suns’, ‘Greenland’/’snowpools’. In the last stanza, the poet says that the street develops human quality of sight or vision and sees the speaking figure. 12. Thomas Hardy’s “The Darkling Thrush” and Tomas Tranströmer’s winter poems: a comparison Extreme cold, frost and harsh landscape produce perilous effects of disorientation, demotivation, frustration and gloom in human beings. However, poets with their process of creativity and imaginative caliber, overcome these climatic aftermaths. For a convenient comparison and contrast, we have selected Thomas Hardy (1840-1928), a twentieth century English poet and one of the precursors of modernism in English poetry. Both Tranströmer and Hardy are people from two characteristically cold countries. Hardy’s brooding nature keeps him very close to Tomas, who has a great many poems on winter. Here we have chosen a Hardy poem “The Darkling Thrush”, a remarkable winter poem to compare it with Tomas’s winter poems. By comparing the poem with the winter poems by Transtromer, we see that both poets register the above-mentioned damaging effects on human spirit, but the way they attempt to overcome this crisis is what makes a real difference between the two poets. From the very opening of the poem, Hardy notes a gloomy, terrible and desolate landscape wrecked by harsh winter, frost and cold. This feeling of desolation brings his level of life spirit down. His mind sinks into the depth of pessimism and he comes on the brink of ‘nothingness.’ However, at this dark time of his life, when he is on the verge of collapse, a voice-a singing bird namely a thrush ALLS 6(4):122-127, 2015 126 restores him to his previous feeling of joy and hope in life. A creature, ‘gaunt’ and ‘small’, points to something positive which he has completely overlooked. The thrush points to the fact that, even on the verge of gloom and collapse, there remains some ray of hope making our life worth living and meaningful. So Hardy retains his hope from Nature, in the famous Wordsworthian secular way. His redemption comes by his own attempts of meditation with no reference to God or a Supernatural Being. On the other hand, Tomas Tranströmer’s way is inevitably a spiritual or a religious one, though his spiritual feelings are quite unorthodoxy. His strong and unwavering faith in Christianity and his logical reasoning save him from falling into the pitfalls of ‘nihilism.’ While Hardy is a secular saint, Tomas is a metaphysical or religious (emphasis given) one.14 While in a worst moment of dispirit and frustration, Hardy looks up to nature for salvation. On the other hand, as we have already seen in the poem “Fire Script”, Tomas looks upward to overcome the perilous effects of winter on his spirit. Therefore, both of the poets foil the workings of winter’s devastation on them in quite different ways. 13. Conclusion In fine, Tomas Tranströmer’s use of winter and cold as a subject is quite befitting as we consider his country’s geographical location in the cold Scandinavia. He is a successful offshoot of his own soil- a soil globally renowned for its bizarre climatic conditions. Most often he has depicted winter and cold as a necessary part of an atmosphere or a locale, and it renders him a great scope to create astonishing imagery. On the one hand, his use of winter conditions functions as powerful symbols of death, disease, bleakness, and of psychological emptiness in human beings. Cold and freezing winter is also a big canvass on which the poet, with his rare craftsmanship, has nakedly disclosed human evil or fraudulent sociability. At the same time, on the backdrop of this perilous winter he has opened up the artistic gate to salvation. Occasionally, he has used images of Nordic winter and cold for his ingenious stylistic purpose- surrealism. So, now it can be expediently argued that his use of winter and cold has achieved a multi-dimensional aura. This kind of climatic representation in poetry has established him as a globally conscious poet who is deeply rooted in his own soil, Sweden. Notes: 1. The term “Scandinavia” covers a large region of Northern Europe. By “Scandinavian countries” we usually mean five countries- Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Iceland. (Ref. www.geography.about.com) 2. ibid 3. August Strindberg is a Swedish poet, playwright, novelist, essayist and painter. He is called the “father” of modern Swedish literature. 4. Gunnar Ekelöf is a prominent Swedish poet. He is often described as Sweden’s first surrealist poet. 5. The importance of ‘the subconscious’ is vital in Tomas Tranströmer’s poetry. In an interview with Tam Lin Neville and Linda Horvath, the poet confesses, “Yes, everything is from inside, from the subconscious. It’s the source of everything.”(Source: Tomas Tranströmer: The Official Website). 6. Tranströmer’s debut collection 17 Dikters is characteristic example of rhetorical poetry, charged with feeling and ambition. But with growing maturity in career, he became more strict and ascetic in form and style. (Ref. www.litera.hu). 7. This is from a seminal article entitled as “Too Much of the Air: Tomas Tranströmer” by Tom Sleigh. 8. ibid 9. In the book review of Tranströmer’s The Deleted World, Rob A. Mackenzie notes the reason behind the poet’s natural refusal to be deemed as ‘nihilistic’ poet: “Tranströmer does not fall into this trap, partly due to his precise observation, partly because his poems cannot be reduced to a single mood.” (This book review was published in the Umbrella Journal.) 10. The quotation occurs in Robert Bly’s ‘Introduction’ to his own English rendering of Tranströmer’s poetry collection The Half-Finished Heaven. 11. The term “deep image” was originally coined by the poets Jerome Rothenberg and Robert Kelly to describe stylized, resonant poetry that operated according to the Symbolist theory and posited a connection between the physical and spiritual realms. Later, the idea was developed by Robert Bly. (Source: www.poetryfoundation.org) 12. Not only critics, even the poet himself talked of his poetry with a reference to the psychological insights pioneered by the Swiss psychologist and philosopher Carl Jung. 13. An Avant-garde movement in art and literature laying emphasis on the uniting of conscious and unconscious realms of experience to express them in the form of dream and fantasy. In such effort, logical and illogical elements are peculiarly juxtaposed to create “an absolute reality, surreality.” (Ref. Encyclopedia Britannica). 14. Bly in his introduction, (entitled as “Upward into the Depths”) to The Half-finished Heaven emphasizes the poet’s “essential religious way.”(XXI) ALLS 6(4):122-127, 2015 127 References Bly, Robert. “Upward into the Depths.” Introduction. The Half-Finished Heaven: The Best Poems of Tomas Tranströmer. Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 2001. IX-XXI. Print. Briney, Amanda.“Geography of Sweden.” About.com. n.d. Web. 20 Apr 2015. ‹http:/geography.about.com› Mervel, Ferenc. ‘An Interview with the Translator of Tomas Tranströmer.’ LITERA.HU. HLO, 13 Oct 2011. Web. 20 Apr 2015. ‹www.hlo.hu/news/two_truths-aproach_each_other_an_interview_with_tomas_transtromer_s_translator› Robertson, Robin. “The Double World of Tomas Tranströmer”. The New York Review of Books. 14 Oct. 2011. Web. 20 Mar 2015. ‹www.nybooks.com› Salamon, Noah B. “The Transformative Effect of Color in the Poetry of Tomas Tranströmer.” World Literature Today. University of Oklahoma,10 June 2014. Web. 23 Apr 2015. Shmoop Editorial Team.“The Darkling Thrush” Shmoop.com. Shmoop University, Inc., 11 Nov. 2008. Web. 13 Feb. 2015 Sleigh, Tom. “Too Much of the Air: Tomas Tranströmer.” Poets.org. 2005. n.p.,21 Apr. 2015. ‹http://m.poets.org/poetsorg/text/too-much-air-tomas-transtromer› Sparknotes Editors. “SparkNote on Frost’s Early Poems.” SparkNotes.com. SparkNotesLLC. 2002. Web. 10 Feb. 2015 Stern, Fred. “The Glasshouse of Tomas Tranströmer.” Feb 1, 2012. Web. 27 Mar 2015. ‹www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1282426647› The Half-Finished Heaven: The Best Poems of Tomas Tranströmer. Trans. Robert Bly. Minneapolis: Graywolf Press, 2001. Print. “Tomas Tranströmer - Facts”. Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 27 Mar 2015. ‹http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureats/2011/transtromer-facts.html› Tomas Tranströmer: Selected Poems. Ed. Robert Hass. New Jersey: The Eco Press, 1987. Print. Tranströmer, Tomas. “Six Winters”. New Collected Poems. Trans. by Robin Fulton, Bloodaxe Books, 1989. Print. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Teachers’ Evaluation of KBSM Form 4, 5 English Textbooks Used in the Secondary Schools in Penang, Malaysia Hooi Shyan Khoo (Corresponding author) School of Education, University of Nottingham, Jubilee Campus, Wollaton Road, NG8 1BB, United Kingdom E-mail: invizigoid@gmail.com Paul Knight School of Education, University of Nottingham, Jubilee Campus, Wollaton Road, NG8 1BB, United Kingdom E-mail: Paul.Knight@nottingham.ac.uk Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.128 Received: 03/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.128 Accepted: 06/06/2015 Abstract This is an exploratory study of the suitability of Form 4, 5 KBSM English textbooks used in Penang public secondary schools, Malaysia. It aims to investigate the relevance of the current textbooks to the needs of learners and the requirement of public examinations. A checklist is used to gauge teachers’ viewpoints while subsequent interview sessions seek to reveal more insightful responses. Keywords: KBSM - Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (The Integrated Secondary School Curriculum), SPM Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (High School Certificate), ESL - English as a Second Language, EFL - English as a Foreign Language, ELT - English Language Teaching 1. Introduction Materials for language learning have been defined by Tomlinson (2012) as almost any instrument that aids the learning of a language, be it course books, videos, graded readers, flash cards, games, websites or mobile phone interactions. Course books or textbooks have long been regarded in the literature as the anchors of language pedagogy. Ur (1999) has described them as books to be followed systematically by teachers and students in the process of teaching and learning. The extensive utilization of textbooks across a wide spectrum of ELT contexts has propelled their importance in ELT classrooms around the world (Hutchinson and Torres, 1994; McGrath, 2006; Sheldon, 1988; Swales, 1990). Despite of the emergence of new teaching methodologies and technological advancements, textbooks remain unwavering in their significance in language classrooms (Cunningsworth, 1995; Mukundan & Rezvani Kalajahi, 2013; Sheldon, 1988; Tomlinson, 2011). With textbooks being a vital element in leaners’ attainment of language, choosing the right one through its meticulous pre-use, in-use, and post-use analysis and evaluation is of paramount importance (McGrath, 2002; Mukundan, Hajimohammadi & Nimehchisalem, 2011). Carter and Nunan (2001) have termed evaluation of materials as “the process of measuring the value of learning materials” (Carter & Nunan, p. 223). This study is motivated by the desire to evaluate the integrated secondary school curriculum - Kurikulum Bersepadu Sekolah Menengah (KBSM) textbooks used by students who would be sitting for the national examination and subsequently progress to tertiary education. The Form 4 and Form 5 English course books are the designated core textbooks used in public secondary schools for students aged 16-17 (Form 4) and 17-18 (Form 5). Written by Malaysian authors, they are in adherence to the Malaysian curriculum; however, they are thought to be written on writers’ intuition and not on empirical studies (Mukundan, 2003; Mukundan & Rezvani Kalajahi, 2013). In order to be able to ascertain whether the textbooks fulfill students’ current needs, evaluation of the course materials is imperative. 1.1 Purpose and Significance of Research In the education ecosystem, wrong materials are capable of producing failed language learners (Mukundan & Rezvani Kalajahi, 2013; Tomlinson, 2008). This research will not only be informative to curricular designers, it could serve as a reference for policy makers in the Ministry of Education in modifying textbooks (Mukundan & Rezvani Kalajahi, 2013). It is also crucial for teachers to evaluate textbooks already in use in their teaching-learning contexts, so as to decide on the suitability of the textbook to make adaptations for effective usage in classrooms, which will contribute to students’ positive acquisition of the English Language (Mukundan & Rezvani Kalajahi, 2013). 1.2 Focus of Research In an attempt to examine the quality of textbooks used in Malaysia, a post evaluative study into Form 4 and Form 5 textbooks will be conducted in the Northern region (Penang) with particular interests in the productive skills of speaking and writing. This study aims to obtain data on the suitability of the KBSM textbooks used in the state of ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 129 Penang and the need to review them. A mixed method approach will be used with checklists and interviews. As this is a post-evaluative study of the textbooks, teachers will be requested to complete at least one cycle of using the books. Surveys will be distributed to 18 Form 4 and 5 English teachers (9 in each form) in 9 randomly selected secondary schools. Data will be collected from two randomly selected schools that typify the three major types of schools (all-girl, all-boy and co-education) for each level to reflect a true proportion of the population. Next, interviews will be conducted with 6 teachers whose responses on the checklists are parallel with the research findings. The responses from the interviews will then be analyzed with adaptation proposed for certain sections of the textbooks. Based on these objectives, the following three research questions will be responded: Are the textbooks suitable for the current needs of students? Do the textbooks sufficiently emphasize the two language skills of speaking and writing? How can the KBSM textbooks be improved? It is hoped that the evaluation results can help to enhance the effectiveness of the use of the textbook and assist teachers in pinpointing the areas of textbooks that need adaptation and supplementation to achieve desired benefits from its content. 2. Literature Review 2.1 Materials: Definition and Classification Throughout history, ESL (English as a Second Language) and EFL (English as a Foreign Language) classrooms have seen the utilization of many kinds of materials (Byrd & Schuemann, 1991). Other than textbooks, materials like handouts, workbook, various types of realia, drawings, photographs, teacher’s guide, computers, CDs, internet resources have been used as tools for knowledge transfer between teachers and students (Bryd & Schuemann, 1991; McGrath, 2002). According to Tomlinson (1998; 2001; 2011; 2012), just about everything which aids the learning of a language can be categorized as materials. However a finer distinction remains between textbooks, which are designed exclusively for language learning and teaching, from a pile of teaching materials (Byrd & Schuemann, 1991; McGrath, 2002; Tomlinson, 2011). Prabhu (1987) hailed textbooks as a set of specifiable pre-constructed framework, which ensure consistency in manifold classroom environments. Sheldon (1988) has likened them to the ‘route maps of ELT programme, laying bare its shape, structure, and destination’ (p. 238). Byrd & Schuemann (1991) and O’Neill (1993) viewed textbooks as a compilation of information and learning activities which can guide learners towards the fulfillment of course objectives while Hutchinson & Torres (1994) believed they are ‘organized and pre-packaged sets of teaching/learning materials’, either existing on its own or with a package of corresponding workbook, teacher’s book and cassettes (p. 328). Generally, the classification of textbooks is between the textbooks and materials or the so called ‘package’ (Hutchinson & Torres, 1994). Being laden with such responsibilities, it is not surprising to know that coursebooks usually include all components in language learning and teaching (Tomlinson, 2011). From my viewpoint, if all these conceptions on textbooks are to be taken into consideration, textbooks must tread a narrow path in providing syllabus accorded yet coherent practices for effective teaching and learning. Tomlinson categorised them into five foci of: i) informative (informing learners about target language use), ii) instructional (guiding the learner in using the language), experiential (providing exposure to the language in use), elicitative (stimulating language use), and iii) exploratory (seeking discoveries about language use) (Tomlinson, 2001; 2012). Other classifications of textbooks include: in-house vs commercially published; core vs supplementary; syllabus required materials vs locally chosen and print vs online. 2.2 Roles and Advantages of Materials Usage The roles of textbooks vary in the diverse environments of ELT (English Language Teaching), their relationship is dependent upon the perceived role of textbooks in the situation: as mandated coursebooks or as supplementation for the curriculum (Cunningsworth, 1995). Fundamentally, textbooks are widely viewed as the provision of systematic and cohesive frameworks for teaching and learning throughout the entire course (Byrd & Schuemann, 1991; Canniveng & Martinez, 2003; Cunningsworth, 1995; Harmer, 2001; Hutchinson & Torres, 1994; McGrath, 2002; O’Neill, 1982;; Tomlinson 2012). The structure provided by textbooks also frees teachers from the hassle of having to plan materials in every lesson while the less experienced teachers can receive training at the same time (Cunningsworth, 1995; Richards, 1998). This is as publishers equate the role of materials as introducing new teaching methodologies to teachers (Edge & Wharton, 1998; Richards, 1998). It is not unusual to see teaching manuals being laden with activities and language teaching approaches based on the current trends of “approved” pedagogical models (Richards, 1998, p. 128). Nevertheless, its pedagogical role can only be fulfilled when teachers’ guides have sufficient information on procedures and explanations on proposed activities (Crawford, 2002). Textbooks have been embroiled in the highly debatable roles of materials proposed by Allwright (1981); the ‘deficiency’ view and the ‘difference’ view (p. 6). In the deficiency view, textbooks are seen to fulfill the role of rectification to the perceived weakness of teachers. The presence of textbooks can ensure lessons are taught according to the syllabus with well-constructed exercises. At the extreme end of this stance, textbooks will not contribute much in the presence of good teachers while ‘teacher-proof’ materials will prevent bad teaching in class. On the contrary, ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 130 proponents of difference view materials as ‘carriers’ of language intake information and have the role of imparting knowledge to the rest of the class. Here materials and teachers are seen to have separate yet complementary roles. Nonetheless, critics consider this perception ‘reducing’ in sidelining the role of teacher to a mere classroom manager while others think it liberates the teacher from having to strain through the tedious task of developing materials for every lesson. Ready-made textbooks are observed to facilitate participants to learn within the specified objectives while providing a sense of security and autonomy to the learners (Cunningsworth, 1995; Crawford, 2002; Richards, 1998). In some books, students’ cognitive skills and metalinguistic understanding are targeted for development alongside with second language learning, in what’s termed as ‘learner awareness’ by Brewster and Ellis (2002). In their view of textbooks as agent(s) for change, Hutchinson and Torres (1994) called for the inclusion of self-directed learning strategies to foster autonomous learning strategies in students. This idea of coursebooks being learning-how-to-learn guides is also much supported by Allwright (1981). Without materials, students are observed to place more emphasis on the teacher as the sole supplier of language intake (Ur, 1996). It can be seen that through the activities of communicative interaction and language references presented in the materials, students’ responsibilities towards their learning and their sense of autonomy are further cultivated (Crawford, 2002; Richards, 1998). 2.3 Disadvantages of Using Coursebooks Despite the extensive adoption of materials in ELT worldwide and their perceived superiority over teacher-produced materials, they are not without their criticism. Among the most consistent criticism is their inability to meet the distinctive needs and wants of all their users (Allwright, 1981; Ansary & Babaii, 2002; Maley, 1998; Richards, 1998; Sheldon, 1988; Tomlinson, 2001; Tomlinson, 2012). This is due to the increased demand for situational specific textbooks that can fit particular requirements (Maley, 1998; Richards, 1998). Global textbooks have often times be seen as irrelevant, culturally inappropriate, incompatible with the latest teaching methodology, of mixed levels and just generally fail to match the diverse needs of their wide range of audience. Tomlinson (2010) even goes as far as saying textbooks, in wanting to appease the teachers and administrators, ignore the needs and wants of those who require it most - the learners. Nevertheless, the issue of mismatched needs could be assuaged by the sharing of core language framework, which learners from diverse backgrounds (lower than advanced level) would need to learn (Crawford, 2002; Freebairn, 2000; O’Neill, 1982;). Most textbooks would have a section in fundamental linguistic contents to provide for learners’ basic needs. Since no materials can ever satisfy needs from all quarters and commercial materials are available in large quantities, teachers can always be selective and informed in adapting, supplementing or replacing the materials with better ones. Another argument against textbooks is that textbooks ‘de-skill’ the teachers (Allwright, 1981; Canniveng & Martinez, 2003; Cunningsworth, 1984; Cunningsworth, 1995; Edge & Wharton, 1998; Freebairn, 2000; Hutchinson & Torres, 1994; Maley, 1998; Richards, 1998; Swan, 1992; Tomlinson, 2001; Tomlinson, 2012). Opponents argued that textbooks impose too much authority over lessons and constrain teachers in terms of syllabus selection, teaching methodologies and other pedagogical decision-making in turn marginalizing teachers to superficial figures in the learning/teaching process. As a consequence, teachers are impeded in their professional development while becoming mechanical in their teaching procedure, language usage and in responding to students’ needs. It can also create a phenomenon of coursebook dependance, especially among inexperienced teachers (Canniveng & Martinez, 2003; Chandran, 2003; Richards, 1998). Further adding to it is the dilemma of reification, a tendency often supported by the promotional efforts of publishers’ (Richards, 1998, p. 131). The view illustrated the reality of some teachers’ deep-rooted reverence towards printed materials and their reluctance to deviate from the lesson structure set out in the book subsequently trivializing their contribution in class. There are concerns that coursebooks are reductionist and compromised in its representation of language (Freebairn, 2000; Richards, 1998; Thornbury, 2000; Tomlinson, 2001, 2012). The homogenous and contrived world devoid of emotions in the world of coursebooks fail to engage learners as it did not tap into the ‘affect’ segment in learning (Tomlinson, 2012). Nevertheless, this issue could be solved by the ‘humanising coursebook’ approach of aesthetically engaging learners to learn in a friendly environment advocated by Tomlinson (2003). Taking account of all the deficiencies possessed by textbooks, it is justifiable for teachers to look into alternatives, namely locally produced materials (Harmer, 2001). Such a textbook free approach could provide learners with what material writers have been struggling to give - a personalized, relevant and engaging experience of language in use which will greatly raise their motivation (Harmer, 2001; Tomlinson, 2003). However for teachers to be skilled in materials preparation, they will need to have access to a wide range of materials; experience and confidence in choosing the right bit of information to include, in addition to ensure it does not diverge from the curriculum. Daunting as it sounds, teachers also need sufficient time to complete the task while running the risk of materials falling into incoherent bits and pieces of exercises (Harmer, 2001). However, not all teachers can be material designers and to prepare teachers for that they need to be supported in training (Richards, 2012; Tomlinson, 2003). Finally, teacher-produced materials will not be as visually appealing as commercial materials and many teachers still have neither expertise nor access to adequate technology to create ‘authentic’ audiovisual materials (Crawford, 2002; Richards, 2012). In any case, teachers and students still have much to gain from textbooks. Their very existence proves that despite their shortcomings, alternatives like teacher-produced materials are still no match for them. With the emergence of more localized textbooks - easily altered commercial textbooks with web-based suggestions for modification and replacement, textbooks have done much in minimizing their negative impact in the ELT circle. ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 131 2.4 Evaluation Cycle After contending on the multiple situational needs a textbook has to fulfill, careful analyses and evaluation must be exercised prior to textbook selection. Textbooks are generally evaluated for two major reasons: i) to pick a new coursebook for the programme or ii) to perfect its usage in the existing material (Cunningsworth, 1995; McDonogh & Shaw, 2003; Sheldon, 1988). Cunningsworth (1995) listed two other considerations for textbooks evaluation: evaluation for potential and evaluation for suitability. Evaluation for potential will entail the evaluation of a new book without having to consider the learners while suitability pertains to matching the coursebooks against a specific set of criteria. Inevitably, evaluation will entail elements of comparison between textbook materials and their effectiveness in learners using them (Tomlinson, 2008). As stated by McGrath (2002) and Tomlinson (2003; 2012), there is a noteworthy distinction between analysis and evaluation. The "analysis" encompasses the providence of an “objective, verifiable description” (McGrath, 2002, p. 22) whereas “evaluation” serves to include context-related factors in comparing the description of a textbook. Hence, evaluation is analysis with context. Since evaluation is influenced by learners and context, it is of a subjective nature (Tomlinson, 2012). The framework suggested by McGrath (2002) theorizes that analysis precedes evaluation with needs analysis and context analysis. Needs analysis is explained as a subjective analysis of a learner’s needs (Cunningsworth, 1983) while context analysis can be categorized into macro and micro analyses. The macro stage would take into account the aims of education, language policy and the textbooks’ role within the country; the aims of language education within cultural, religious considerations (McGrath, 2002). Micro level, on the other hand, involves the group of users who will come into contact with the materials, be it an institution, a programme, teachers or learners (McGrath, 2002). From the classification above, the evaluation versus analysis framework can be illustrated in the following three-stage format: Textbook analysis → needs analysis + context analysis (macro & micro) = evaluation Pertaining to the explanation by Ellis (1997) and McGrath (2002), there are three main stages of evaluation: pre-use (predictive), in-use (immediate) and post-use (retrospective). Widely believed to be the most difficult type, pre-use evaluation seeks to examine the suitability of a textbook prior to it being used in a programme. The evaluation of material pre-use is vital for teachers and administrators to gauge the performance of a textbook in the target context. Next, in-use evaluation is the evaluation of textbook currently being used. It can be used to monitor the suitability of a textbook in meeting learners’ needs or a program’s objectives. Additionally, it has the benefit of revealing insights into ways teachers use materials (Richards and Mohoney, 1996 as cited in McGrath, 2002). This can garner suggestions for materials development in the future. As the name suggests, post-use evaluation involves the assessment of a textbook after it has been used in a full cycle of a course. Among the strong proponents of post-use evaluation, Ellis (1996), Masuhara (2011) and Tomlinson (2003) express the importance of undertaking such an evaluation, as it shows both short- and long- term effects while providing teachers with information on ways to modify them for repeated usage. According to McGrath (2002), there are three distinct methods of textbook evaluation: i) impressionistic, checklistbased and in-depth analysis. Impressionistic is the preliminary evaluation, the ‘quick look’ through a coursebook’s structure and design whereas the checklist method entails a systematic evaluation of instructional materials based on a specific set of criteria while in-depth analysis requires a more detailed inspection into the learners’ needs, learning styles preferences, implications of using the materials and on the teachers’ experience and beliefs about language learning and teaching. Out of the three, the checklist method will be the most feasible in context where time is limited (Mukundan & Nimechisalem, 2012). 2.5 Checklist Evaluation McGrath (2002) listed four advantages of using the checklist method: it is systematic, cost effective, information gets to be recorded in a convenient format, and it is explicit in content. However in selecting the suitable textbook, attention should be paid to ensure analysts do not detract from the neutral, value-free systematic approach of analysis to the generalizations based on personal preferences. Consequently, a checklist that is objective, comprehensive in its evaluative criteria, discrete in its description of characteristics should be utilized (Tucker, 1978 as cited in Tomlinson, 2003). Given the convenience checklists provide, numerous well-designed ones have been conceived by textbook evaluation theorists and practitioners, such as Cunningsworth (1995); Harmer (2001); McDonough & Shaw (2003); Miekley, (2005); Mukundan Hajimohammadi & Nimehchisalem (2011); Skierso (1991); Sheldon (1988); Tucker (1975). Although many checklists have been utilized in ELT textbook evaluation, there is still a limited supply of literature on the extent of its popularity (Sheldon, 1988). To facilitate the evaluation process, the criteria in checklists need to be well developed (Mukundan & Ahour, 2010). According to McGrath (2002), the specification of criteria is posited on the well laid out assumptions of learners, teachers and contexts as the end users. The criteria are commonly divided into groups of general or specific, with general shaping the latter. However as evaluation is influenced by context, the formulation of evaluative criteria will be affected by current teaching methodologies as well as the needs of users. Of the varying checklists that were published, there is a commonality in their broad areas of evaluative characteristics (McGrath, 2002; Mukundan, Nimehchisalem & Hajimohammadi, 2011). They were mostly referenced in the aspects of ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 132 physical layout, language content, learning objectives, methodology and practical considerations (Ansary & Babaii, 2002; McGrath, 2002; Mukundan & Ahour, 2010). Clearly, securing a suitable checklist is crucial in textbook evaluation, but in order for it to be effective, certain guidelines must be followed. As creating a new checklist would be very time consuming, it would be more practical to adapt a ready-made checklist to suit the current requirements, a move much encouraged by McGrath (2002) in his approach of stocktaking, tailoring and evaluating. 2.6 Criticism in Checklist Evaluation Inevitably, the method of checklist evaluation has criticism amidst its advantages. One persistent complaint is its subjectivity as human analysts are relied on in a supposedly neutral measurement of the qualities of materials. As stated by McGrath (2002), the nature of evaluation is value laden with context-influenced assumptions formed by analysts while some categories proved difficult to quantify. A viewpoint well illustrated by Sheldon (1988) ‘it is clear that coursebook assessment is fundamentally a subjective, rule-of-thumb activity, and that no neat formula, grid or system will ever provide a definite yardstick’ (p. 245). However by opting for retrospective or post-use evaluation, the findings can better inform analysts of the outcome on using the materials (Canniveng & Martinez, 2003; Ellis, 1997). There is also the concern over the decreased credibility and relevance to a target context in an inadequately adapted or designed checklist (McGrath, 2002). Opponents counter that checklist criteria and key questions are influenced by the ‘swings of linguistic fashion’ that can result in the change of interpretation in the criteria along with the rating assigned to each category (Riazi, 2003). In my view, this limitation can be compensated by assimilating a comprehensive textbook analysis (e.g. the frameworks by Littlejohn, 1998; McDonough & Shaw 2003; McGrath, 2002) or employing material piloting after or before the use of the checklist method. As the categories in each checklist are ‘emphatically local’ with the task of assessing superiority of one checklist over another time consuming, it can be inferred that there is no checklist that ‘best-fit’ all situational needs in every teaching contexts (Mukundan and Ahour, 2010; Sheldon, 1988). 3. Methodology 3.1 Sampling Methods The designated textbooks of Forms 4 and 5 published in 2002 by PGI Cipta Publications & Distributors Malaysia will be analyzed for their suitability towards the current needs of students, in conjunction with the need to review them and how they fall in place with the productive skills of speaking and writing. For this purpose a mixed method approach of quantitative and qualitative nature is applied with checklist and interview being adopted as the mode of research. The implementation sequence will be based on the sequential transformative design of ‘Quan → qual → qual’ (Creswell, 2003). The strategy is characterized by the development nature of the initial quantitative method to the subsequent qualitative ones. The checklist (quantitative) will inform the development of the subsequent rounds of interview (qualitative). Each step however is given equal priority with the eventual aim of forming an inferential assessment based on the data that may emerge. The mixed-methods model is chosen due to its ability in getting access to both types of research methods; one being the objective scored responses from a larger number of participants, second being the in-depth information gathered from a smaller sample of individuals. The corroboration of results from different sets of findings can well substantiate, confirm and strengthen the claims that may emerge (Creswell, 2003; Dörnyei, 2007). Other than that, an enhanced understanding can be achieved from the wider scope of study through the different methods adopted (Dörnyei, 2007). 3.2 Sampling Procedures As emphasized by Mukundan, Nimehchisalem & Hajimohammadi (2011) on the “valid and reliable instrument”, a modified checklist developed by Mukundan, & Nimehchisalem (2012) and interview questions sourced from Cunningsworth (1983) and Sheldon (1988) are utilized (Please refer to Appendixes A). A checklist created by Mukundan & Nimechisalem (2012) is chosen as the tool for systematic evaluation due to the superior key qualities it possessed, refer to point 3.3 for further elaboration. The checklist will be administered to 18 teachers from 9 randomly selected public secondary schools out of a list of 89 schools (the total number of national secondary schools in Penang). The results therewith will be analyzed with the intention of themes identification. Six teachers whose responses are representative of the themes identified will be singled out for interviews. At the interview session, 15 questions sourced from Cunningsworth (1984) and Sheldon (1988) will be used to gather richer information from the teachers. 3.3 Evaluation Through Checklist and Interview A checklist developed and refined by Mukundan & Nimechisalem (2012) will be chosen as the tool for systematic evaluation (see Appendix A for the checklist). The checklist is comprehensive in its evaluative criteria as it was developed after an extensive evaluation of 48 checklists. It has also been constructed in Malaysia which fits the context of this study. Published in 2011, the checklist has been put to stringent tests and refinement, beginning with a focus group study which includes Malaysian teachers within the country’s education setting followed by a quantitative examination of each item’s level of importance. This checklist has also been proved to be of high validity (it has been approved by 207 ESL experts), economy (shorter time needed to complete the checklist) and reliability in its design with all items being found to be of equal importance (Mukundan & Nimechisalem 2012). As the checklist is constructed and tested recently with the content and assumptions of language teaching and the depiction of society befit this study the Malaysian education background; it is adopted with no alterations made. This is also to avoid the exclusion of certain important questions and the inclusion of trivial questions, which could create a less effective evaluation (McGrath, 2002). ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 133 The materials’ evaluation criteria required respondents to indicate the levels of importance with 0 being unimportant and 4 very important. The 5-point Likert scale is assigned to provide more points of discrimination for more precise evaluation results. Although there remains the inclination towards the mid-point answers, the respondents can be informed of the problem and be advised to avoid it (Mukundan, Hajimohammadi, Nimehchisalem, 2011). The evaluation assessed the materials in relation to the following areas: • General Attributes in relation to syllabus and curriculum • Methodology • Suitability to learners • Physical and Utilitarian Attributes • Efficient outlay of supplementary materials • Learning-teaching content (General features, listening, speaking, reading, writing, vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and exercises) 3.3.1 Interview Questions The interview questions are of emergent rather than predetermined as the researcher learned of the data and formed broad themes from the checklist analysis. The general pattern of questioning is sourced from the two checklists constructed by Cunningsworth (1995) and Sheldon (1988) due to the questions’ relevance to the research context. Tomlinson (2012) had applauded Cunningsworth (1995) for providing a very detailed checklist ‘for evaluating teaching material’ (p.74) while Sheldon’s efforts (1987, 1988) in both evaluating and developing textbook material were deemed commendable. However as the evaluation criteria in the questionnaires above are specific to contexts which they are intended for, the questions are not quite relevant to the current situational needs of this study (Cunningsworth, 1995; Sheldon, 1988; Tomlinson, 2003 and Tomlinson, 2012). Therefore the questions are modified to suit the context of this study. As there is no teacher’s book, questions will not be asked on that particular topic. As proposed by McGrath (2002) and Tomlinson (2003, 2012), the interview questions are formed from a few general ‘principled’ categories selected from the main checklist - Mukundan & Nimechisalem (2012) and from the two checklists developed by Cunningsworth (1995) and Sheldon (1988). The general criteria are determined based on the textbooks’ suitability to students’ current needs in accordance with the requirements of the official syllabus. The general categories are methodology, utilitarian, sufficiency, efficient outlay of materials, suitability to learners, learningteaching content, speaking, writing, listening, role of teacher and suggestions of improvement. From the general criteria, specific questions are further developed. The question format has been kept, as the interview session is intended to elicit richer information from participants to complement the questionnaire data. The open-ended line of questioning will seek to draw in opinions in an attempt to get more insights into the phenomena and to increase the credibility of the findings (Creswell, 2003). Please refer to appendix B for a detailed explanation on the formation of interview questions. 3.3.2 Pilot Study Piloting of research tools should ideally be performed before the actual phase of data collection (Creswell, 2003; Dörnyei, 2007; McGrath, 2002; Paltridge & Phakiti, 2010). This is to allow for the fine-tuning of questions to a particular context by either the researcher or another person (McGrath, 2002). The assigned checklist was being tested out on a familiar textbook (Form 5) by the author to assess any discrepancy in the questions. This was to test the relevance of the different criteria in the current context, along with the interpretation given to the scores assigned in each category. The questions were found to fit the requirement of the evaluation criteria. The guidelines proposed by Tomlinson & Masuhara (2004) on clarity, conciseness, free of dogma, and reliability in that other participants would not interpret them in a different way were being referred to while the checklist was being evaluated with a known textbook. After some scrutinization, the questions were found to be relevant with no need of revision. Similar to the checklist, the interview questions were being piloted for reliability purposes. This was to test the objectivity of the questions and to clarify any ambiguities that may appear. A Malaysian secondary school English teacher (non-research participant) was enlisted to assist in the trial interview with questions being asked in the exact wording as they were constructed, following the advice of Brown (2001). No amendment was made to the interview questions as the questions were found to be clearly worded and suitable by the teacher. 4. Results and Discussion 4.1 General Attributes The textbooks were both found to match most specifications of the syllabus. This is due to the fact that the textbooks were being written to adhere to the Malaysian curriculum and were designated core textbooks for both Forms. However ever since the introduction of ‘Short Texts and Graphic Materials’ and ‘Rational Cloze’ in Paper 2 of the national examination SPM English paper, the textbooks haven’t been adapted to provide practice for students. Teachers, especially Form 5 teachers, whose students will be sitting for the national examination at the end of school year, have had to supplement materials in these two sections to cater to students’ needs. Despite this flaw, Form 5 textbook was graded to be highly compatible with the curriculum while Form 4 was slightly lower in grading, although still within the ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 134 scale of high compatibility. The lower grade responses were given by teachers who had low proficiency students. The students could not comprehend much less complete the exercises from the book. Those group of teachers had commented that they supplemented the textbook with easier materials sourced from commercially published reference books. The findings are in line with those of Chandran (2003) and Asiah Abu Samah (1984), whose previous researches revealed the level of language in the textbooks exceeded the standard of some students. 4.2 Methodology As delineated by the authors of the textbooks, the usage of language has been shaped around the three principal ways of interpersonal, informational and aesthetic forms of language learning (Chitravelu, et al. 2005). Students are encouraged to socialise (interpersonal), to acquire knowledge (informational), to think and to enjoy the creative side of the language (aesthetic). Overall, teachers from both levels were satisfied with the methodology adopted in the book, which was deduced to be Theme Based Instruction within the Communicative Language framework. Form 5 teachers marked the methodology as highly favourable, they were presumed to be able to exploit and embrace the various methodologies in ELT as well as with corresponding activities. Although the scores were as fairly favourable as the Form 5 ones, there were some Form 4 teachers who found the activities limiting and difficult for some of their students. This was due to the demand of proficiency needed for students to complete the exercises which was not achievable in the teacher’s class. 4.3 Suitability to Learners The textbooks have been found to suit the age of learners and their needs, although more so with the form 5 students than with form 4. The scale was highly favourable for form 5 teachers while moderately favourable for form 4 teachers. Similar to the responses given earlier, the Form 4 textbook exceeded the level of some students with teachers having to simplify and adapt the contents of the book, as per Gibbons’ idea of scaffolding (2002). 4.4 Physical and Utilitarian Attributes This component received a highly favourable rating from Form 5 teachers and moderately favourable rating from Form 4 teachers who found the 256-paged glossy textbook to be clear, attractive in layout, durable, cost effective with efficient use of text and visuals. From the general opinion of teachers, the layout and design of the textbook was seen as structured with clarity and consistency shown in every unit. A typical chapter would consist of a theme related conversational practice, followed by listening and speaking, reading, vocabulary, phonemes, grammar exercises and writing. Though the controlled practice activities with cohesive learning tasks could be conducive for classroom learning environment, it could also be dull and too rigid for some Form 4 learners as commented by their teachers. Both groups of teachers thought that instructions given for the activities were clear and the page design relatively uncluttered. Such clear structure aided instruction for the teachers and encouraged exploratory learning within each topic for the learners, as suggested by Piaget in the theory of language discovery (Jardine, 2006). Both textbooks were not short of visuals with pictures and graphics found in nearly every page of the book. Yet some Form 4 teachers remarked that the pictures were too ‘pat’ and ‘contrived’. Suggestions were thrown in on having comic strips or animated pictures so as to lessen students’ boredom during lessons. However, the simple illustrations allow for “white space” which could engage learners’ interest without distracting them from the learning objectives of the task (Tomlinson et al, 2001). In the matter of cost efficiency, the KBSM textbooks are available free on loan in all government schools. However, for students who did not qualify for the textbook loan scheme, the Form 5 textbook cost a steep RM19.10 while the Form 4 cost RM13.90. It was due to these pricing that some Form 4 teachers gave this criteria a low grade. When it comes to durability, Form 4 teachers had higher complaints than their Form 5 counterparts. They needed a hard back textbook, preferably with covers that repel water and stronger binding as books get easily damaged when wet. 4.5 Efficient Outlay of Supplementary Materials In this section, Form 5 teachers gave a favourable rating while the scores were moderate for the Form 4 teachers. The greatest concern is that there is no teacher’s book and in some cases, no audio CDs to supplement the learning tasks in the book. Teachers had commented that they had to formulate their own answers and lend their voices or sometimes the students’ as the source of listening in the classrooms. This could lead to inaccurate modelling and use of English in the classrooms. 4.6 Learning-teaching Content In this section, a general picture of teachers’ perceptions on the learning-teaching content and the four language skills of listening, speaking, reading and writing will be clarified. In the introduction of the textbook, it is stated that activities within each chapter are graded at three levels to meet the needs of students with different abilities, interests and learning styles (Lee, et al. 2013). With reference to the survey results, Form 5 teachers gave a highly favourable score of 3 as compared to the moderately favourable responses from Form 4 teachers. While some teachers revealed their unawareness of the tasks grading, some shared that the indicator wasn’t made explicit in the textbooks. It’s interesting to note that for the teachers who knew of its existence, they rendered it ‘pointless’ as it did not assist them in any way. According to the respondents being interviewed, the grading scheme can be improved in having tasks which actually reflect the levels they represent. For example in the reading component, there can be different sets of questions in accordance with the grading schemes of easy, moderate and difficult. Not only will it be more flexible, it will also be more practical for teachers with students of mixed proficiency levels. With this, teachers will no longer have to go through the trouble of sourcing the right level reference materials to supplement or adapt the tasks in the textbooks. Still on the topic of learning-teaching content, all teachers gave a highly favourable score for the rest of the questions in the ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 135 checklist. They thought that the task objectives are mostly achievable with cultural sensitivities having been taken into account. Authenticity wise, the language in the textbook is natural and real with the situations created in the dialogues sounding natural and real. This can be seen in the depiction of Malaysian names (e.g. Jefri, Nek, Munah, Ballang, Shan, Azman etc.), the usage of the Malaysian currency Ringgit, local addresses, telephone numbers, street names, hotel locations in different states of Malaysia (Melaka, Kuala Lumpur, Terengganu, Pulau Tioman) the mention of the major ethnicities in the country (Malay, Indian, Chinese, Kadazan, Dayak and Iban), the introduction of Malay words in the text (satay, ketupat, gunung, keris), local celebrations like Hari Raya, Chinese New Year, Hari Gawai, Deepavali and Christmas to the description used in some reading passages ‘she has langsat-yellow skin, a typical Malay beauty’. It would seem that Malaysian culture is prevalent in both the theoretical and practical frameworks of the book. However, teachers interviewed complained of the ‘boring’ content which had students learning environmental subject of rain, occupations of being a nurse or a pilot, ways to lead a healthy lifestyle among others. It is the norm for a chapter in both textbooks to start off with the listening component which serves to introduce the chapter to the students. In the ‘Tune in’ section, students are required to perform certain tasks related with the ‘briefing’ they heard. For the subsequent listening activity, they will either have to listen and speak or listen for further instructions to complete tasks with corresponding pictures. With listening occupying a mere 2 pages out of the normally 16-page content in a single chapter, it would appear that listening has the smallest portion of exercises. Teachers at both levels rated this section highly favourable as both books have appropriate listening tasks in accordance with welldefined specifications laid out in the syllabus. There are also tape scripts that students can refer to at the back of the book for additional practice. On the issue of authenticity in the speech articulated in the audio CD, most teachers thought that it is close to real language situations although they couldn’t come to an agreement on the type of accent used in the recording. To some, the actors sounded like non-accented Malaysians while others thought they were speakers from other nationalities. Regardless of the difference in opinions, the listening section is deemed adequate by most of the teachers surveyed although it will be better to include accents from different nationalities of native speakers in the listening practice so students can familiarize themselves to the diverse speaking styles. The speaking section received an average rating of ‘highly favourable’ from both groups of teachers. Speaking activities appear to fit the description of initiating meaningful communication and are balanced between individual response, pair work and group work. They allow plenty of practices throughout the chapter in forms of ‘pair work’, ‘topic description’, ‘poem recital’, ‘responses to social situations’, ‘pronunciation’ and ‘tongue twister’. Regrettably, some teachers interviewed remarked on the ‘boring’ topics (e.g. usage of computers, drafting a school newsletter , pros and cons of building a dam among others) with unclear instructions for task implementation and the lack of variety in tasks, as they are mostly restricted to role play or group discussion. Teachers have put forward some suggestions to remedy this situation, first is to have topics of interests or photos which can relate to students’ experience and engage them in thoughtful conversation. Second is to have a balance range of speaking tasks to enable students to practise in different enacted transactional and interpersonal situations. For example, a learner can practise monologues in story telling, justifying a decision or be in groups for free discussion. Other than that, some light-hearted activities like guessing games, jigsaw tasks, ranking exercises can also be added to stimulate spontaneous interaction. As contended by Savignon (2001), real life communication entails the integration of language, setting and target language culture. Therefore, successful communication would require some form of understanding in the cultural context of the target language. As such, textbooks should assume the responsibilities of providing appropriate cultural settings where speaking prompts are introduced with clear instructions in a variety of formats with engaging content. For reading, both groups of teachers gave a similar score of highly favourable. They thought that most of the texts are decent and students can connect to the texts. However, for certain teachers, they have to supplement this component with a shorter reading passage and simpler corresponding tasks due to time constraint. The interviewed teachers also shared that the texts and corresponding activities could be lengthy at times. In the writing section, most of the teachers in Form 4 and 5 rated it highly favourable. The writing tasks are designed to have achievable goals and take into consideration learner capabilities. Some teachers have commended the writing section, praising its process writing approach in guiding students to write in accordance with the national examination format. However it is without any weakness. It is worthy to note that the scaffolding provided is insufficient to weaker students while high proficiency students find the activities dull with no interesting words or phrases. Teachers have responded that there needs to be more scaffolding provided to students, especially the weak ones. As most teachers follow a linear sequence of teaching writing: planning, drafting and revising, the scaffold of sentence formation with step-by-step guide to paragraph composition will prove a valuable support to students struggling with the writing process. However, clear instructions are still needed to guide students in planning and organising essential information that they generated. Students in a sense are not fully mature as writers, in order to help them build up on competence, they have to develop a sense of audience (Hedge, 2000). This can be achieved by creating audiences in the textbooks, for example students can write for real audiences such as local organisations or individuals, class magazines could be put on notice board for a wider readership consisting of school community or students could write in pairs where work in one student’s writing forms the basis for a response from the other student. Writing exchanges as such truly reflect the interaction of reading and writing in real life. The vocabulary and grammar section of the textbooks received a highly favourable rating from most of the teachers surveyed. This is due to the fact that the vocabulary is in accordance with the list of vocabularies which will be tested in the public examination while the spread of grammar is achievable, contextualized with examples introduced explicitly. ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 136 There is also an appropriate load of vocabulary in accordance with the level, a good distribution (simple to complex) of vocabularies across the chapters and the whole book. Nonetheless, it was found to be somewhat lacking when it comes to recycling and repeating new words and grammar items in subsequent chapters to encourage their retention. Responses gathered from teachers revealed that this is the section where they have to supplement the most due to the inadequate allocation of exercises and the limited explanation provided for grammar items. From the data gathered, both groups of teachers rated the exercises component highly favourable. The exercises are deemed learner friendly, adequate and can be catered to students who are under or over-achievers. Teachers commented that it is up to their discretion to fully utilize the practices to suit students of different proficiency levels. The textbook authors, aware of how prolonged classroom sessions can be, provided a plethora of multimedia activities under the ‘ICT Skills: Stretch Yourself’ section. It comprises internet search, internet for research, online library research, online letters to newspaper editor, creating an email account among others. Teachers welcome this section as students get to apply what they have learned in a series of reinforcement activities in the computer laboratory. Most exercises are presented using a top-down strategy with partial emphasis on the multiple intelligences except for bodily - kinesthetic. As literature section is incorporated in the book and will contribute some questions to the public examination, the component is included for discussion. Teachers have highlighted the need for an updated section since its introduction in 2003 due to the multiple changes in the examination format in 2009. The teachers interviewed are in favour of the literature section, however it needs to be updated to suit the current examination needs and be more creative in its content. 4.7 Comparison with Previous Researches The results are consistent with those of the quantitative study done by Mukundan and Rezvani Kalajahi in 2013. Similarly, both textbooks are graded ‘moderately useful’ by teachers in a scale of negligible usefulness to very high usefulness. Other areas like compatibility to the examination syllabus, layout of textbooks are reflected in the findings by Chandran (2003). From his interviews of sixty junior and senior teachers from various states in Malaysia on their attitudes and perception of the current textbook use, many responded that the current textbooks were unable to meet the needs of learners to prepare them for the national examination while the layout of materials were considered dull; they were also thought to be too difficult especially with the merged literature section. Many teachers shared that they did not use the textbooks wholly and chose to supplement them with commercial reference books, which they found to be more appropriate and interesting. This is also the case for the teachers interviewed in this study. Overall, the materials provide adequate opportunities for practicing the four language skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking. However, modifications are needed for them to move away from the notoriety of being ‘boring relics’. In view of the changes brought forth by the Malaysian Examination Council (MEC) five years ago, the textbooks need to be updated with the current trends of examination requirements. Secondly, the textbooks placed much reliance on teachers in conducting the activities in the book, very much so that a teacher described the state of students without the presence of their teachers as ‘crippled’. In the sense that these are higher level secondary school students, autonomous learning must be encouraged and reflected in the activities found in the textbooks. The reorientation of a teacher’s role is necessary for the learners to move away from the stance of passivity and dependence to undertaking responsibility in their learning for a more effective mastery of the target language (Hedge, 2000). Material writers could include systematic techniques for independent learning in exercises alongside cognitive and metacognitive strategies to enhance learning. Thirdly, there needs to be a solution for students who are on the loan book scheme who could not write on the book pages as the books must be returned at the end of each school year. In trying to minimize students’ workload in having to copy down the questions and answers, some teachers resort to photocopying supplementary materials. The rest of the suggested modifications have been outlined in the earlier paragraphs, here is a summary of the points mentioned: i) to provide teachers with teaching guidebooks as well as CDs (for certain schools); ii) to have a clearer grading scheme for the three levels of difficulty (easy, medium and hard) and to have tasks which actually reflect the grading with a range of activities for teachers to choose from depending on the levels of students; iii) the inclusion of a more diverse range of registers and accents used in the audio readings; iv) more scaffolding provided to students in writing; v) more exercises on vocabulary and grammar; vi) a revision of content for it to be up-to-date and appealing to learners. 5. Conclusion and Pedagogical Implications This study attempted to evaluate the KBSM textbooks used by Form 4 and Form 5 students and to offer suggestions for them to be used more effectively. The three research questions which were posited earlier will be answered accordingly. For the first research question: Are the textbooks suitable for the current needs of students?, both the textbooks are found to be moderately suitable to the needs of students. Their most obvious shortcomings are the incompatibility to the current exam format, bland content and the lack of exercises in the linguistic features of grammar and vocabulary. The ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 137 textbooks need to be kept with the latest examination requirements in terms of format while the contents can be more engaging. More practice should also be provided in grammar and vocabulary section. In the next question of: Do the textbooks sufficiently emphasize the two language skills of speaking and writing? The textbooks are found to be highly suitable in laying the groundwork for the two skills of speaking and writing although with some drawbacks. Speaking could use a wider range of tasks with more appealing topics in a meaningful context while the task instructions can be clearer. On the other hand, writing could provide more scaffolding and relate task objectives better to students. On the final question of: How can the KBSM textbooks be improved? In both textbooks, the deficiencies can be mitigated by the following aspects: i) ensuring teachers are supported with guidebooks and audio CDs, ii) providing teachers with a wider selection of tasks which are level-adapted to the difficulty levels of easy, medium and hard, iii) including foreign speakers and more accents used in audio readings, and iv) applying new words and grammar items learned in subsequent chapters. Overall, both the Form 4 and Form 5 textbooks received favourable ratings in the checklists, it was only in the interview stage that a number of disapprovals were recorded. It is worthy to note that, although both textbooks are not without their flaws, the deficiencies can be lessened with ample supplementation on the teacher’s behalf. 5.1 Pedagogical Implications It is of my belief that the research results have given me an indication for recommendation and suggested course of action to material writers and teachers. In keeping with the results, several suggestions for pedagogical improvements will be highlighted in the following. First and foremost, publishers could provide a variety of course books for the selection of the schools, allowing flexibility in choosing the course book which will best fit the school. Additionally, material writers could devise ancillary teaching aids to allow more creative freedom to teachers in the classroom. Teaching aids like posters for group discussion, picture cards for pronunciation, tactile objects for story telling could be used to develop the topics in the book further while making learning English enjoyable. Suggestions for enrichment activities as such and steps for conducting them should be laid out in the teacher’s guidebook as well as alternatives in expanding or reducing the activities. Ultimately, school authorities should ensure the acquisition of the teachers’ guidebooks and the teaching aids from the relevant ministry. Another point of vital importance is to have trained teachers who are skilled in making full use of the textbooks. Even if teacher training does not support this, additional training programs for teachers can be given periodically in areas of adaptation, supplementation, advice on how to use the textbooks in mixed-ability classes and strategies to encourage vocabulary and grammar retention, depending on the needs of the particular group of teachers. For schools with multimedia laboratories, coaching should be provided to teachers to allow for skillful operation of the ancillary software. Finally, the National Curriculum Development board could be more responsive in handling feedback from teachers on the issue of textbooks. As the official channel for KBSM textbook evaluation, it could share the vetting results with schools and teachers and have an interactive communication with its end users. Not only does this provide an outlet for teachers to air their grievances on textbook use, the suggestions and complaints gathered could in turn enhanced the usage and subsequent publication of the coursebooks. However, for such plans to be implemented, much cost will be incurred. References Allwright, R. L. (1981). What Do We Want Teaching Materials For? ELT Journal, 36(1), 5-18. Ansary, H. & Babaii, E. (2002). Universal Characteristics of EFL/ESL Textbooks: A Step Towards Systematic Textbook Evaluation. The Internet TESL Journal 8(2). Retrieved from http://iteslj.org/Articles/Ansary-Textbooks/ on July 10, 2014. Brewster, J. & Ellis, G. (2002). Tell it Again! 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Language Teaching, 45(2), 143179. Tucker, C.A. (1975). Evaluating Beginning Textbooks. English Teaching Forum, 13(3/4), 355-361. Ur, P. (1996). A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Ur, P. (1999). A Course in Language Teaching. Stuttgart: Ernst Klett Sprachen. Wakeman, S. (2005). Malaysia English Textbook for Malaysian Learners of English. Language in India. Retrieved from http://www.languageinindia.com/june2005/wakemanmalaysiatesol2.html on June 6, 2014. Yaakob, U. H. & Norliati, F. M. N. (2013). The Process & Effects of Demographic Transition in Penang, Malaysia. Kajian Malaysia, 31(2), 37-64. Yong, F. N. (2014). English SPM Form 4 & 5. Johor: Pelangi Sdn. Bhd. Appendix A - Checklist for Textbook Evaluation ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING TEXTBOOK CHECKLIST I. General attributes A. The book in relation to syllabus and curriculum 1. It matches to the specifications of the syllabus. 0 1 2 3 4 2. The activities can be exploited fully and can embrace the various methodologies in ELT. 0 1 2 3 4 3. Activities can work well with methodologies in ELT. 0 1 2 3 4 4. It is compatible to the age of the learners. 0 1 2 3 4 5. It is compatible to the needs of the learners. 0 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 B. Methodology C. Suitability to learners D. Physical and utilitarian attributes 6. Its layout (including artwork, typefaces, colour) is attractive. 0 ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 141 7. It indicates efficient use of text and visuals. 0 1 2 3 4 8. It is durable. 0 1 2 3 4 9. It is cost-effective. 0 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 E. Efficient outlay of supplementary materials 10. The book is supported efficiently by essentials like teacher’s book & audiomaterials. 0 II. Learning-teaching content A. General 11. Tasks move from simple to complex. 0 1 2 3 4 12. Task objectives are achievable. 0 1 2 3 4 13. Cultural sensitivities have been considered. 0 1 2 3 4 14. The language in the textbook is natural and real. 0 1 2 3 4 15. The situations created in the dialogues sound natural and real. 0 1 2 3 4 16. The book has appropriate listening tasks with well-defined goals. 0 1 2 3 4 17. Tasks are efficiently graded according to complexity. 0 1 2 3 4 18. Tasks are authentic or close to real language situations. 0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 B. Listening C. Speaking 19. Activities are developed to initiate meaningful communication. ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 20. Activities are balanced between individual response, pair work and group work. 142 0 1 2 3 4 21. Texts are graded. 0 1 2 3 4 22. Texts are interesting. 0 1 2 3 4 23. Tasks have achievable goals and take into consideration learner capabilities. 0 1 2 3 4 24. Tasks are interesting. 0 1 2 3 4 25. The load (number of new words in each lesson) is appropriate to the level. 0 1 2 3 4 26. There is a good distribution (simple to complex) of vocabulary load across chapters and the whole book. 0 1 2 3 4 27. Words are efficiently repeated and recycled across the book. 0 1 2 3 4 28. The spread of grammar is achievable. 0 1 2 3 4 29. The grammar is contextualized. 0 1 2 3 4 30. Examples are interesting. 0 1 2 3 4 31. Grammar is introduced explicitly and reworked incidentally throughout the book. 0 1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4 D. Reading E. Writing F. Vocabulary G. Grammar H. Pronunciation 32. It is contextualized. 0 ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 33. It is learnerfriendly with no complex charts. 143 0 1 2 3 4 34. They are learner friendly. 0 1 2 3 4 35. They are adequate. 0 1 2 3 4 36. They help students who are under/overachievers. 0 1 2 3 4 I. Exercises Source: Mukundan and Nimechisalem (2012: 1132) Appendix B - Formation of Interview Questions The interview questions were formed with reference to the outcome of the checklists for both forms 4 and 5. As the interview is used as an informant step to provide suggestions from teachers to adapt textbooks, the questions are phrased to elicit as much information from the teachers as possible. In both the checklists outlined by Cunningsworth (1995) and Sheldon (1988), the general criteria of ‘sufficiency’, ‘methodology’, ‘suitability to learners’, ‘learningteaching content’, ‘utilitarian’, ‘efficient outlay of supplementary materials’, ‘speaking’, ‘writing’, ‘listening’, ‘role of teacher’ and ‘suggestions of improvement’ are included. This is as the general criteria are in accordance with the type of responses needed to be elicited from teachers for suggestions to modify the form 4, 5 textbooks. From the general criteria, questions that complement the findings from the checklists will be picked and modified to further suit the current context. The original questionnaires from Cunningsworth (1995) and Sheldon (1988) are attached in appendices H and I. Below is the preliminary set of questions with the sections of checklists that they were drafted from. Preliminary set of questions Sufficiency (Sheldon: Suffiency: Question 1): Is the textbook complete enough to stand on its own or must you - the teacher produce additional material? Methodology: (Cunningsworth: Methodology: Question 1): What approach/approaches to language learning are taken by the textbook? Suitability to learners (Cunningsworth: Checklist for learner needs: Question 9): Can the textbook accommodate all the different learning styles? (Sheldon: Flexibility: Question 2): If not can it be adapted to suit the different needs of students? Grading (Sheldon: Selection/grading: Question 2): Are the three levels of difficulty grading on tasks helpful? Degree of imposition (Sheldon: Flexibility: Question 1): Do the textbook make demands on teachers’ preparation time and students’ homework time? ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 144 Sufficiency (Cunningsworth: Language development. Skills: Questions 1, 3): Are all skills equally covered? Is there any skill/s which is/are omitted, and how can that be improved? Supplementary materials (Cunningsworth: Checklist for listening: Question 6) Are the audio/visual materials up to par in terms of sound quality, speed of delivery, accent and authenticity? Speaking (Cunningsworth: Checklist for speaking: Questions 4,5): How do you think the exercises serve to improve students’ speaking abilities? What do you suggest to improve on? Writing (Cunningsworth: Checklist for writing: Question 8): How has the writing exercises improve students’ writing abilities? What do you suggest to improve on? Listening (Cunningsworth: Checklist for listening: Questions 1,3): Are the activities sufficient and helpful towards students’ learning? Role of teacher (Cunningsworth: Teachers’ book: Question 4): Does the textbook see the teacher's role as that of: guide, facilitator, manager of learning, director, monitor? Suggestions of improvement: How can the textbook be improved? (In cost and durability, recycling of vocabulary, illustration/layout?) Is there anything else you would like to add that you think did not provide by the checklist? Is there anything you would like to explain in detail pertaining to what was discussed? Revised Questions for Interview: After the feedback from my supervisor, the questions were revised for comprehensiveness and conciseness with two more questions (literature and exam related) added in. 1. Sufficiency: Is the textbook complete enough to stand on its own or must you - the teacher produce additional material? 2. Methodology: What approach/approaches to language learning are taken by the textbook? 3. Suitability to learners: Can the textbook accommodate all the different learning styles? If not can it be adapted to suit different needs of students? ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 145 4. Learning-teaching content: Are the three levels of difficulty grading on tasks helpful? For the weak/strong students? 5. Utilitarian: Do the textbook make demands on teachers’ preparation time? In what ways are they time consuming? What demands do they make on you as a teacher? and what about the students’ homework time? 6. Learning - teaching content: Are all the four skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking equally covered? Is there any skill/s which is/are omitted, and how can that be improved? 7. Efficient outlay of supplementary materials: Are the audio/visual materials up to par in terms of sound quality, speed of delivery, accent? Is the conversation authentic? Are there speakers of different nationalities voicing the scripts? (For listening and pronunciation) 8. Speaking: Do you think the exercises help to improve students’ speaking skills? What do you suggest (the exercises) to improve on? 9. Writing: Do you think the writing exercises improve students’ writing skills? What do you suggest (the exercises) to improve on? 10. Listening: Are the activities sufficient to the students? Are they helpful towards their learning of the skill? 11. Role of teacher: How does the textbook see the role of the teacher? (To suggest if the teacher has no answer: Is it as a guide, facilitator, manager of learning, director, monitor?) 12. Suggestions of improvement: How can the textbook be improved? (For example in cost and durability, recycling of vocabulary, illustration/layout …depending on the teacher’s responses in the checklist) 13. What is your opinion on the literature section of the textbook? Do you think it should be included in the book or should it be a separate section of its own? 14. Does the material prepare students for the examination? 15. Is there anything else you would like to add that you think did not provide by the checklist (e.g. sufficiency of the book in accordance to the assessment and the periods required to finish the book? Is there anything you would like to explain in detail pertaining to what was discussed? Appendix C - Interview Questions 1. Sufficiency: Is the textbook complete enough to stand on its own or must you - the teacher produce additional material? 2. Methodology: What approach/approaches to language learning are taken by the textbook? 3. Suitability to learners: Can the textbook accommodate all the different learning styles? If not can it be adapted to suit different needs of students? 4. Learning-teaching content: Are the three levels of difficulty grading on tasks helpful? For the weak/strong students? 5. Utilitarian: Do the textbook make demands on teachers’ preparation time? In what ways are they time consuming? What demands do they make on you as a teacher? and what about the students’ homework time? 6. Learning - teaching content: Are all the four skills of reading, writing, listening and speaking equally covered? Is there any skill/s which is/are omitted, and how can that be improved? 7. Efficient outlay of supplementary materials: Are the audio/visual materials up to par in terms of sound quality, speed of delivery, accent? Is the conversation authentic? Are there speakers of different nationalities voicing the scripts? (For listening and pronunciation) 8. Speaking: Do you think the exercises help to improve students’ speaking skills? What do you suggest (the exercises) to improve on? ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 146 9. Writing: Do you think the writing exercises improve students’ writing skills? What do you suggest (the exercises) to improve on? 10. Listening: Are the activities sufficient to the students? Are they helpful towards their learning of the skill? 11. Role of teacher: How does the textbook see the role of the teacher? (To suggest if the teacher has no answer: Is it as a guide, facilitator, manager of learning, director, monitor?) 12. Suggestions of improvement: How can the textbook be improved? (For example in cost and durability, recycling of vocabulary, illustration/layout …depending on the teacher’s responses in the checklist) 13. What is your opinion on the literature section of the textbook? Do you think it should be included in the book or should it be a separate section of its own? 14. Does the material prepare students for the examination? 15. Is there anything else you would like to add that you think did not provide by the checklist (e.g. sufficiency of the book in accordance to the assessment and the periods required to finish the book? Is there anything you would like to explain in detail pertaining to what was discussed? Appendix D - Form 4 and 5 Teachers’ Responses to Textbook Evaluation Checklist Below are the responses of the eighteen teachers surveyed marked in tick (✓) for Form 5 teachers and crosses ( X ) for Form 4’s. In accordance to the evaluating criteria presented to the teachers, the scale of (0-4) is used to indicate the level of importance of each criterion. The key is explained as follows: 0: Unimportant 1: Less important 2: Fairly important 3: Important 4: Very Important A similar score is given from the scale, for example a scale of 1 will carry a score of 1. The combined scores are then divided by the number of participants, which is nine for each group, to give the average score. The average score guide is as follows: 0: Very poorly favourable 1: Poorly favourable favourable 4: Very highly favourable 2: Moderately favourable 3: Highly ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHING TEXTBOOK CHECKLIST I. General attributes A. The book in relation to syllabus and curriculum 1. It matches to the specifications of the syllabus. 0 Average scores 1 X 2 ✓✓ X X 3 ✓✓✓✓ X X X X 4 ✓✓✓ X X 3 2 ✓ 3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓ X X X X X 4 ✓✓ 3 X 3 3 B. Methodology 2. The activities can be exploited fully and can embrace the various methodologies in ELT. 0 1 X X X 3. Activities can work well with methodologies in ELT. 0 1 X 2 X X 3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓✓ ✓ X X X X X 4 3 3 X ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 147 C. Suitability to learners 4. It is compatible to the age of the learners. 0 1 X 5. It is compatible to the needs of the learners. 0 2 ✓ 3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X X X 4 ✓✓ 3 X 3 2 ✓✓ X X 3 ✓✓✓✓ X X X X 4 ✓✓✓ X X 3 2 ✓✓ 3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓ X X X X 4 ✓✓ 3 X X 1 X 3 D. Physical and utilitarian attributes 6. Its layout is attractive. 7. It indicates efficient use of text and visuals. 0 0 1 X X X X 1 2 X X X X 8. It is durable. 9. It is cost-effective. 0 0 1 2 ✓✓ X X X X X 1 ✓ 2 ✓ 3 X 3 4 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓✓ ✓ X X X X X 3 3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓ X X X 4 ✓✓ 3 4 ✓✓ 3 2 X X X X X 3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓ X X X 3 1 2 ✓✓ X X X X 3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓ X X X 4 ✓✓ ‚2 ✓✓ X X X ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓ X X X „4 ✓✓ X X 3 ‚2 ✓ ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓ X X X X X „4 ✓✓ 3 ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X X „4 ✓✓ 3 X X E. Efficient outlay of supplementary materials 10. The book is supported efficiently by essentials like audio-materials. 0 X X 3 2 II. Learning-teaching content A. General 11. Tasks move from simple to complex. €0 1 X 12. Task objectives are achievable. €0 1 X X 13. Cultural sensitivities have been considered. €0 1 ‚2 X X X X X X X 2 3 3 3 ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 14. The language in the textbook is natural and real. 148 €0 ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X „4 ✓✓ ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓✓ ✓ X X X X X „4 ‚2 ✓✓ X X ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓ X X X X X „4 ✓✓ X 3 1 ‚2 ✓ „4 ✓✓ 3 X X X ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓ X X X X X 1 ‚2 „4 ✓ X X X ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓✓ X X X X X 1 ‚2 „4 ✓✓✓ X X X ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓ X X X X 1 ‚2 „4 ✓✓ X X X ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X X 1 ‚2 X X X X 15. The situations created in the dialogues sound natural and real. €0 1 ‚2 X X X X X X 3 3 3 3 B. Listening 16. The book has appropriate listening tasks with well-defined goals. €0 1 X 17. Tasks are efficiently graded according to complexity. 18. Tasks are authentic or close to real language situations. €0 €0 3 X X 3 3 C. Speaking 19. Activities are developed to initiate meaningful communication. 20. Activities are balanced between individual response, pair work and group work. €0 €0 X X X X 3 3 3 3 D. Reading 21. Texts are graded. 22. Texts are interesting. €0 €0 1 ‚2 ✓✓✓ X X X X 1 ‚2 ✓ X X X ƒ3 „ 4 ✓✓✓✓ ✓ ✓ X X X X X 3 ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X X 4 ✓ 3 X X 3 3 ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 149 E. Writing 23. Tasks have achievable goals and take into consideration learner capabilities. €0 1 ‚2 ✓ X X 24. Tasks are interesting. €0 1 ‚2 ✓ X X „ 4 ƒ3 ✓ ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X X X X X 3 ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X X X X 4 ✓ 3 X 3 ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓ X X X X X X X 4 ✓✓ 3 X 3 ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X X X X X 4 ✓ 3 ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓ X X X 4 3 X 3 ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓✓ ✓ X X X X X X 4 3 ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X X X 4 ✓ 3 X X 3 4 ✓ 3 X X 3 3 F. Vocabulary 25. The load (number of new words in each lesson) is appropriate to the level. €0 1 ‚2 ✓ X 26. There is a good distribution (simple to complex) of vocabulary load across chapters and the whole book. €0 1 ‚2 ✓ X X 27. Words are efficiently repeated and recycled across the book. €0 1 ‚2 ✓✓✓ X X X X X 3 G. Grammar 28. The spread of grammar is achievable. €0 1 ‚2 X X 29. The grammar is contextualized. €0 1 ‚2 ✓ X X 30. Examples are interesting. €0 1 ‚2 ✓ X X X ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X X X ALLS 6(4):128-150, 2015 31. Grammar is introduced explicitly and reworked incidentally throughout the book. 150 €0 1 ‚2 ✓ X X X 1 ‚2 ✓ ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓ X X X X X X „4 ✓✓ ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X X X „4 ✓ ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X X X X „4 ✓ ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X X X „4 ✓ ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓ X X X „4 ✓ ƒ3 ✓✓✓✓ ✓✓✓ X X X „4 3 3 H. Pronunciation 32. It is contextualized. €0 X X X 33. It is learner-friendly with no complex charts. €0 1 ‚2 ✓ X X X X 3 3 3 3 I. Exercises 34. They are learner friendly. €0 1 ‚2 ✓ X X X 35. They are adequate. €0 1 ‚2 ✓✓ X X X X X 36. They help students who are under/overachievers. €0 1 ‚2 ✓✓ X X X X X X X X 3 3 3 3 3 3 Source: Mukundan and Nimechisalem (2012: 1132) Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Overcoming Learning Time And Space Constraints Through Technological Tool Nafiseh Zarei (Corresponding author) School of Language Studies and Linguistics, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia E-mail: nafiseh_zarei@yahoo.com Supyan Hussin School of Language Studies and Linguistics, Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia E-mail: supyanukm@yahoo.com Taufik Rashid School of Public Administration, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia E-mail: taufik@ukm.my Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.151 Received: 01/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.151 Accepted: 07/06/2015 Abstract Today the use of technological tools has become an evolution in language learning and language acquisition. Many instructors and lecturers believe that integrating Web-based learning tools into language courses allows pupils to become active learners during learning process. This study investigate how the Learning Management Blog (LMB) overcomes the learning time and space constraints that contribute to students’ language learning and language acquisition processes. The participants were 30 ESL students at National University of Malaysia. A qualitative approach comprising an open-ended questionnaire and a semi-structured interview was used to collect data. The results of the study revealed that the students’ language learning and acquisition processes were enhanced. The students did not face any learning time and space limitations while being engaged in the learning process via the LMB. They learned and acquired knowledge using the language learning materials and forum at anytime and anywhere. Keywords: learning time, learning space, learning management blog 1. Introduction With the significant entry of technology, the traditional way of English teaching and learning had considerably changed. Technology has made so many opportunities available to make teaching and learning interesting. In addition, with the help of technology, teaching and learning may become more productive in terms of improvements and enhancements. Therefore, technology is one of the most important drivers of both social and linguistic changes. Today, accessing technology can help learners learn language even outside the classroom without teacher’s attendance. In other words, with the help of technology and integrating social networks into language classes, students would be able to be involved in language learning and acquisition processes continuously at anytime and anywhere. Blog, which is one of the internet media, can be a kind of language learning platform where students can interact with each other by sharing ideas, experiences and thoughts with no learning time and space boundaries. Students can make use of the language learning materials even though they are not in the classroom. Supyan et al. (2009) believed that “unlike the face-to-face discussion in the classroom that is limited by learning space and time, e-Forums allow teachers and learners to interact with one another outside of the four walls and specified time”. Various technological tools can be integrated as tools or platforms in learners’ language learning. “Within L2 contexts, blog provides an alternative to writing assignments that would normally be presented to the instructor. The chronological ordering of blog entries creates for each student an archive of their personal work that they can, and do, revisit and reflect upon (Thorne and Payne, 2005)”. A wide number of researchers (Duber 2002; Campbell 2003; Downes 2005; Brian 2006) have indicated that the potential of synchronous Web 2.0 tools is represented by the opportunity provided to learners to be involved in outside classroom activities where they learn through interaction and connectivity. This potential even more is realized especially when they are applied to traditional classroom situations where printed materials or textbooks represent the only source for language learning and language acquisition and teachers are the facilitators. Moreover, these technological tools play a role in enhancing ESL students’ learning motivation, autonomy, attitude and even general language learning performance (Kabilan et al. 2010; Mazman and Usluel 2010; Pasfield-Neofitou 2011). The application of blogs to ESL learning has been investigated by many previous researchers. The investigation of these studies has focused on different aspects of blog in relation to language learning and teaching. Most of the studies ALLS 6(4):151-157, 2015 152 focused on the learners’ perceptions and attitudes towards language learning using technology. For example, Hong et al. (2003) conducted a study among Malaysian learners on the success of technology and internet-enriched teaching and learning environment in moulding positive attitudes. The focus of the study was on the students’ attitudes towards using the Internet as a learning platform. Data were collected via survey questionnaires. The findings of the study showed that the learners had positive attitudes towards using the Internet as a learning tool, adequate basic knowledge of the Internet, and illustrated the learning environment as supportive of using the Internet for learning. So, this study is significant as it focused on both teaching and learning aspects. Sun (2009) also conducted a study on the emerging themes characterize perceptions of participants' blog experiences. He focused on the learners’ learning processes and learning strategies in voice-blog activities. The findings of the study proved that students improved a series of blog stages, including conceptualizing, brainstorming, articulation, monitoring, and evaluating, and used different types of strategies to deal with blog-related difficulties. In addition, the students perceived blog as a means of learning, selfpresentation, information exchange, and social networking. In Arabic context, Al-Fadda and Al-Yahya (2010) investigated a study on the students’ experiments of using blogs to encourage themselves to do pre-class reading assignment and reflections after class. They focused on students’ attitudes towards the use of blogs. The findings of the study showed that there was a positive attitude towards the use of blogs for pre-class preparation and post-class reflections. Yet, considering the successful experience, it is vital to consider the size of the sample, students’ educational level, and the type of reading assignment as well. Waely and Aburezeq (2013) explored pre-service Arabic language teachers’ perceptions of using the blog as a learning tool, and the defects of collaborating via the blog. The findings of the study indicated that the participants perceived the course blog as a powerful application to improve their learning through facilitating active interaction with the instructor, peers and course content. Finally, (Zarei and Al-Shboul 2013) conducted a qualitative study on Jordanian EFL learners’ perceptions towards language learning via blog. They found that the learners perceived the blog as an interesting and helpful learning tool since interacting via blog helped them improve their English language skills as well as their communication skill based on peer feedback. In terms of students’ perceptions towards using language learning blogs, Halic et al. (2010) also explored whether or not the use of blogs in a large lecture class would enhance students' perceived language learning. The findings of the study showed that while a majority of the students reported that blog enhanced their learning and led them to think about course concepts outside the classroom, fewer perceived value in peer comments. Furthermore, Sujud and Abd Rahim (2013) investigated the use of blog writing from the perspective of Korean learners learning the Malay language as a foreign language. The findings of their study showed that the blog helped the Korean students in learning the Malay literature. In addition, based on the findings of the study, the students became more motivated and confident in writing, especially in the Malay language. It is worth stating that Luo and Gao (2012) examined students’ learning experiences in a set of structured micro-blog-based class activities in an exploratory study with a small sample size. The results of the study indicated that the structure provided by the instructor in the micro-blog activities allowed the learners to focus on the learning content as well as participate actively. The findings of their study also revealed that, after the class activities, the students had an increased positive attitude towards the educational use of micro-blog after the class activities. A study by Hourigan and Murray (2010) focused on the pedagogical and support role of the teacher as well as considering the content of learners’ reflective output throughout the course in the blog. The findings of the study showed that integrating blog into the language classroom is not a straightforward issue and it requires a great deal of groundwork beforehand in order to validate its inclusion in any type of academic course. In a sense, the teacher should ideally provide a structured and dependable guidance framework which learners can access in times of self doubt or difficulty. Furthermore, Ozkan (2011) carried out a study to provide a picture of a group of English Language Teaching (ELT) learners reflecting on their experience drawn from a blog facility used as a tool for sharing and commenting on peer performance in classroom setting. The findings of the study illustrated that blog experience had both positive and negative aspects. For the positive aspects of using blog, the findings showed that the Turkish EFL learners enhanced writing skill and self evaluation. In addition, they made use of the provided tool to reinforce peer to peer feedback and communication. On the other hand, negativity regarding the issues dealt with in this study tackled through continuous observation, training and awareness raising. Finally, a study by Zarei and Supyan (2014) showed that the learning management blog assisted the students to develop their independent learning interest as well as their motivation to use the English language learning materials in the learning management blog. As it is obvious that the above studies have investigated the use of blog in education. Nevertheless, none of the above studies focused on how the LMB overcomes the learning time and space constraints that contribute to learner's language learning and language acquisition processes. Based on the data obtained from the need analysis carried out in the same course with 30 students, the researchers realised the students’ problems in terms of learning in the classroom. The students voiced out that although the teacher provides them with some language learning materials related to the course, however they are still in need for extra learning materials in order to do their class assignments and tasks. In addition, they pointed out that the time limitation in the classroom never allows them to have sufficient discussion and interaction with the teacher as well as their classmates; therefore, they require more opportunities for sharing their knowledge and understanding with their classmates. Based on the students’ feedback, attending the English course twice per week was not enough to improve their English skills. By studying the students’ problems and needs, the LMB was created to overcome the learning time and space constraints that contribute to student's language learning and language acquisition processes. ALLS 6(4):151-157, 2015 153 2. Method Purposive sampling was applied to carry out this qualitative study. The sample involved 30 ESL students who attended the English Course at National University of Malaysia. The researchers used semi-structured interview and open-ended questionnaire in order to gain rich data to the objective of the study. The obtained data were analyzed qualitatively using content analysis. 3. Findings The open-ended questionnaires were distributed to the students at the end of the semester. The students were given sufficient time in order to answer the questions patiently and clearly. The 30 students were also interviewed at the end of the semester. The interview questions were interrelated and interdependent to the questions asked in the open-ended questionnaire, because the researchers believe by recycling the questions from different perspectives, they will gain indepth and rich information to answer the research questions of the study. In the open-ended questionnaire, the students were asked to share their opinions about the time they had for answering the questions in the LMB. According to the students’ responses, the researchers realized that the students never had difficulties to answer the questions in the LMB as there were no learning time and space constraints for them to take part in the LMB activities. They all agreed that having sufficient time to answer the questions was a significant factor in order to think deeply and carefully about the questions. Based on their answers, they always had difficulties to answer the teacher’s questions in the classroom due to the limitation of time. They mentioned that most of the times they were not given sufficient time to answer the teacher’s questions, while they did not have such problems for answering the questions in the LMB. 27 students believed that learning via the LMB was a continuous learning process in which they were able to log in the LMB and start learning at anytime and anywhere. For example, one of the students mentioned that: “As a matter of fact, it was very good opportunity for me participate in the blog at any time. No have specific time for participation in the blog make me more motivated to learn English. For the questions, I always tried to think very carefully and deep first and then post my answer in there. I have the chance to even discuss with others or get some information about the answer from the material in the menu before I posting my answers there. That was very good”. (R6) In the interview, the students were asked to share their opinions about the time they had for answering the questions in the LMB and in the classroom. All in all, their answers were in line with the feedback that the researchers received from the question in the open-ended questionnaire. The students believed that due to having sufficient time to answer the questions in the LMB, they were able to think carefully and post their answers and ideas. They mentioned that having insufficient time to answer the teacher’s questions in the classroom was the problem that sometimes made them stressful. “I think that is a good question. For me, I was very happy that we have enough time to read the questions and prepare myself to answer them in the blog. Actually, when I have enough times I can think more and also sometimes I can search about my answers also and then only post them in the blog. It was really helpful. I think sometimes we have these problems about timing in the class. When we want to write our ideas and answers in the class, we don’t have many time or sometimes we feel stress”. (R15) Moreover, the researchers asked about the students’ feelings when they already knew that there was no time constraint for participating in the LMB activities. Based on the students’ responses, the researchers found that the students were satisfied as there was no time limitation to share and post their ideas and views. 26 students stated that they became more interested and willing in participating in the LMB because they had the opportunity to reply to their friends’ posts at any time. In addition, 4 students mentioned that they never felt nervous or uncomfortable since they had enough time to post their ideas and interact with their classmates in the LMB. Thus, they always took part in the LMB activities in a relaxed and calm mood which helped them learn more enthusiastically. “For me, it was very good that we don’t have any time limitation to write in the blog. Actually I opened the blog in my free time especially in the weekends to participate in the forum and also read the tips and also watch the speaking video. I was so happy and relax to do all these things in my free time”. (R1) In the interview session, the students were also asked to share their opinions regarding the time they had for answering the questions or posting comments on the LMB. All students strongly agreed that having no time limitation in the LMB for answering the questions, uploading their class assignments, posting their information, sharing their thoughts, and asking questions from each other helped them improve their language learning. Based on their responses, the researchers discovered that the students were happy and relaxed as they were not given any specific time to post or comment on the LMB. According to the students’ feedback, learning time and space constraints affect the process of learning. Referring to the classroom time which was four hours per week, the students never had enough time to ask their teacher about their problems and difficulties they had regarding their class assignments as well as English language skills. They mentioned ALLS 6(4):151-157, 2015 154 that, having time limitation in the classroom, sometimes creates stress and tension. They believe that, limitations of learning time and space make them panic and stressful which leads them to feel uncomfortable and sometimes confused. Such problems disturb the process of language learning and language acquisition. The students stated that they were able to answer the questions in the LMB patiently, carefully and cautiously. They always had sufficient time to think twice in order to share their ideas and thoughts with the peers in the LMB. In other words, all students agreed that the LMB reduced their stress and anxiety during the learning process. “As for me, the time was always very good. Especially when there is a question in the discussion forum for us, I answered the question and I am able to take my long time to think about the answer. Nothing was push me. Unlike the class, I had enough time to think deep about everything. My focus was more. Therefore, I really prefer to comment and share my opinions in discussion forum rather than the sharing my ideas in the class. It was more better and it give more time to think deep”. (R9) Another question in the semi-structured interview was formulated to find out the students’ opinions about continuous learning in the LMB. 22 out of 30 students voiced out that learning via the LMB was more affective and helpful as compared to the traditional way of learning in the classroom. Based on the students’ responses, by attending the English course for four hours, the learning process would not be continuous; while by using the LMB outside the class they were still involved in the language learning and language acquisition processes anywhere and anytime. They believe that, continuous learning is very helpful and make them more motivated to learn and acquire more knowledge. The students mentioned that the opportunity of forgetting lessons, tips, techniques and skills is more when the learning process is not continuous. According to the students’ feedback, by having a non-stop learning environment such as the LMB, not only they are able to keep practicing the English language skills but also they remember the lessons, tips and significant points which were mentioned by the teacher in the classroom. “In fact, when we learn continuously definitely it is more useful. For me, attending the class only two times per week isn’t enough. Sometimes I forget some important lessons or things that my teacher teach me, so when I open the blog to practice, automatically I can remember those things which I forget. Even I can see that my friend post about those lessons also. So, it also will help me to practice again and more than two times in week. This is really good because I can always open the blog and improve my English”. (R16) The students stated that, by having no limitation with regard to learning time and space, they improved their English language learning and language acquisition due to the following reasons. They believed that they are more motivated to learn when there is no learning time limit or space barrier. Based on 3 students’ opinions and feedback, they became more interested in learning English. According to them, learning time and space limitation cause some difficulties such as: not having enough time to get engaged in learning and acquisition processes, having less interaction and discussion with the teacher as well as the classmates, and losing interest and motivation. “I can say that learning continuously is very useful. For example, by using the blog during this semester I really improve my English, because I have chance to use the blog and the contents to practice English language more. So, no need to wait only for the class and my teacher to learn. Have interaction continuously with my friends really help me to improve my English skill. This semester I become more motivated to learn English if I compared to the previous semester. I want to say that I used the blog many times per week in this semester, so I learn a lot of things more than learning in the class”. (R24) The next question was set in order to find out how the students felt when they already knew that there was no time constraint for participating in the LMB activities. Based on the students’ responses the researchers found that all students were satisfied and happy as they were not given any specific time to answer the questions in the LMB, discussing and interacting with others, sharing their ideas, posting their tasks, and making use of the provided language learning materials in the LMB. According to the feedback given by the students, it can be concluded that having no learning time and space limitations made them feel more confident, motivated, relaxed and convenient. They stated that as long as they were already informed that there was no specific time for participating in the LMB activities, they never felt anxious, stressed, being in a hurry to come up with the answers to the questions or be engaged in the interaction. They all believe that the pressure of time always makes them feel uncomfortable and it will lead them not to think deeply and carefully about the questions, topics as well as the lessons. Here is one example of what the students mentioned: “In fact, because we don’t have specific time for post our comments and assignments. it helped me to do my assignments more carefully. Also, help me to share my problems with my friends in the discussion forum before submit to my teacher and even before to upload my assignments in the blog. I was more confident when I can learn from the learning materials and also from my classmates’ ideas because at any time we were free we log in and learn something. The time was not less to do all things”. (R19) Another question in the open-ended questionnaire was formulated in order to find out whether or not the students were stressed while answering the questions in the LMB. By receiving the students’ responses, the researchers found that the ALLS 6(4):151-157, 2015 155 students were never tense or anxious while participating in the LMB activities because there was no time limitation. They were able to discuss their class assignments and tasks with peers in their free time and improve their writing and tasks. Some of the students believed that feelings of stress and panic appear when they face lack of time. “Actually, I was never stress or nervous when answering the questions in the forum. I think this is because I have enough time to think about the answers to the question in the blog. So, I post my responses in the blog in good mood in my room patient. Sometimes I got help from the tips and videos in the blog to answer more better also. Because I had enough time to read learning materials and then share my idea in the blog to improve my informations and also my outline”. (R7) 27 out of 30 students mentioned that they get stressful and tense when they want to answer the teacher’s questions in the classroom due to having only a few minutes to come up with the answers. According to them, feelings of stress and anxiety affect their learning processes. “I think it is very good idea that there no specific time to answering the question in the blog. So I was always relax and comfortable to think and reply to all questions. In the class sometimes I get very stressful when I want to answer to teacher because he don’t give me a long time to think twice. Also, I prefer to learn by blog more than the class because I never stressful”. (R11) In the interview session, the students were also asked a question regarding their feelings while answering the questions about their class assignments in the LMB. 24 students agreed that they felt comfortable and relaxed to answer the questions in the LMB. They all believe that answering the questions in the classroom makes them stressful especially when the teacher asks them to answer a question orally. Based on their feedback, the feelings of stress and anxiety appear when they face lack of time to think of the answers and come up with the answer. They believe that answering the questions in the LMB did not make them stressful because they always had time to think deeply and search for the answers to the questions. 6 students voiced out that they become stressful in the classroom while answering the questions because they are shy to speak in the classroom. Feeling of shyness was the reason why they became stressful while answering the questions to the teacher. They agreed that answering the questions in the LMB never made them anxious because they felt very relaxed to think about the answers and post their ideas. One of the students’ answers is as following: “Well, I think participating in the blog never make me stressful. The reason can be the environments or also time. Sometimes I participates in the blog in my room, coffee shop or even library. I like the quite environment when I want to share my ideas in the blog. Also, there is no time pressure for me to answer the questions or also to share my ideas. But in the class, I sometimes feel stress because of the teacher presence and even my classmates”. (R13) Eventually, based on the students’ feedback via the open-ended questionnaire and semi-structured interview, it is obvious that the students did not feel anxious or stressed while participating in the LMB activities due to having sufficient time. They felt comfortable and relaxed to think deeply and post their opinions and task on the LMB, since there was no specific time allocated for their participation to make them stressful. In other words, they had the freedom of choosing their own times to post their ideas and tasks during the semester as well as getting involved in the discussion with their group members. Based on the responses given by the students, learning in the classroom sometimes is stressful due to being shy or having insufficient time to get prepared to answer the teacher’s questions. In addition, the students participated in the LMB activities and made use of the language learning materials as well as the interaction due to having sufficient time. 4. Discussion of findings The students made use of the scaffolding facilities by reading the language learning materials at any time. By referring to Vygotsky’s constructivism theory (1978), scaffolding refers to a kind of support that can be provided by both teachers and students. The scaffolding assists students to gain their learning objectives at their current level of ability. The LMB environment played as a scaffolding system in which the students exchanged their experiences and thoughts with each other in order to improve their understanding. According to the students’ feedback, due to not having the limitations of time and space, the students made use of the scaffolding in a relaxed mood at anytime anywhere. They learned independently outside the classroom by using the language learning materials offered in the LMB. The processes allow the students to be active participants in developing their own understanding of important concepts and achieve their learning goals (Peters et al. 2003). Students can learn best when they can discuss and exchange their understanding with others. As Vygotsky believed that learning happens within the ZPD, and the purpose of learning is to build new abilities. He also asserted that social-recognition development and stated that social interactions are the basis of the internalization process. The student's purpose is to transform social knowledge into individual knowledge. Based on the students’ responses, the time given for the English course was not sufficient for them to improve their English language skills. They believe that the limitations of learning time and space do not allow them to have sufficient amount of sharing ideas and suggestions in the classroom. That is in line with Bloch (2004) who stated that ALLS 6(4):151-157, 2015 156 “blog enables individuals to express their thoughts at their own pace and in their own space so that, in contrast to traditional classroom settings, blog learners do not have to compete with their classmates for the instructor’s attention”. By providing sufficient learning time and the opportunity of having a continuous learning system, the students enhanced their language learning and language acquisition processes. Black (2005) believes that “Unlike traditional teaching where the instructor or a few students may dominate the discussion, the blog allows all voices to be heard. Even those students who may be intimidated by speaking in front of their peers, or those who need more time to respond are easily able to express their thoughts more freely and descriptively”. Krashen (1987) believes that comprehensible input is a sufficient condition for language acquisition and he also asserts that no language will be acquired in the presence of the affective filter. This means it is easier for the student to acquire a language when she/he is not tense, nervous, or board. If the students feel nervous or tense during the learning process, they will learn neither the contents nor a new language, even if the input is comprehensible. Higher affective filters prevent them from successfully processing input. In other words, low filter can help the learners become more open to the language input. The strength of the filter itself is determined by affective factors of learner anxiety, self-confidence, and motivation. By making use of the comprehensive inputs provided in the LMB the students learned and acquired the language. They were involved in the learning and acquisition processes comfortably. As it is mentioned earlier, the students agreed that sometimes they feel stressed out while learning in the classroom due to lack of time. Based on the students’ feedback, some of the students were not feeling comfortable in the classroom because they felt shy or less confident to speak in English Language because of poor speaking skill. The feeling of anxious and stress can affect the whole learning process. On the other hand, they believe that they never felt stressful and board while learning via the LMB and sharing their ideas and tasks in the forum. According to their responses, they were satisfied to have enough time to answer the questions in the LMB, share their ideas, and make use of the language learning materials. Hanson-Smith (2001) stated that “blog provides a safer and more relaxed environment for language learners, especially for the shy or less confident ones”. Based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1943), safety refers to shelter, including a sense of familiarity and comfort. According to him, without safety, people feel worried and uncertain. Whereas learning through online platforms such as the LMB, potentially eases some stressful factors found in a traditional classroom setting such as: limitation of flexibility with time and location as well as boundary of learning space. According to the obtained data, the students were relaxed and comfortable while using the LMB as they were not tense or worried. 5. Conclusion The results of the study showed that the LMB played an important role as a language learning platform outside the classroom. The scaffolding language learning materials in the LMB assisted the students to enhance their language learning and language acquisition processes and made them independent learners. Having sufficient learning time was one of the significant factors that helped them make use of the provided language learning guides and interact with one another in the LMB. Due to not facing learning time and space limitations, the students improved their knowledge and information in a peaceful online platform. Hence, integrating the LMB into the English language classes is very helpful and supportive in order to compensate the constraints of learning time and space as well as enhancing students’ language learning and language acquisition processes. References Al-Fadda, H. Al.-Yahya, M. (2010). Using web blogs as a tool to encourage pre-class reading, post-class reflections and collaboration in higher education. US-China Education Review, 7, 7, 100-106. Black, A. (2005). The Use of asynchronous discussion: Creating a text of talk. Contemporary Issues in Technology and Teacher Education, 5, 1, 5-24. Bloch, J. (2004). Second language cyber rhetoric: A study of Chinese L2 writers in an online usenet group. Language Learning & Technology, 8, 3, 66-82. Brian, A. (2006). Web 2.0. A new wave of innovation for teaching and learning? Educause Review 41,2. Campbell, A. P. (2003). Weblogs for use with ESL classes. The Internet TESL Journal 9(2). Downes, S. (2005). E-learning 2.0. eLearn Magazine. Trade Journals. Duber, J. (2002). Mad blogs and English(men). TESL-EJ, 6(2). Halic, O., Lee, D., Paulus, T. & Spence, M. (2010). To blog or not to blog: Student perceptions of blog effectiveness for learning in a college-level course. The Internet and Higher Education 13(4). 206-213. Hanson Smith, E. (2001). Computer assisted language learning. In R. Carter, & D. Nunan (Eds.), The Cambridge guide to teaching English to speakers of other languages. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. 107-113. Hong, K. S., Ridzuan, A. A., & Kuek, M. K. (2003). Students' attitudes toward the use of the Internet for learning: A study at a university in Malaysia. Educational Technology & Society 6, 2, 45-49. Hourigan, T. & Murray, L. (2010). Using blogs to help language students to develop reflective learning strategies: Towards a pedagogical framework. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 26, 2, 209-225. Kabilan, M. K., Ahmad, N. & Zainol Abidin , M., J. (2010). Facebook: An online environment for learning of English in institutions of higher education? The Internet and Higher Education, 13, 4. ALLS 6(4):151-157, 2015 157 Krashen, S. D. (1987). Principles and practice in second language acquisition. Prentice-hall International. Luo, T. & Gao, F. (2012). Enhancing classroom learning experience by providing structures to microblog-based activities. Journal of Information Technology Education: Innovations in Practice, 11, 199-211. Maslow, A. H. (1943). A Theory of human motivation. Psychological Review, 50, 4, 370- 396. Mazman, S. G. & Usluel, Y. K. (2010). Modeling educational usage of facebook. Computers & Education, 55, 2. Ozkan, Y. (2011). Blog in a teaching skills course for pre-service teachers of English as a second language. Australasian Journal of Educational Technology & Society, 27, 4, 655-670. Pasfield-Neofitou, S. (2011). Online domains of language use: second language learners‘experiences of virtual community and foreignness. Language Learning & Technology, 15, 2. Peters, J., Cornu, R. L & Collins, J. (2003). Towards constructivist teaching and learning (Report on research conducted in conjunction with the learning to learn project). Magill: University of South Australia. Sujud, A. & Abd Rahim, N. (2013). Learning through blog. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 7, 1, 191-198. Supyan, H., Norizan, A., R. & Dalia, S. Q. (2009). Developing blogs: New dimension in language teacher education. Paper presented Teaching and Learning of English in Asia (TLEiA Three), Orchid Garden Hotel. Brunei Darussalam. Thorne, S. & Payne, J. (2005). Evolutionary trajectories, internet-mediated expression, and language education. Calico Journal, 22, 3, 371-397. Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). Mind and society: The development of higher mental processes. Waely, S. A., & Aburezeq, I. M. (2013). Using blogs to facilitate interactive and effective learning: perceptions of preservice Arabic teachers. Journal of Language Teaching and Research, 4, 5, 975-985. Zarei, N. & Al-Shboul, Y. (2013). Participating in a blog: Jordanian EFL learners' voices. English Linguistics Research, 2, 2, 53-59. Zarei, N. & Supyan, H. (2014). Impact of learning management blog on students’ language learning and acquisition. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies, 14, 3, 51-63. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Better Education at Ishik University Preparatory School with Extracurricular Activities Yunus Yildiz Ishik University, Department of Languages, Suleimania, Iraq E-mail: yunus.yildiz@ishik.edu.iq Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.158 Received: 05/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.158 Accepted: 08/06/2015 Abstract It cannot be said that education today in institutions is better than the previous century. Because in the past, students’ mind was not as full of time-consuming things like spending enormous time in front of a computer or a television as today. Subsequently, teachers used to concentrate their job well and students used to focus on the study better because there was nothing serious except studying. On the other hand, it can be said that the youth today are not eager to learn as yesterday. Because of the fact that they are economically free and supported, they do not worry about failing in the exams supposing that they can possess the questions somehow easily and pass the exams. As a result, they think that whatever they want, they can simply gain without pain. Doing homework or extra studies are a torture from students' perspective. As lecturers we are we have to find much more tactics to motivate students in this education era. Hence, extracurricular activities might play a great role for motivating them to study and on their study achievement if they are used in institutions effectively. In my research article educators’ observations and extracurricular activities’ positive impact on weak language learners will be mentioned. Keywords: Extracurricular, impact, observation, education, achievement 1. Introduction Lecturers’ responsibility today is much more difficult than comparing to last decades. It is indeed hard to draw not only the instructors but also the students into teaching and learning process. Educators should be sophisticated, skillful, and good at computer and managing skills. Moreover, educators should be more motivated, patient and motivators to cause a great impact on students’ study performance. As I have been teaching for about 17 years in all level of institutions to teach English to learners as a foreign language, it can be said that students are given too much homework to prepare in very short time. In the beginning of academic semester, it seems to be fun for language learners with a great craving to hand their homework in time. However, doing homework or studying English turns into a nightmare or a torture some weeks later due to educators’ experience. Therefore, studying and fulfilling homework and keeping up in the same speed to learn English are difficult and challenging exertion for students. In the end, students’ appetite to study is lost. Especially, if you are a lecturer in a very hot land and the academic year is only 24 weeks for preparatory school students, you will have to find many technics or tactics to draw students’ mind to lessons. The fact is that, there is an intensive curriculum in the schedule and language teachers have to cope with it. Moreover, educators are supposed to take students from starter level to intermediate level to make them successful students in their educational departments. Frankly, it is out of standards and reality. But, according to year by year Ishik University Preparatory School students’ academic success performance chart shows that students are approximately %85 successful in the end of (24) weeks education and only %15 of students are called to summer school that takes one month and %90 of summer school students succeed in the final exams. It demonstrates that Ishik Preparatory School somehow expands students’ knowledge of English to an efficient level before the next academic year and can be described as a successful institution. There are many factors that support the belief that Ishik University is a successful educational institution. According to teachers’ observations, what relies beyond this fact can be explained by teachers and students’ motivation, their close relationship and continuous education without interval. To succeed in this attempt some vital actions below should be taken into account. 1-Weeekly summit with administration, level coordinators and lecturers, 2-Motivating lecturers as giving targets and controlling them in weekly summits, 3-Assigning class supervisors as extracurricular activity organizers for each language class, 4-Organizing extracurricular activity programs after lessons, 5-Motivational picnics both for lecturers and students should be arranged twice a year. ALLS 6(4):158-161, 2015 159 1.1 Weekly Summits Summits are the first requirements for reaching the right decision and two lots of knowledge are better than one. Therefore, gathering once a week and sharing and contribution are something beneficial in education year in need. The role of summits in preparatory school is crucial for administration staff and level instructors to check if the language classes are taking the course in the same pace. Because, there might be some lecturers that teaching fast and the techniques that they use might be out of date. But, there is no need to take the summits too long as it is high time to take an action instead of discussing and talking about matters. 1.2 Motivating Lecturers As educators working in prestigious institutions; the way that they talk, wear or behave are all the time observed in and out of the building. As a matter of fact, educators should reflect all universal etiquette while working and teaching (Sünbül, 1996). On the other hand, as being humans, it is hard to control our behavior in case of misbehavior or disrespect coming from students or/and educators’ personal problems that run in their mind while teaching (Dörnyei, Z., & Kubanyiova, M. 2014). This kind of stuff is demotivating factor for lecturers and affects the way the lecturer teaches students. Considering this issue, level coordinators and administration should think about some responsibilities to give lecturers like presentation lessons once a month and giving innovative comments to develop the lecturers’ quality of teaching, and organize some seminar programs in short holidays. Because, the more the lecturers are busy at work, the better they give themselves to work. However actively lecturers work at preparatory school, it is substantial for the administrative to have a good communication with the staff. In addition, to handle this issue, educators can be taken to one week vacation in resort centers with their families either in Kurdistan or abroad on Nawroz holiday. Relaxation in the big Nawroz interval can lighten the burden that educators carry. 1.3 Assigning class supervisors as extracurricular activity organizers Teaching students have to be formal and fair in class but it is difficult and time-consuming to reach and educate all students at once. Therefore, it is essential to organize out of school activities to push students to learn English. This action can be led either by the lecturers or some capable and skillful students. Most of all, preparatory school administration should persuade the lecturers as talking about the importance of extracurricular activities. Classes should have supervisors and students should be convinced that by joining in ECAs which are led by the supervisors will take them into English world. Meanwhile, lecturers should be supported financially to arrange activities. 1.4 Organizing extracurricular activity programs after lessons Parents at home, lecturers at university face difficulties to make students learn. Because, students are usually embedded in face book or internet and after school, they are in the intention of leaving for home. They are given homework regularly but usually almost half of the class does not fulfill. They come to school early and copy their homework from other students if they know that they will be graded. As a result, in the beginning of the year, there should be meetings for students and parents separately to demonstrate the preparatory school system and expectations and presentations about extracurricular activities at preparatory school and their roles in learning English should be explained well. While first impression is known important, by taking precautions students can be embedded in ECA programs when it is planned easily. Extracurricular activities can be formal or informal. If it is organized in the school building relating to course subject, it is formal and sometimes called co-curricular activities. However, if it is something different such as playing tennis, football or an activity out of school like going to café or having picnics in the environment can be named informal. Whichever the activity that lecturers do with students should be led in English. Lingua franca should be just English. From the experiences and also researches, it can be stated that participation in ECAs contribute to students connect to the school community. Students see themselves members of the school and become devoted to lecturers as well. Programs prevent dropouts and teach students how to manage time. If students are satisfied with the things that happening around them and see the lecturers doing their best for their better learning, school atmosphere will change, students will learn better and will be in the intention of joining extracurricular programs staying for much more time after lessons. And after all, positive atmosphere will be created in the institution. 1.5 Motivational picnics Activities at university are memorable moments in students’ life. To motivate students and the staff, it is crucial to have a picnic once a term (Akay, C., & Anvarovich, A. A. 2015). The warm atmosphere between the lecturers and students can be supplied with picnics and “the happier people at university, the better results at school can be gained” can be said. Especially, picnics with students can be organized at the beginning of the year and before Nawroz holiday starts. By the means of healthy community, students will have a chance to have information about the lecturers’ attitudes to students and will improve their communication competence. 1.6 Extracurricular Activities’ Positive Impact on Weak English Learners Lots of educators say that ECAs have positive impacts on students’ learning. To make sure of this idea some ECAs were organized at Ishik University Suleimania Preparatory School. In the beginning of the first month of preparatory school nothing was done as ECAs. Because we needed time to see students’ capability and capacity to absorb the language they were learning. At the end of the one month language education, it appeared that there were two groups in the classroom as best learners and weak learners. Students were all as control group members for a month. In the ALLS 6(4):158-161, 2015 160 beginning of the second month, I selected only the students who were poor at English (just five students) as experiment group members for extracurricular activity program and we started testing and analyzing ECA for 40 minutes before the lessons at school five days a week. The students who had basic problems in the form of to be verb, helping verbs, pronouns, adjectives and adverbs, performed great interest and corrected their lacks after regular classes. Our activity program lasted just a month and now students are hopeful to achieve in the final exam. This ECA program caused students to discover and improve their abilities, connected them to school, taught them to work in a team and to use time efficiently and built up self-esteem. This is the proof that co-teaching activity programs will have positive impact on weak English language learners (Carless, D., & Walker, E. 2006).To handle this issue in Suleimania Ishik Prep School has not been hard to lead because of the number of students and their craving to learn English language. 2. Method As the number of students in Ishik University Suleimania branch is not many; only (18) students of preparatory school students participated in the filling the survey. The number of male students was (12) and the number of female students was (6).Their mean age ranged from (18) to (25). 2.1 Measures and Procedure The data was obtained from the 10- question questionnaire. The answers included (3) scales as; a) yes b) no c) I do not know. All students were in an English class. They were told that they would answer survey questions and the answer they gave to the questions would have a great role to arrange an ECA. After analyzing survey questions, new plans would be arranged to develop their English. Survey was delivered and students were allowed to select the best alternative. Some points were explained during their selection. Honest answers were expected. Because according to gained data, the plan would start. 3. Result As many scholars indicate that ECAs can lead students to higher educational success, help students to get better grades (Marsh, 1992 ) and students get higher scores in tests (Gerber, 1996); I have also come to the point that the students who are as constant participants to ECAs are much more dynamic and eager to learn than non-participants (see Appendix 1). Moreover, they are also sure that joining in ECAs brings them satisfaction and feel that they learn better and also students explain that ECAs make preparatory school unique comparing other institutions. Analyzing the survey questions we can say that students are happy to participate ECAs and they can learn better on condition that they are in ECAs and the best way to improve their English is participation in ECAs. 4. Conclusion Extracurricular activities are inevitably important in students’ language learning process. They connect students to school and students can get good communication with lecturers. They are encouraged to learn in a warm, informal atmosphere and have good friendship with their peers. On the other hand, to make all these things come true is up to the supervisors or ECA coachers’ limitless effort and patience. Moreover, we cannot separate school education with extracurricular activities because they are a significant part of education (Marsh, H. W., & Kleitman, S. 2002). References Akay, C., & Anvarovich, A. A. (2015). The Role of Teachers’ Motivation on the Language Learner’s Strategies. Asian Journal of Humanities and Social Studies, 3(1). Carless, D., & Walker, E. (2006). Effective team teaching between local and native-speaking English teachers. Language and Education, 20(6), 463-477. Dörnyei, Z., & Kubanyiova, M. (2014). Motivating learners, motivating teachers: Building vision in the language classroom. Gerber, S. B. (1996). Extracurricular activities and academic achievement.Journal of Research & Development in Education. Marsh, H. W. (1992). Extracurricular activities: Beneficial extension of the traditional curriculum or subversion of academic goals?. Journal of educational psychology, 84(4), 553. Marsh, H. W., & Kleitman, S. (2002). Extracurricular school activities: The good, the bad, and the nonlinear. Harvard Educational Review, 72(4), 464-515. Sünbül, A. M. (1996). Öğretmen niteliği ve öğretimdeki rolleri. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi Dergisi, 2(4), 597-608. ALLS 6(4):158-161, 2015 161 APPENDICES A1- QUESTIONNAIRE ITEM RESULTS ITEMS YES% NO% I HAVE NO IDEA% 1-Do you like the atmosphere you have in Ishik Preparatory School? 88 6 6 2-Is only coming to school enough for your education? - 100 - 3-Is it good to have extracurricular activities before or after lessons? 94 6 - 4-Do extracurricular activities help you to improve your English? 94 - 6 5-Do you think if school should go with extracurricular activities? 88 6 6 6-Do you think that you learn more in extracurricular activities than studying at home? 88 - 12 some time? 72 12 16 8-Is learning English fun with ECAs? 94 - 6 9-Do you enjoy language oriented ECAs in preparatory school? 84 10-Do you get motivated by ECAs in learning English process? 88 7-Do you think that students should deal with extracurricular activities every day for 16 6 6 A2-QUESTIONNAIRE FORM Dear student This data collection paper is prepared to find answer to the questions like what should be done and what is expected from your point of view from lecturers for your better learning English education in the field of extracurricular activities. It is expected from you to select the best alternative on your own. Think about the questions seriously and choose the answer that true for you. You should provide your name on the list. Because, according to your needs actions will be done. QUESTIONNAIRE ITEMS 1-Do you like the atmosphere you have in Ishik Preparatory School? a) yes b) no c) I have no idea 2-Is just coming to school for your education enough? a) yes b) no c) I have no idea 3-Is it good to have extracurricular activities before or after lessons? a) yes b) no c) I have no idea 4-Do extracurricular activities help you to improve your English? a) yes b) no c) I have no idea 5-Do you think “Ishik University Preparatory School” should go with extracurricular activities? a) yes b) no c) I have no idea 6-Do you think that you learn more in extracurricular activities than studying at home? a) yes b) no c) I have no idea 7-Do you think that students should deal with extracurricular activities every day for some time? a) yes b) no c) I have no idea 8-Is learning English fun with ECAs? a) yes b) no c) I have no idea 9-Do you enjoy language oriented ECAs in preparatory school? a) yes b) no c) I have no idea 10-Do you get motivated by ECAs in learning English process? a) yes b) no c) I have no idea Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Syllabus Design and Needs Analysis of Students in Educational System Zahra Bazyar Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistic, Vali-e-Asr University of Rafsanjan, Rafsanjan, Iran E-mail: Bazyar.academic@gmail.com Mehdi Dastpak (Corresponding author) Department of Foreign Languages, Jahrom University of Medical Sciences, Jahrom, Iran E-mail: Md_dataforse@yahoo.com Ali Taghinezhad Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran E-mail: taghinezhad1@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.162 Received: 04/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.162 Accepted: 09/06/2015 Abstract A syllabus is a plan showing the subjects or books to be studied in a particular course, especially a course that leads to an exam. There are various syllabuses available for different purposes. This article represents the classification of syllabuses regarding different authors' views and perspectives. The aim of this article, after depicting available syllabuses, is to state that in order to have the most useful syllabus in education, one which results in the best learning outcome for the students, the educational system should take its selection principles based on students' needs. Keywords: syllabus design, needs analysis, educational system 1. Introduction A syllabus is a well-written description; it is a plan about what to be included in the course for the learning objectives. Pienemann (1985) sees the syllabus as the selection and grading of linguistic teaching objectives. Breen (1984) sees it a plan of what is to be achieved through our teaching and our students' learning. And Candlin' view about syllabus is that: “Syllabuses are concerned with the specification and planning of what is to be learned, frequently set down in some written form as prescriptions for action by teachers and learners. They have, traditionally, the mark of authority. They are concerned with the achievement of ends, often, though not always, associated with the pursuance of particular means’’ (Candlin, 1984). For a syllabus to be effective, Littlefield (1999a) suggests 7 purposes: a setting tone for a course, a type of motivation for students to reach their academic goals, a planning tool for faculty, a structuring tool of the students' work, and a contract between faculty and students about their expectations. Stec (2011) identifies five factors for syllabus implementation: lesson aims, content, procedures, syllabus users (teachers, learners), and teaching materials. 2. Syllabus classifications 2.1 Schools in syllabus design There are three important views about syllabus design: Lancaster school, London school, and Toronto school. The first trend, Lancaster school, which is represented by Candlin and Breen (1980), has reacted against the notion of a fixed syllabus which can be planned, pre-ordained, and imposed on teachers and students. A matter of focus for this group is not a choice between structure and functional syllabus. Every syllabus for this group is regarded as open and negotiable (This group believes that the curriculum would be negotiated by the teacher and a group of learners). The second trend, London school, is represented by Brumfit (1984) and Widdowson (1987). This school argues that the Lancaster view is extreme and unrealistic. This group put forward what they considered a more realistic approach. According to Widdowson, a syllabus is necessary, economical, and thus useful. Like Candlin and Breen, he agrees with the idea of freedom for the teacher. He makes a distinction between syllabus and teaching methodology. Brumfit's beliefs are similar to Widdowson's idea as well. He sees a curriculum as a public statement serving all kinds of practical purposes. According to his view, a syllabus should be based on language, language learning, and language use. The third trend, Yalden's formulation (1984), is a bridge between the London school viewpoints and is called the Toronto School. She identifies the theoretical underpinnings of the syllabus content, which is similar to Brumfit's view. She doesn't agree with the learner's role in syllabus development, believing that the syllabus is primarily a teacher's statement about objectives and content. ALLS 6(4):162-165, 2015 163 2.2 Major syllabuses There are six major types of syllabuses, proposed by Krahnke (1987), which can be implemented in various teaching situations: A structural syllabus is a syllabus in which input is selected according to grammatical notions of simplicity and complexity. This syllabus includes a collection of the forms and structures, usually grammatical elements such as verbs, nouns, and so on. A notional/functional syllabus is based on communicative functions such as requesting, suggesting and agreeing. The content of the language in this syllabus is a collection of the functions that are to be performed when language is used, or of the notions that language is used to express. When first encountered the terms function and notion, many teachers are confused. In fact functions may be described as the communicative purposes for which we use language, while notions are the concept. A situational syllabus is based on the language needed for different situations such as at the airport or restaurant. It is an alternative to the grammatical syllabus. In this type of syllabus, a series of situations will form the organizing principle, and each situation is associated with a particular activity or task. A skill-based syllabus is organized around different abilities in a language which are used for different purposes such as reading. Learning a complex activity like listening is composed of skills and micro-skills. A content-based syllabus is not really a syllabus. It is organized around different themes, topics and other units of content. In this type of syllabus, the primary purpose of the instruction is to teach some content using the language that the students are learning. An example is a history class taught in the language the students need or want to learn. A task-based syllabus involves a series of complex and purposeful tasks that students complete in the target language. 2.3 Merits and demerits of syllabuses Structural syllabus selects patterns based on the time available, arranges the items into sequences to facilitate learning, and identifies grammatical items to allow for the development of communicative skills; but the problem is that this syllabus represents a partial dimension of language proficiency. Notional/functional syllabus provides a convenient framework for the design of teaching materials especially in listening and speaking. But grading functions has no clear criteria in this syllabus. In situational syllabus, language is taught in context, but this language, which is used in a specific situation, may not be transferred to other situations. In skill-based syllabus, skills are transferable to other situations, but there is no specific basis for determining skills. Content-based syllabus addresses the students' needs and motivates them. A problem with this syllabus is that it is hard to qualify ESL teachers to teach such a course. Problems with task-based syllabus is in its designing and selection. Another problem is that in this syllabus more focus is on fluency than accuracy. 2.4 Synthetic and analytic syllabuses Syllabuses can be characterized as being synthetic or analytic (Wilkins, 1976). In synthetic syllabuses different parts of language are taught separately so that acquisition is gradual accumulation of parts until the whole structure of language has been built up. The language that is mastered in one unit of learning, adds to previously learned units. According to Rabbini (2002), these syllabuses focus on what the learners will know at the end of instruction session. Wilkins (1976) indicated that the role of the learner is “to re-synthesize the language that has been broken down into a large number of small pieces with the aim of making his learning task easier”. He also argued that components of language are seen as “building blocks which have to be carefully accumulated” where there is “careful linguistic control of the learning environment”. Synthetic approaches to syllabus design characterize many traditional language courses and textbooks. Structural, lexical, notional/functional, and most situational and topical syllabuses are synthetic. Wilkins (1976) states analytic syllabus as “prior analysis of the total language system into discrete pieces of language that is a necessary precondition for the adoption of a synthetic approach is largely superfluous…. Analytic approaches … are organized in terms of the purposes for which people are learning language and the kinds of language performance that are necessary to meet those purposes”. Analytic refers not to what the syllabus designer does, but to the operations required of the learner to analyze the linguistic components of the language chunks. These types of syllabuses are more likely to result from the use of experiential rather than linguistic content. Process-, procedural-, and task-based syllabuses are analytic. Another name which Wilkins (1976) has given to synthetic syllabuses and analytic syllabuses is product-oriented syllabuses and process-oriented syllabuses respectively. Product-oriented syllabuses emphasize the product of language learning. Initially, some people equated synthetic syllabuses with grammatical syllabuses; but then, some applied linguists feel that the term synthetic need not necessarily be restricted to grammatical syllabuses, but may be applied to any syllabus in which the content is product-oriented. According to Rabbini (2002), the process-oriented syllabuses developed as a result of a sense of failure in productoriented syllabuses to enhance communicative language skills. In these types of syllabuses, the focus is not on what the student will have accomplished on completion of the program, but on the specification of learning tasks and activities that s/he will undertake during the course of study. ALLS 6(4):162-165, 2015 164 2.5 Type A and type B syllabuses From another perspective, White (1988) explains that all current syllabuses fall under two categories: Type A and Type B syllabuses. Type A syllabuses deal with what should be learned in a second language classroom. Most syllabuses that fall under 'Type A' syllabus are best represented by controlled practice, sequentially presenting language items one at a time, whereby learners are expected to build a gradual understanding of language. Here, the teacher is the authority in the classroom. He decides about what items the students must learn and how they will be evaluated. So, things are done to the learner. As it is clear from the definition of this type of syllabus, it is product-oriented synthetic syllabus. Type B syllabuses consider the question of how a second language should be learned. Here, the emphasis is on the learning process. Objectives of the course are based on the needs of the learners. The teacher and students work together. So, things are done with the learners. This type of syllabus is useful for the author in developing learners' communicative skills. Type B syllabuses stand for Process-oriented analytic syllabuses. White categorizes content or skills-based syllabuses as type A and process and the procedural syllabuses as type B (White, 1988). 2.6 Proportional syllabus Wilkins (1976) described analytic and synthetic syllabuses as proportional syllabus. He argues that Syllabuses that support second language curricula are never completely synthetic or analytic. Yalden (1987) states that ''three principles which inform language syllabus design are (1) a view of how language is learned, which could result in a structurebased syllabus; (2) a view of how language is acquired, which would result in a process-based syllabus; and (3) a view of how language is used, which would result in a function-based syllabus.'' By integrating the three views, Yalden (1983) proposes a proportional syllabus, with a semantic-grammatical organizational base, a linguistic component based on language functions, and themes based on learners' interests. According to Yalden (1983), a proportional syllabus comprises a blend of structural and functional elements. In this syllabus, the focus shifts from linguistic form to communicative function as the program progresses. This shift from form to interaction can occur at any time and is not limited to learner ability. This syllabus basically attempts to develop an overall competence. 2.6.1 Merits The benefits of a proportional syllabus are that it overcomes the problem of reconciling functional and structural demands; it offers a close interweaving of structural and non-structural, systematic and non-systematic elements over time (Yalden, 1983). 2.7 Variable focus syllabus Allen (1984) has devised a syllabus named variable focus syllabus which emphasizes the importance of using a hybrid type of syllabus by language teachers in the classroom. This syllabus is similar to Yalden's proportional syllabus. Allen's formulation of the variable focus syllabus consists of three components: structural, functional and experiential. This syllabus includes all levels in all the time, but the emphasis changes at different stages of learning. Yalden (1987) represents the advantage of this model when she states that ''it would seem to allow the syllabus designer the most freedom to respond to changing or newly perceived needs in the learners, and at the same time provides a framework for the teacher who may not be able or willing to go fully communicative…'' 3. Top-down and bottom-up processes in the syllabus design Wilkins (1976) identifies two philosophies about syllabus design: a specialist approach (top-down process) and a learner-centered approach (bottom-up process). Paradigms of the top-down syllabus are content, organization, and presentation through synthesis or analysis. With regard to content, Wilkins (1976) states that: there are limits to what can be achieved through grammatical and situational syllabuses, both leave the learner short of communicative capacity. Organization often focuses on ideas of comparative difficulty. Larsen (1974) notes that learners may need to use 'difficult' structures earlier than a difficulty-oriented syllabus introduces them. Larsen thus offers utility as a possible principle of syllabus sequencing, although there are problems in discovering what is more or less useful for learners. In the part of presentation Wilkins (1976) claims that there probably exist flaws in the synthesis and analysis approaches, synthesis seems to leave learners short of communicative competence until re-synthesis takes place, while analysis leaves them unprepared for anything out of the ordinary due to its approximation of the learners' own linguistic behavior. As Johnson (1989) argues, the specialist approach includes expert input, clear formulation of objectives and perhaps most importantly, they are also transferable (i.e. they can be used by teachers and learners other than those involved in their initial development). A problem with the top-down syllabus is that it includes one-way flow of information and the lack of interaction with the learner (Johnson, 1989). In this type of syllabus, learners are regarded as passive agents in the classroom. In the learner-centered approach to syllabus design, the focus is on the learner. The learners are as a key participant in the learning process, and provide a theoretical basis for negotiated contributions or interaction to syllabus development (Prabhu, 1992 & Allwright, 1984). They are regarded as active agents in the classroom (this is the basic difference between top-down and bottom-up syllabuses). Interaction focuses on more than just content. Candlin (1984) maintains that purpose, method, content, and evaluation are all negotiable within learner-centered syllabus, as ''the how becomes interconnected with the what''. Although, negotiation means that the syllabus cannot be written at the start of the course, the process can start with a pre-defined syllabus or also several syllabuses. ALLS 6(4):162-165, 2015 165 4. Syllabus design based on the needs analysis Syllabus designers and material developers conduct the designing of syllabuses based on educational implications and what they consider as significant for the students in every level of education they are. Based on this procedure, students have to learn what is imposed on them by syllabus designers not what they really need for their learning which can be applicable for their real life out of classroom. Wilkins (1981) states that ''starting from an awareness of the learners and their needs, it is proposed that from the total set those categories should be selected that are relevant to the particular population of learners.'' According to this view, designing syllabuses should be based on needs analysis of the students. Needs analysis is a family of procedures for gathering information about learners and communication tasks for use in syllabus design. With regard to the needs analysis, White (1988) states ''the teacher or planner investigates the language required for performing a given role or roles…. needs analysis specifies the ends which a learner hopes to achieve, but not the means by which the ends will be reached.'' So teachers and syllabus designers should take into account what students really need, rather than what they think they need to learn and master. 5. Discussion and Conclusion A glimpse at the literature of language teaching reveals that many books and papers have been written about syllabus design and curriculum development in recent decades. In this paper, it has been attempted to depict all valuable syllabuses. It also took a look at syllabus design based on the needs of the students. Its main purpose was to say that educational system should not think that the skills which students need to learn and use out of classroom are just skills relevant to educational and occupational purposes. It should be borne in mind that language is a whole system based on which the whole parts should be taught. Syllabus designers in education should not concentrate on the product-oriented syllabuses at the expense of process-oriented ones. They should integrate both types of syllabuses in order that students have the most effective learning. According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987, p. 51) words, “It is wise to take an eclectic approach, taking what is useful from each theory and trusting also in the evidence of your own experience as a teacher”. By taking an eclectic approach, the syllabus designers can do away with the disadvantages of each approach and meet the needs of the learners. By taking into account the communicative part of language, type B syllabuses especially task-based syllabus should be included in the syllabus design. Students should be given time to take part in group activities and group discussions, to give their opinions about ways and methods of teaching. Richards and Rodgers (1986:69) argue that if assumptions about the nature of linguistics and language learning is one of "language as communication" then a syllabus based around activities and tasks which promote real and meaningful communication will seem advantageous. There should also be a shift away from specialist approach toward the learner-centered approach. By giving questionnaire or having pretest, teachers should know what the students' needs are, and teach language in accordance with those needs. The best way to have the most effective and appealing learning in students is to integrate both types of syllabuses, i.e., proportional syllabus, and listen to the students' needs. But there are some problems the most important of which is about the time. Listening to the needs and teaching students based on their needs takes more time than traditional teaching. But a point to regard is that since nowadays English language has a major role in society, education should give more time to English language classes in schools. Through this way, the classroom atmosphere will be more appealing, students will be more enthusiastic about taking part in classes, and a high level of learning will take place. References A.Mine Tokatlı, Y. K. (2009). Syllabus: how much does it contribute to the effective communication with the students? Social and Behavioral Sciences , 4. Asghar Salimi, S. D. (2012). Critical review of approaches to foreign language syllabus design: task-based Syllabus (a shortcut). Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5. Flowerdew, L. (2005). Integrating traditional and critical approaches to syllabus design: the ‘what’, the ‘how’ and the ‘why?’. English for Academic Purposes, 13. Hasan, A. S. (2007). The Envisaged Syllabus for Teaching English as a Foreign Language. Damascus University Journal, 23(2), 17. Hutchinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purposes: A learning-centered approach. Cambridge University Press. Jambor, P. Z. (2006). ‘Synthetic and Analytic Syllabuses’. Department of Education, Art & Design, 25. Prabhu, N. S. (1992). The Dynamics of the Language Lesson. TESOL International Association, 26 (2), 221–418. Rabbini, R. (2002). An Introduction to Syllabus Design and Evaluation. The Internet TESL Journal, 8(5). Rahimpour, M. (2010). Current trends on syllabus design in foreign language instruction. Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5. Raine, P. (2010). a discussion of notional-functional syllabus. Unpublished manuscript, University of Birmingham, Birmingham, UK. Saeid Najafi Sarem, H. H. (2012). The Proportional Syllabus: A Better Alternative to the Existing Syllabus Types in LanguageCurriculum Design in EFL Contexts. Advances in English Linguistics (AEL), 1(3), 5. Stec, M. (2011). Early language teaching and syllabuses . Social and Behavioral Sciences, 10. Wilkins, D. (1976). Notional syllabuses. London: Oxford University Press, 7(2), 111–116. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Mutinous Colonialism: Navigating Self-Other Dichotomy in Octavia Butler’s Survivor Thamer Amer JubouriAl_Ogaili Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia Ruzbeh Babaee (Corresponding author) Faculty of Modern Languages and Communication, Universiti Putra Malaysia E-mail: ruzbeh_babaei@upm.ed.my Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.166 Received: 09/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.166 Accepted: 10/06/2015 Abstract This article examines the self-other relationship in Octavia Butler’s novel Survivor (1978). This relationship incarnates the colonial powers brought about the missionaries in their early advent in the fictional place known as “Earth”. This place is the foundational setting where the main events take place. The study focuses on the representation of this setting in terms of colonial affiliation. The missionaries are encountered by the natives known as “Kohn” who resist their discrimination practices. Alanna, the protagonist, will be the main focus of the study. She represents the severe dichotomy between the colonial invasion and the proper human attributes. She is a native of Kohn, but she is adopted by the missionaries’ leader. Such adoption is highlighted by the use of two main concepts. The first of these is Edward Said’s concept of self-other relationship. The second concept is Homi Bhabah’s ambivalence. These concepts unravel the suppressed voices in Survivor. They will be analyzed within the colonial infringement in the novel’s narrative structure. Keywords: Ambivalence, Postcolonialism, Racial Segregation, Self-Other Relationship 1. Introduction Octavia Bulter’s Survivor (1978) circulates the cultural encounters in a seemingly contradiction human visions which “demonstrate the tensions, contradictions, and possibilities of the captivity narrative as a carrier of cultural memory” (Troy, 2010: 1116). The novel polarizes different dimensional human perspectives by which “it forms the basis of, for instance, communal and national belonging and can have a bonding and even normative function” (1116). The normal token of “communal and national belonging” suits the novel’s apparent portrayal of diverse human responses to the surrounding changes since “the captivity narrative has generically functioned as spiritual allegory, political propaganda, sensational adventure literature, and ethnological and historical account” (117). Troy’s implication of Butler’s Survivor concedes the extent to which human relations are restricted by covetous colonial agendas “tensions and contradictions but challenges the colonial and Anglo-American bonding memories and group identities that have found support in captivity narratives” (1118). Additionally, Survivor integrates Butler critical stances upon contemporary colonial matters and the degenerating oppressive powers; and “from her perspective, postcolonial acknowledges a mere change in government rather than release from the ongoing effects colonial racism” (Thelma, 2006:118). Colonial integration with governmental schedules hinders the national progress in the novel due to Butler’s “literary aliens …demonstrate humanistic characteristics despite their terrifying appearances” (121). In essence, the fictional world of Butler’s Survivor“ never denying the body as the site of oppression, Butler repeatedly seeks alternatives to the hierarchal tendencies of humanity that have oppressed her gender long before imperialism directed its attention to her race as well” (122). Richard Thelma’s propagation of Butler’s opposition of colonial ideology lies at the heart of symbolical incarnation between the colonizer and the colonized:“Butler device of travel through time and space by the power of kinship symbolically asserts the impossibility of ending these lines at all” (123). While the ideological colonialism is the subject of criticism in Survivor, ethnical matter plays a crucial role in constituting the racial boundaries between diverse ethnic groups because “changes in American society, particularly the dynamic between ethnic groups, prompt a reexamination of Butler’s early fiction. Survivor (1978) anticipates the challenges contemporary blacks face in an increasingly diverse society” (Anderson, 2006: 35). Additionally, the representation of ethnic groups in interjected colonial powers is the novel’s characterization where “Butler uses Alanna, an Afro-Asian protagonist, to illuminate strategies of negotiation for Africans Americans who engage a variety of ethnic groups” (35). The figurative characterization of the protagonist, Alanna, corresponds to Butler’s thematic embodiment of the contradictory relationship between ethnical races. The majority of her representational “dynamics” creates new characterization of the oppressed Africans. This characterization is no longer of similar depiction of conventional Black ALLS 6(4):166-170, 2015 167 and White colonial premises as “Butler’s early foray into fiction demonstrates its awareness of similar Afro-Asian Dynamics by meditating on racial dynamics contrary to the traditional black-white racial paradigm” (36). However, the use of colonial self-other relationship will be highlighted in this study. The study will examine the inherent colonial relationship in Butler’s Survivor. The main focus will be on the depiction of the native inhabitants, Kohn, and the missionary experience in the novel’s spacial setting. The central theme will be the double cultural encounter between the natives and the alien missionary. This encounter will be studied in the light of the change of the protagonist’s, Alanna, native identity and its transformation into a dual predilection. Such predilection encompasses the protagonist’s dedication to her native tradition and the new acknowledgment of her adopter’s cultural traditions. The study will use two main concepts, Edward Said’s self-other relationship and Homi Bhabah’s ambivalence. 2. Self-Other Continuum Survivor hinging on a story of human relations tells the story of a group of missionary escaping plague disease to arrive at a land domesticated by natives called Kohn. The central focus of the plot highlights Alanna; the missionary’s leader daughter by adoption. She has been adopted by the leader to protect her from destruction at the hands of predominant cultural domination. As Alanna leads a turbulent life, she gets more assimilated with the new culture of missionary people. Yet, she maintains national dedication to her native cultural customs. The amalgamation of her dual cultural experience renders her survival and a stable living. At the novel’s outset, it is relatively acknowledgeable that there is an encounter between two different cultures. However, such encounter does not yield any acknowledgeable setting. Consequently, this cultural encounter takes place in a special void inhabited with strange arrivals and dedicated natives. The whole encounter proceeds over a land, or more specifically, “Earth” as imputed in the first lines; whereby the narrator focalizes the events out of subjective narration with the pronoun “I”:“I didn’t know enough to appreciate my foster father the way I should have when we met back on Earth. That was when I was about fifteen and his Missionaries caught me stealing from their cornfield” (1). Here, Alanna is the primary narrator who introduces the events in terms of a clash between two fronts. Furthermore, the novel includes a special reclusive denotation of the cultural behavior just from initial recounts of the events. Alanna explicates her dangerous experience during such a clash: "They shot me, would have killed me, but he stopped them. Then he carried me back to his house, got a doctor to tend my wound, and announced that he and his wife were adopting me. Just like that. I heard the doctor try to talk him out of it when they both thought I was unconscious” (1). By depicting this encounter, Butler forges a contiguous opposition between two distinct races, namely, the missionaries and the native Kohn. In line with this, the appropriation of two cultural oppositions has been asserted in Edward Said’s seminal book Orientalism (1979). Said introduces “the vacillation between the familiar and the alien” (72). Said formulates two cultural kinds i.e., “familiar” and “alien” as the relationship between “self” and “other.” Any confrontation between two opposite groups could result in a contradictory relationship between these groups. This relationship results in the “validity of the division of races into advanced and backward” (206). Self-other relationship appears evidently in Survivor. For Example, Alnna considers the missionary’s leader her father. In fact he is her foster father but the amalgamation between the two races makes her divided between her Kohn ancestry and the new advents:“and my foster father didn’t at first. I don’t think he had even before the doctor warned him. All he asked of me was that I learn to put on a good act when I was with people other than him and his wife Neila. That would protect me from the less tolerant of his Missionaries” (1).Alanna is not aware enough of her true ancestory because she is still in the early period colonial missionary: “perhaps during that early period, he was too tolerant himself, though, too willing to let me stand apart from his people as I was naturally inclined to do. Perhaps there was a time when I could have become a Missionary if he had insisted, pushed me” (1-2). Moreover, she contemplates her new paternal state which does not relate to her racial category. Yet, the contact between Kohn and the missionary represents to her one world on their land “Earth”: “but as it happened, it was best for him, for his people, and especially for me, that he did not insist. Best that when we left Earth and settled on our new world, I became something else entirely” (2). The new interconnection between the missionary and Kohn is not equal. In colonial terms, the discrepancy between two distinct groups “has a mission to enlighten, civilize, bring order and democracy, and that it uses force only as a last resort. And, sadder still, there always is a chorus of willing intellectuals to say calming words about benign or altruistic empires” (Said, 1979: 25). Empiral colonialism result in a “discontinuity” between these groups yields contradictory relations “as if one shouldn’t trust the evidence of one’s eyes watching the destruction and the misery and death brought by the latest mission civilizatrice” (26).Likewise, imperial agenda extends for long extents and“expansionism, and as a loosely microcosmic space in which the dynamics of colonisation are prefigured in a parodic and casual form” (Chrisman, 2003: 28). In Survivor, the imperial expansion is exposed from the very beginning. When the missionaries arrive in “Earth”, they settled as if they will stay for a long time. But throughout their settlement they would live in a permanent “security” away of endangered life: “the Missionaries had transformed their settlement from a scattered collection of cabins almost hidden by the surrounding trees to a solidly stockaded town—a fortress that apparently provided them with the dangerous illusion of security” (2). The missionary not only settle in the Kohn surroundings, but also in the nearby mountains. Alanna is not sure of their malicious advent. Their advent incarnates the colonial invasion of “Earth”: “for now, though, she followed them silently as she had for the past two days while they herded their own Tehkohn prisoners down from the mountains” (2). Imperial colonialism fruits in destructive settlement. This settlement does not affect the colonizer. It mainly affects the colonized territory. The imperial colonialism fits within a special discourse which “has really been lost is a sense of the density and interdependence of human life, which can neither be reduced to a formula nor be brushed aside as ALLS 6(4):166-170, 2015 168 irrelevant” (Said, 1979:30).Said’s polarization of colonial discourse appeals to the self-other relationship. Such kind of discourse has a tremendous formulation of the contrast between two different cultures conforms to a special and common agreement where “the mere repression of colonial memories is never, in itself, tantamount to a surpassing of or emancipation from the uncomfortable realities of the colonial encounter” (Gandhi, 1998: 4). The groundbreaking agreement between the missionaries and Kohn is the common human sense. Both racial categories appreciate the human attributes of considering the devastating consequences of any bloody clash. The adoption of the missionary’s leader for Alanna embodies a human token of human common relations: “they had already reached the foothills and Alanna could look down from the trail into the valley’s thick covering of yellow-green meklah trees. For the first time in nearly eight hundred days—two local years—she saw the planet’s only settlement of Earth humans. The Mission colony that had once been her home. Like her, it had changed” (2).Alanna, who is a daughter of one of the Kohns, is adopted by one of the foreigners. Alanna’s adoption is a mere contradiction in terms of colonial strategic agendas. In colonial dialectics, there is not balance uniting the colonizer and the colonized relation. Notwithstanding this, there is a comprehensive engagement of this relation through the self-other continuum. The affiliations between the self and the other “dismantle the reductive formulae and the abstract but potent kind of thought that leads the mind away from concrete human history and experience and into the realms of ideological fiction, metaphysical confrontation and collective passion” (Said 34). By the same token, the affinity of the self and the other is not utterly harmonious because “colonial experience is managed without difficulty, as well as with a good deal of disavowal” (Ganguly, 2001:56). The colonial experience in Survivor comprises both the missionary and Kohn. As a matter of fact, the living of Kohn on “Earth” restores them the right to be the “self”. Since the arrival of the missionary takes place on Kohn’s land, the proper dichotomy lies in the categorical nomination of the missionary as “other”. Kohn does not conquer the missionary. In sharp contrast, the missionaries settle in the land of Kohn and try to incorporate them into their colonial civilization. Just at the first arrival of the missionaries, the clash begins in a consecutive manner to prevent the other (missionary) from conquering Kohn. The Garkohn, or the natives, resist the missionary from the outset of Survivor: “the Garkohn were responsible for involving the Missionaries in this raid that had so endangered them—just as two years before, the Garkohn had made the Missionaries vulnerable by using their settlement as a base from which to raid the Tehkohn. The valley natives were not the friends the Missionaries thought them to be” (5). Here, the ongoing clash between the natives and the missionary undergoes the colonial ambivalence in relation to cultural propinquity. 3. The Notion of Colonial Ambivalence Butler provides us a vivid picture of how the encounter between the missionary and the Kohn has profound influence. Both sides are affected by each other. Alanna’s characterization changes according to the “foreigners” ways of life. But the most conspicuous attribute of this influence comes from “mimicry” where Alanna tires to rescue some of the missionaries from the inevitable death. This behavior comes out of loyalty and dedication to her adopter: “the thought of having to go to Natahk now and feign ignorance and friendship sickened her. But for that reason more than any other, she had to do it. She had to let him ask her in carefully veiled words where her loyalties were. What had two years among his enemies done to her?”(5). Mimicry attributes are dubbed to be an exemplification of colonial ambivalence. In The Location of Culture (1994), HomiBhabah asserts that“the exercise of colonialist authority, however, requires the production of differentiations, individuations, identity effects through which discriminatory practices can map out subject populations that are tarred with the visible and transparent mark of power” (111).Individual “differentiation” springs out of the considerable change in the colonized individuals through the political affairs of colonialism and “its dislocatory presence in order to preserve the authority of its identity in the teleological narratives of historical and political evolutionism” (111).Colonial politics incur unprecedented transformation in the colonized individuality. To argue this last point, the case of Alanna and her changing identity correlates to the colonial politics in Kohn. She is influenced by the missionaries religion. Additionally, she makes some observations regarding the new religious life through practicing the missionary religiousrituals. The change of her characterized individuality emanates from her devotion to her adopter as a token of cherish. However, she is still not aware of the drastic changes in her tribe and the negative consequences which would happen to the native identity: The Missionaries had made a religion of maintaining and spreading their own version of humanity—a religion that had helped them to preserve that humanity back on Earth. Now, though, their religion had gotten in their way. It had helped them to justify their belief that the Kohn were lower creatures—higher than apes, but lower than true humans who had been made in the image of God. The trouble was, the Missionaries had known such “intelligent animals” before. Missionary prejudices were long established and, as far as Alanna was concerned, dangerous. If she had accepted them herself, the Tehkohn would have rid her of them. The natives were human enough. (6) Alanna’s gradual change is appraised via the mimicry she makes in following the missionaries. This kind of cultural mimicry embodies a dual relation between the colonized and the colonizer because this “doublethink is made viable only through the strategy of disavowal just described, which requires a theory of the ‘hybridization’ of discourse and power that is ignored by theorists who engage in the battle for ‘power’ but do so only as the purists of difference” (Bhabha, 1994: 111). Being so, the colonial “doublelink”consummates cultural advancement since “‘progress’ and ALLS 6(4):166-170, 2015 169 ‘modernity’ are set as markers on the paths that peoples and nations walk in the hope that what they seek will redeem the pasts that had such futures in their sights” (Poddar et al., 2008: 1). In Survivor, Butler offers a reciprocal dual change in the characterization of Alanna. After spending benign experience with the missionaries, she is now able to judge the common good grounds between her traditional customs and the missionary’s modernization. In the following example, she has a neutral situation when Diut comes to fight the missionaries. As a rule of thumb, she should fight the colonizers missionaries with Diut; but she does not participate in the fight since she is still dedicated to her adopter. She considers her adoption a human attribute which should not be violated: “it was an admission! Alanna stared down at the table, her expression carefully neutral. Just as she had guessed, Diut had come to see whether the Missionaries were worth the trouble it would cost him to let them live” (55). Here ambivalent duality emerges as Alanna consecutively aligns the missionaries. This is the intermix of the self and other duality “which marks the emergence of the self and which the self does not control - is concealed by the representation of a placeoutside” (Bhabha, 1994: 146).Hence, ambivalence produces a new human awareness and “its current paramount function as an emerging indicator of the significance of place and a translational cultural identity” (Maver, 2009:25). Human awareness is a central subject in Survivor. The culmination of this ambivalence exemplifies in the characterization of Alanna. She does not care for her previous traditions relative to Kohn. Instead, she keeps sincere commitment to the missionary. She does not go through the ongoing arguments prevailing “Earth” between the missionaries and Kohn: “there. It was out. Alanna waited for Jules’s reaction. It came, explosively, a shouted jumble. Alanna recognized some of the milder arguments. That it was not possible. That the differences between Kohn and human were too great… They were the same arguments that she had repeated to herself when she realized she was carrying Diut’s child” (58).As such, Alanna’s Traditional state goes along with racial subaltern in terms of female identity. Alanna’s individuality, for example, has undergone drastic changes during the colonial advent of the missionaries. This is the token of self-other relationship which lays the boundaries of racial segregation in colonial circumferences. She has nothing to deal with in her entire life with the missionaries. However, she holds responsible for many things during her previous life in “Earth”. Kohn traditional customs inflict heavy domestic requirements on women and their feminine roles in attending family life. But when she lives with the missionaries her domestic role has changed according to the new cultural customs. For example, she does not commit mistakes like Garkohn: ‘Tomorrow night,’ she began, ‘Tehkohn hunters will replace the incoming Garkohn relief guards. They will have to do it near here to prevent Natahk from getting word of it too soon. There’s a slight chance that our gate guards might see something—a few luminescent flashes perhaps. If they do, they’re to ignore it, and they’re to let the Tehkohn hi as though they believe they’re admitting Garkohn. Diut has promised that the Tehkohn who take part in this will be disguised—camouflaged—well enough for us defective Missionaries to make an honest mistake. In fact, they’ll be disguised well enough for the Garkohn to make the same mistake until the Tehkohn are too close for it to matter. (109) Alanna’s despondent state is touted to the surrounding racial happenings. In Postcolonial Liberalism(2002), Duncan Ivison asserts that segregation bias is a fundamental premise of colonial ambivalence, whereby “liberalism's entanglement with empire, the way indigenous difference has persisted in the face of colonialism, as well as how indigenous peoples have resisted, yet also co-opted and turned around aspects of liberal-democratic thought towards their own ends, we may just catch a glimpse of the possibilities of globalization from the bottom up” (ix). Being so, colonial ambivalence is a manifestation of “indigenous” movement at a micro level. This is because the sense of "the possibilities of globalization" caused by colonial powers. Diasporic movement, in turn, is the interlocution of certain ethnic group in the same national periphery. In Survivor, for example, Natahk displacement embodies the local diaspora of Kohn. He decides to leave Earth because he suffers from the suppressive missionaries: "Natahk was gone. He had made a great show of gathering his fighters—all of them—and leaving the settlement. He had also made a show of shouting his anger at the Missionaries, blaming them for his weapons party's demise" (144). Furthermore, the suppressed voices of Kohn are not allowed the opportunity to speak. Their identity is more restricted. Here, ambivalence is the identification of the colonized voice. Nevertheless, Alanna is an exceptional case. Buy faces a hindranceexemplified in her female character. She cannot speak even when she lives with the missionaries. She laments her lonely state as the missionaries go fishing and leave her alone: “they’re going to keep the fighting as brief and as quiet as possible, and as long as the Missionary guards stay out of the way, they won’t be hurt. That’s the most important part. Personally, I think the best thing for our people to do is look scared and confused and run for cover” (109). The treatment of Alanna is not a mere fair hospitalization. There is some sort of racial discrimination played by the missionaries. The issue of racial discrimination is studied in relation to the ambivalence conceptualization of the oppressor (the missionaries).Achille Mbembe, in On The Postcolony (2001),argues that “a great, soft, fantastic body, is seen as powerless, engaged in rampant self-destruction. Human action there is seen as stupid and mad, always proceeding from anything but rational calculation.” (8). Alanna ultimately, recognizes the missionaries ’deceit. She has not been aware of the colonial discrimination brought by the missionary new advent: “it was a mistake. She knew that before the words were out, but she had not been able to ALLS 6(4):166-170, 2015 170 hold them back. She and Jules glared at each other in open hostility until she spoke again. “You know Diut is a man, as you are a man. Otherwise, how could I have borne his child?’” (177).Alanna's deceit harmonizes with Mbembe’s argumentation that the colonizer is the source of "every representation of an unstable world [which] cannot automatically be subsumed under the heading “chaos” (parentheses added)” (8). 4. Conclusion Colonial advent has resulted in an immense interference between the original cultural customs in Kohn and the colonial traditional practices. These practices inflict on the native new conceptualization of life and culture. The cultural dimension of the study highlights the mutual discrepancy between the deep-seated traditions and new or foreign traditions. Such traditions have been tackled in terms of geographical encounter initiated on a special setting called “Earth”. This setting incarnates a foundational scenario for the cultural confrontation between the missionary and their cultural principles. The portrayal of the natives resulted in a different human perspective. The protagonist - Alanna - has changed dramatically in the light of the colonial powers. She recognizes her transformation state due to colonial affirmation. Colonial destructive impulse has assented contradictory perceptions of colonial reality. Thus, the colonial experience is undergone between two opposite powers, namely, the colonized and the colonizer. These powers are the equilibrium of the disintegration of proper human relations. The ambivalence analogy between the natives and the new missionaries encompasses the ideological identity by which the colonial traditions hinder, accordingly, the formation of suitable forms of social and cultural life by forging psychological dependence on these substituted images of sovereignty and suppression. Colonial conditions have been a vital subject to the analysis of the contiguous inconsistency through the human encounter's commencement over “Earth”. The racial conceptualization of the colonial world in Survivor circulates the racial practices within the endangered subaltern where females are involved in the process of inferiority. Females also encounter new states of exceptions, whereby racial discrimination provides a comprehensive engagement of females in colonial scenes. References Anderson, C. S. (2006). "the Girl Isn't White": New Racial Dimensions in Octavia Butler's Survivor. Extrapolation (pre-2012) 47(1). Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The Location of Culture. London: Routledge. Butler, O. E. (1978). Survivor. Garden City, N.Y: Doubleday. Chew, Sh. and David R. (2010). A Concise Companion to Postcolonial Literature. Oxford: Blackwell. Chrisman, L. (2003). Postcolonial Contraventions: Cultural Readings of Race, Imperialism, and Transnationalism. Manchester: Manchester University Press. Gandhi, L. (1998). Postcolonial Theory: A Critical Introduction. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. Ganguly, K. (2001). States of Exception: Everyday Life and Postcolonial Identity. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. Ivison, D. (2002). Postcolonial Liberalism. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Maver, I. (2009). Diasporic Subjectivity and Cultural Brokering in Contemporary Post-Colonial Literatures. Lanham, MD: Lexington Books. Mbembe, A. (2001).On the Postcolony. Berkeley: University of California Press Poddar, P., Rajeev S. P., and Lars J. (1979). A Historical Companion to Postcolonial Literatures: Continental Europe and Its Empires. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2008. Print. Said, E. W. (---). Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books. Thelma, Sh. R. (2006). Defining Kindred: Octavia Butler's Postcolonial Perspective. Obsidian, III( 6/7.2). Troy, M. H. (2010). Negotiating Genre And Captivity: Octavia Butler's Survivor. Callaloo, 33(4). Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Language and Interactional Discourse: Deconstrusting the Talk- Generating Machinery in Natural Convresation Amaechi Uneke Enyi Ebonyi State University, Abakaliki, Nigeria E-mail: mechehunekeenyi@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.171 Received: 06/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.171 Accepted: 11/06/2015 Abstract The study entitled. “Language and Interactional Discourse: Deconstructing the Talk - Generating Machinery in Natural Conversation,” is an analysis of spontaneous and informal conversation. The study, carried out in the theoretical and methodological tradition of Ethnomethodology, was aimed at explicating how ordinary talk is organized and produced, how people coordinate their talk –in- interaction, how meanings are determined, and the role of talk in the wider social processes. The study followed the basic assumption of conversation analysis which is, that talk is not just a product of two ‘speakers - hearers’ who attempt to exchange information or convey messages to each other. Rather, participants in conversation are seen to be mutually orienting to, and collaborating in order to achieve orderly and meaningful communication. The analytic objective is therefore to make clear these procedures on which speakers rely to produce utterances and by which they make sense of other speakers’ talk. The datum used for this study was a recorded informal conversation between two (and later three) middle- class civil servants who are friends. The recording was done in such a way that the participants were not aware that they were being recorded. The recording was later transcribed in a way that we believe is faithful to the spontaneity and informality of the talk. Our finding showed that conversation has its own features and is an ordered and structured social day by- day event. Specifically, utterances are designed and informed by organized procedures, methods and resources which are tied to the contexts in which they are produced, and which participants are privy to by virtue of their membership of a culture or a natural language community. Keywords: Language, Discourse and Conversation 1. Introduction Talking is something most of us not only do all the time but also enjoy doing. This is because we conduct virtually all our day - day business through the medium of talk-in-interaction (conversation) which could be transactional (for the purpose of getting something done) or interactional (for the purpose of maintaining social relationship). And because we talk all the time we have grown to take it too much for granted. Even in the context of teaching and learning English as a second language, where the basic attention is always given to the four language skills: reading, writing, listening and speaking, the teaching of speaking, which more often than not, implies effective listening, of all the four skills is the most neglected. Bygate (1987:Vii ) aptly captures it thus: “teaching speaking skills is in many ways undervalued”. He goes ahead to argue that speaking is a skill which deserves every bit of attention as much as literacy skills. It is an undisputable fact that most second language users of English who speak reasonably correct and fluent English as a result of their linguistic competence, which is the mastery of the grammar, phonology and the vocabulary of the language, most often than not, fail as conversationalists. It is therefore obvious that conversation involves something more than the manipulation of the linguistic system of a language; it presupposes an ability to engage in a dynamic process of on-going interactive communication (communicative competence) rather than the ability to exhibit a native like control of the language in terms of its phonology, syntax and the lexico-semantic features (linguistic competence). Supporting the above observation, Canale (1983: 68) states that “achievement of communicative competence involves not grammatical but sociolinguistic discourse strategies as well. Bachman (1990) defines conversational competence as: appropriate use of speech styles according to whom the speaker is addressing and the circumstances under which the act of communication is taking place and this corresponds to pragmatic competence (p.117). Richards and Sukwiwat (1983: 113) on their part, define conversational competence as: “the speakers knowledge of speech acts which are used in social situations”. Despite the avowed preference of communicative competence over linguistic competence by modern linguistics and the obvious practical value and usefulness of conversational competence and proficiency in enhancing students’ ability of listening comprehension and expression; enhancing cultural understanding of the target language in terms of the way of behaviour and norms of social interaction, relatively little attention has been paid to conversation analysis as an independent area of enquiry by scholars until the early 1960s.Before then, much of what has been written about ALLS 6(4):171-178, 2015 172 conversation is prescriptive in nature and deals with the idea of what makes a good conversation (Burke ,1993). Such studies present sets of social rules that determine which topics are appropriate or the most effective use of language .They do not conceive conversation as a normal everyday human activity or as a structured social event. Rather conversation was conceived as an elite activity governed by the conventions of polite society .This may be attributed to the seeming triviality of conversation which tends to make it less important. Sacks (1973) argues that it is precisely the seeming triviality of talk that makes it important rather than less important. He aptly summaries: The fine-grained analysis of talk allows for the micro- machinery upon which all else is built to become available to us. Recording natural talk allows very mundane things to take on a great significance precisely because they at first seem obvious. The example of putting a hmm!! into a conversation that is essential to the maintenance of social action (p.12). What provided the impetus for the development of conversation analysis as an area of study was the work of Garfinkel and Goffman who established the concern for investigating the orderliness of everyday life and this was taken up by Harvey Sacks in his lectures on conversation from the early 1960s (Sacks, 19772). The late 1960s and early 1970s, through the works of Harvey Sacks and his colleagues, Emmanuel Schegloff and Gail jefferson saw the emergence of conversation with the sociological orientation to understand “situations” (the ordinary and extraordinary ways in which people interact with one another in the course of everyday life).Conversation analysis drew from ethnomethodology , an orientation for understanding how order was achieved through interaction, and an empirically based methodology based on micro-analytic studies. The present study is justified by the above submission and other such perspectives that draw attention to the observed neglect of conversational discourse and social interaction by linguists. 2. Conversation: Definitions The term conversation can be varied and open-ended depending on its conceptualization and the analytical toolkit with which one is looking at it. Conversation, from the framework of Ethnomethodology, assumes a strictly social dimension. Goffman (1976) defines conversation as: talk occurring when a small number of participants come together and settle into what they perceive to be a few moments cut off from (or carried on the side of) instrumental tasks; a period of idling felt to be an end itself, during which everyone is accorded the right to talk as well as to listen to and without reference to a fixed schedule; everyone is accorded the status of someone whose overall evaluation of the subject- matter at hand… is to be encouraged and treated with respect and no final agreement or synthesis is demanded, differences of opinion to be treated as un-prejudicial to the continuing relationship of the parties (p.264). Richards and Schmidt (1983) give a graphic description of the term: One common observation is that conversation has no specific setting, no time or place except for the absence of other speech activity, (in which case it is heard as an interruption), no required rules, other than persons’ (though some external roles such as professor/ students may not be shed), no pre-specified agenda and a quorum of simply two or more (p. 133). Another principal practitioner of Ethnomethodology, Levinson (1983) gives a similar definition. Conversation may be taken to be that familiar predominant kind of talk in which two or more participants freely alternate in speaking, which generally occurs outside specific institutional settings like religious service law courts, classrooms and the like (p. 34) All the definitions above are underpinned by Ethno-methodological perspective; scholars from other climes in the field of discourse analysis will favour a technical dimension that will include institutional settings like courtrooms, classrooms and boardrooms (Sinclair and Coulthard, 1975). Our preference in this study is the treatment of conversation as the talk which is less formal not primarily necessitated by a practical task and involves relatively small number of participants who have equal rights to talk. 3. Ethnomethodological approach to conversation analysis Conversation analysis (CA) is an approach to discourse analysis often associated with a group of scholars known as Ethno-methodologists. Harold Garfinkel and a circle of students and colleagues in California founded Ethnomethodology in the 1960s. His Studies in Ethnomethodology, published originally in 1967 represents the definitive founding text. He adopted a number of innovative research strategies in order to explore the methods actors used in every day interaction to build the sense of social order commonly perceived to exist in interaction. In Ethnomethodological approach, emphasis is always on real data. Working with large amount of naturally-occurring spoken ALLS 6(4):171-178, 2015 173 language, Ethno-methodologists or conversation analysts attempt to describe everyday linguistic events such as requesting, thanking, inviting, telling anecdotes, e. t. c; to observe regular patterns of behaviour that might indicate adherence to underlying norms or rules of conversation (McCarthy, 1991: 24, McCarty and Carter 1994: 117). In corollary, conversation analysis is a method for investigating the structure of social interaction between humans. It focuses primarily on ‘talk’ though it integrates the non-verbal aspects of interaction in its research design. In terms of results, CA studies, yield descriptions of recurrent structures and practices of social interaction. CA elucidates basic aspects of human sociality that resides in talk, and examines the ways in which specific social institutions are invoked in and operate through talk (Richards and Schmidt, 1983). Conversation analysts find out that conversations follow certain rules which can be described. For example, in normal conversation usually only one person speaks at a time; the speakers change, the length of any contribution varies; there are techniques for allowing the other party or parties to speak, neither the content nor the amount of what they say is specified in advance. Silverman (1998: 99) observes that the most basic fact of conversation is the fact that one person saying something to someone else will often contain an expectation of a response. The first speaker’s utterance creates a conversational space which the second speaker is expected to fill. It is usually not the case that the first speaker compels the second person to respond or that the nature of the response is determined by the first person. He goes on to illustrate this point by pointing out that it is possible to ignore someone if he/she says “hello” to you, though it is interesting to note that it is not easy as one might think to do so; but if however, over does chose to reject the request contained in an invitation, it is to be taken as an insult. The fact that offence may be taken from a snub lies in the force of the “expectation”. Butting into a conversation or speaking out of turn, he further points out is morally regulated in the act of conversation. Conversation analysis investigates how pairs of utterances relate to one another (the study of adjacency pairs), how turn-taking and turn-allocation operate, how conversational openings and closings are effected; how topics are introduced and changed, and how speakers engage in strategic acts of politeness, face– preservation and so on (McCarty 1991: 24). In sum, Ethno-methodologists observe how people orient to the demands of the speech event, and by so doing, enabling us to combine the best features of the old situational approach with communicative approaches stressing the functions that a particular linguistic realizations can perform (McCarty, 1991: 123). 4. Norms of conversation According to Richards and Schmidt (1983), Conversation is more than just a series of exchange. It consists of exchanges which are initiated and interpreted according to intuitively understood and socially acquired rules and norms of conversational cooperation which can, in turn, be manipulated to create a wide range of meaning beyond the level expressed directly by the utterances in the conversation itself (p. 122). This is clearly captured by the general principles of conversational behaviour proposed by Grice (1975) as central for successful communication. These norms are called ‘maxims’ and are based on the idea that contributors to a conversation are rational beings; that is, they obey a general principles of rationality known as cooperative principle. This principle is formulated by Grice as follows: Make your conversational contribution such as is required, at the state at which it occurs by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged. In order to fulfill the cooperative principles, the speaker must follow the nine maxims of conversation which have been articulated and grouped into four categories thus: 1. Maximum of quality (informativeness) i. Make your contribution as informative as required. ii. Do not make your contribution more informative than required. 2. Maxim of quality (truthfulness) i. Try to make your contribution one that is true. ii. Do not say what you believe to be false. iii. Do not say that for which you lack adequate evidence. 3. Maxim of relation (Relevance) i. Be relevant. 4. Maxim of manner (be perspicuous) i. Avoid obscurity of expression ii. Avoid ambiguity iii. Be brief iv. Be orderly. Conversational implicatures are pragmatic inferences, which are not tied to the particular words and phrases in an utterance but arise instead from contextual features another understanding the conventions are observed in conversation. They are inferences based on the normal assumption that the conversational maximum is being followed. ALLS 6(4):171-178, 2015 174 5. Structure of conversation Conversation has a definite structure and reflects the procedures that govern face-face encounters. This is seen in opening and closings, topic management, turn-taking mechanisms, and repairs or conversational strategies. 6. Openings and closing Conversations do not simply begin and end. There are many ways of starting a conversation and most of them are fairly ritualized. Wardhaugh, (1985:118) gives the following ways: adjacency Paris of greetings and introductions, questions for finding some common grounds ,comments on the actual circumstances of the meeting itself, comments on the weather, general complaints, pseudo-apologies e.g. excuse me: and so on. Openings allow for further talk once the other persons attention has been obtained. Closing, like opening is also a cooperative activity. According to Bardovi-Harlig etal (1991): Closing is a matter of politeness and thus we need to use some essential components of “felicitous closings;” i.e. the terminal exchange, the preclosing and the shut down while considering the situational variables such as the setting and the relationship of the participants as well as cultural differences (p. 6). Pre-closing signals include: Ok then, All right, so… well, I suppose, Erm… I’m afraid, I’ve got to go now, I’ll let you get back to your writing, it is been nice talking to you and so on. 7. Topic management The way speakers in a conversation select the topics for discussion and the strategies they use in nominating, developing them constitute an important dimension of conversation organization (Richards and Schmidt, 1983). For example, for a conversation to be coherent, speakers must handle topics delicately by respecting the norms concerning the choice of topic Richards (1990:70) uses the tern topicalizing behaviour to mean bringing up topics, responding to other people’s topics, mentioning something, avoiding the mention of something, carrying the discussion one step further and so on. Coulthard, (1975) observes: we experience, see, hear, about events all the time, some are tellable, some aren’t and of those that are tellable, some are tellable to everyone, some have restricted audience, some must be told immediately, some can wait and still retain their interest (p. 79). In the perspective of Richards (1990), Participants select a topic as first topic through a process of negotiation. 8. Turn- taking mechanism The turn- taking system is basic to the management of the collaborative process of a conversation. There are a variety of strategies or devices used in turn- taking. Wardhaugh (1985) lists the following: using interjections to signal a request for a turn, (eg: Mn-hum, yeah) and rising intonation, accepting a turn offered by another speaker by providing the second pair part of an adjacency pair, completing or adding to something said by the previous speaker, and so on. In order to hold a turn, speakers use devices indicating they are making a series of remarks: first of all, or to begin with, followed by then, after that, next, etc. Expressions such as: another thing, connectors like: so, because and however promote continuity. 9. Repairs in conversation Conversation is reciprocal. Cook (1990) states that a speaker can monitor reception and adjust to it, or to put it differently, the listener can influence the development of what is being said. The term ‘repairs’ according to Schegloff et al (1977: 147) refers to efforts by both parties in a conversation to correct communication trouble- spots such as not knowing a particular word, or misunderstanding the other speaker. Other terms like conversational strategies (Dornyei and Thurrel, 1994) and conversation adjustments (Bygate, 1987) have been used synonymously with the term. Repairs can be seen as a kind of feedback within turns and may be initiated by either the speaker, (self-repairs) or the hearer (other repairs), checkers, such as Ok. are you with me? , got it, e t c, may be used to find out whether the audience is still attentive or whether there is any problem in following the talk; expressions like: huh? What? And I’m sorry, can be used to signal the need for repair. Facial expressions and other kinesics signals also perform the same function. Another technique that is often used is echoing; the hearer repeats a word or phrase which is not understood, thereby asking for clarification, and the conversational partner explains it or replaces it with an easier item (Richards and Schmidt, 1983:148). 10. Adjacency pairs Adjacency pairs are the basic structural units in conversation (Coulthard, 1985:70). They refer to utterances produced by two successive speakers in which the second utterance can be identified as related to the first as an expected followup. For some first parts, the second pair part is reciprocal (Greeting/Greeting), for some, there is only one appropriate second, question/ Answer); for some others, there are a variety of options, (complaints/ Apology/ justification) which can be explained by the preferred and dispreferred responses (Levinson 1983: 307). ALLS 6(4):171-178, 2015 175 11. Analysis and discussion This conversation (see appendix) shows the exchanges between three participants. The first two women are intimates and neighbours and the third woman a passer-by and also their friend. The close relationship between these participants results in a very informal style of conversation. Consequently, the talk is basically interactional though spiced with the transactional elements of exchange of information. The conversation’s opening device is a question which interactionally functions, not as a question that elicits an answer, but as an attention-catching device or as a summon which serves to secure a co- participant for a conversation. Mama Udoka (turn 1.) throws the question “what is this country turning into eh? It also serves as a device for finding a common ground for a conversation. Such openings as this allow for further talk once the attention of the other participant (s) has been obtained. Mama Nkechi’s response in (turn 2) “what is it, Mama Udoka,” and “Oh! Is it the bombings and killing of innocent citizens of the country by Boko Haram?” (turn 6), functions to signal to Mama Udoka that she was not only following the talk but also understood the “topic” of the talk .Therefore, part of the structure of conversational opening has to do with the positioning of topics within the conversation (Schegloff and Sacks 1973). According to Wardhaugh (1985:119), what is crucial in opening a conversation is “being able to access accurately the context in which it is to take place and some of the salient features of the other person, and to have command of the derives that will be necessary to keep the conversation going, once you overcome the initial difficulties”. As intimate friends and neighbours, Mama Udoka knows that Mama Nkechi will certainly respond to her question in some way or specifically, by asking for further information or clarification. Follow-up questions interactively led Mama Nkechi to make the first mention of the supposed topic of the conversation and that provides her with a discourse frame to not only to develop and maintain the topic which tells a tellable event –the bomb blast at Mandala, on Christmas day but also to negotiate a sub-topic which adds that the only son of Mazi Nnachi died in the bomb blast. “ Yes now, this thing is getting out of hand. Do you know the latest? We heard that the bombing which took place in Madala in Niger state on Christmas day killed the only surviving son of Late Mazi Nnachi. (Turn8.). Richards (1990) explains that participants negotiate and select topics for conversation through a process of ‘topicalizing behaviour’ by which he means the ways participants bring up topics, respond to other people’s topics ,mention some things and avoid the mention of some other things; carrying the discussion one step further, and so on. Structurally, this conversation is initiated, developed and sustained by the use questions which naturally come up from the context of the talk. Mama Udoka initiates the talk ( turn 1) by posing a question, Mama Nkechi, (in turn 2) instead of giving a direct answer, asks a question in return. Her question is interpreted as an answer on the assumption that she conforms to the maxim of relevance. Having established a common ground, through the cooperative responses of her conversational partner, Mama Nkechi, who nominates the topic, Mama Nkechi’s further question (in turn 6), “Oh! Is it the bombings and killing of innocent citizens of the country by the Boko Haram ,serves as an elaborating move which helps to develop and sustain the topic. Mama Nkechi’s expression in( turn 10), “Don’t say that again “, is a monitoring device that conveys mama Nkechi’s surprise at the information that Mama Udoka is giving, as well as to show that she is monitoring Mama Udoka’s talk. Such utterances are interactively very important as they function to encourage the speaker to talk more or to expatiate on the topic. This proves to be a very strategic device for topic elaboration and expansion as it affords Mama Udoka the opportunity to spice up the topic with some pieces of additional information that the man killed in the Mandala bombing was the only surviving son of Late Mazi Nnachi; that his mother was sick, and her sickness being as a result of injuries she inflicted on herself during her husband’s burial recently. Turn 18 shows a strategy that speakers who are non- participants in an ongoing talk can employ in order to join in a conversation. The formal feature of the turn shows that it begins with “sorry” which functions to mitigate negative face and followed by what can be interactively described as a passage to, or an entry into a conversation. Mama Ibe, here used this device to mitigate the force of her interruption and to orientate to the ongoing topic Boko Haram: “sorry to interrupt your conversation, I heard you say Boko Haram” (turn 18). The intimacy between the co-interractants and the sheer informality of the conversation is underscored by the use of rhetorical devices which are deployed as pre-expansion sequences which occur between the first pair parts of a question-answer adjacency Pairs and the second pair parts. 3. Mama Udoka: How can you be asking that kind of question? 4. Are you from the moon? Other informality features found in the conversation is the use of “code-switching” and “code-mixing” of English and Igbo languages especially in form of discourse markers and hedges, as well as other features of Nigerianisms. 14. Mama Nkechi :” Ewooh!” and now her only son. 15. “Chei!” Are you sure someone is not behind all this. 22. Mama Udoka : Mama Nkechi did you hear that? “Chineke onye ebere”. 24. Mama Nkechi : “Ewooh”! What did you just say? 27. Mama Ibe : “You’ll not even see the leg” to come out from the place. Another prominent device used in this conversation is “pre -telling (pre-announcements)” (Sacks, 1973), which is a device that indicates that the speaker has something to tell, but gives no additional information about the telling or used to give the recipient more information about what they will involve. Strictly speaking, pre- tellings are formulaic acts ALLS 6(4):171-178, 2015 176 that function to alert the recipient that what is to follow is a telling of some items of news. In turn 8, Mama Udoka pretells: “Do you know the latest”, and in( turn 11) she says:” you mean you’ve the not heard it”. These serve to enable the recipient to recognized the telling, as news in terms of its imports. The closing of the conversation is achieved through the strategy- “announcing closure” which is a device that usually invokes some external circumstances which warrant the ending of the current conversation. According to Liddicoat (2007: 259) one obvious way in which a conversation may move to closure is if one of the participants announces closure as a relevant next action in some point in the conversation. Such announcements of closure usually invoke external circumstances which warrant ending the current conversation… In turn 28, Passer-by announces a closure to the conversation citing an external circumstance which affects her ability to continue with the conversation. 28. Passer - by: 1 just managed to come out now to rush to my place of work to sign my name in the attendance register… She disengages from the conversation by uttering the first pair part of a “terminal sequence”: 29. Passer - by: Let me run along, bye. This proposal to end the conversation was collaborated by both Mama Udoka and Mama Nkechi who uttered the second pair part of the terminal sequence: 30. Mama udoka and Mama Nkechi : Bye! Bye. The second and final part of the closure was proposed by Mama Udoka who announced closure by citing an external circumstance that tends to cut short her participation in the conversation: 31. Mama Udoka : If not that I am already late for work… Mama Nkechi in turn 33 finally closed the conversation by uttering a pre-closing token: ‘I am going” which was followed by the first pair part of a terminal sequence: Bye!- (turn 34). Mama Udoka accepts the closing by completing the second pair part: “Bye! Bye!” The exchange of good Byes in a conversation interactively constitutes adjacency pairs as the production of one goodbye makes the production of another, a relevant next action for a co- conversationalist. The production of the first, proposes a closing, while the second, accepts the proposal. The use of such adjacency pairs to close a conversation means that closing is achieved collaboratively by the parties to the conversation as the failure to do this would create a negative interactional effect. The analysis in this study, which is based on certain features within the overall structural organisation of the conversation, has revealed among other things that the conversation consists of organised set of practices that are mutually carried out by participants. The analysis of the various structural components of the conversation which include; the opening and closing, topic nomination and development , sequencing of actions and the overall taking and operation of turns has shown that conversation is not just two or more persons who are engaged in a form of linguistic communication rather, conversational exchanges involve organised set of practices which participants carry out in order to take and construct turns, build sequences of actions , repair trouble spots, select the right words to construct a turn and ultimately to make meaning of is being said. This organised set of practices is what Sacks (1972) used the metaphor of “machines or machinery” (which has also been adopted in this study) to describe. According to Sacks (1975:169), “… interactions are being spawned out by machinery, the machinery being what we are trying to find; where, in order to find it, we have got to get a whole bunch of its products”. Sidwell , (2010) agrees with Sacks when he observes: ...there is an organised set of practices involved in first, getting the talk started, secondly, constructing a turn ,another such organised set of practices involved in producing sequences of action another set of practices involved the initiation and execution of repair and so on (p:3). We have seen also that utterances come in particular places within the overall structural organisation of an occasion. And for a given occasion, there are certain places within it, at which point, particular actions are relevant to be performed. Greetings, for instance are properly done at the beginning and when it is done outside its proper place in a conversation, it is typically marked as such by the use of displacement markers. Our analysis has also shown that participants design their talk in such a way as to make it appropriate and relevant for the other person. Sacks, Schegloff, Jefferson (1974:727) refer to this practice as “recipient design” and define it as “The multitude of respect in which the talk by a party in a conversation is constructed or designed in ways which display an orientation and sensitivity to the particular other(s)”. Recipient design encompasses a whole range of practices in talk which include such practices as a speaker increasing the volume of his talk to address a recipient that is farther off and ALLS 6(4):171-178, 2015 177 the nuances of word selection which reflect what the speaker assumes the recipient already knows. So with an expression like “that” in, that was fun, the speaker presumes that the recipient will know what he means, The data also revealed that the endings of conversations are also achieved through a set of organised practices. Coulthard (1975) observes that speakers don’t just stop speaking as conversations virtually always end with a closing pair, composed of good bye, goodnight and so on. Finally, the analysis has illustrated that the operation of the organised set of practices (machinery) on the various structural units of a conversation makes it easy for us to understand the abstract organisations operating in “talk” independently of the real persons engaged in talking. It is also important to note that the set of organised practices (machinery) operational in talk do operate in contexts of situations. In fact, anything that happens in a conversation happens within some particular, contexts or situation .Sacks, Schegloff, and Jefferson (1974) state, “whatever happens in conversation happens at particular time, in some particular places, with some particular group of persons, after some particular thing has taken place. 12. Conclusion In this study, it has been demonstrated that natural conversation has its distinctive features different from written language and institutional discourse in term of linguistic and discourse features. Interactants generate order within and through talk-in-interaction and conversation analysis serves to interrogate, capture and demonstrate the machinery at work in talk as well as the complexity of the interplay. In simple terms, the study deconstructs the dynamic and interactive nature of interaction in terms of how people’s attention is attracted in opening conversation, how to initiate and manage suitable topics according to the circumstances of the contexts and the relationship between the actors; how to express co-operation and politeness. In specific terms, it has been demonstrated that actors in talk, in rendering potentially face threatening speech-acts such as requests, reprimand e .t .c, do that by using mitigating or softening devices. Strategic devices such as hedges, vague expressions and modality are often used to avoid going straight to the point, speaking directly or again to mitigate the force of what is said. Finally conversations are collaboratively closed through a number of interactive strategies ranging from the use of announcement closure to make excuse, expansion sequences, pre-closing and terminal exchanges all of which point to the fact that to finish a conversation is often much more involved than simple exchanges of farewell . References Bachman, L. F. (1990). Fundamental considerations. In language testing. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Bardovi- Harlig, K. B. A. S et al. (1991). Developing pragmatic awareness: closing the conversation; ELT Journal, 45, (1), 4-15. Bygate, M. (1987). Speaking. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Canale, M. (1983). From Communicative competence to communicative pedagogy. In J .C. Richards & R. W Schmidt (Eds). (1983) Language and communication. 2-27. Harlow : Longman. Cook, G. (1989). Discourse. Oxford University Press. Coulthard, R. M. (1985). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis. Harlow: Longman. Crystal, D. and D. Davy. (1975). Advanced conversational English. Harlow: Longman. Dornyei, Z. & Thurrel, S. (1994). Teaching conversational skill intensively; course content rationale . ELT Journal, 48(1), 40 - 49. Garfinkel, H. (1967). Studies in Ethnomethodology. New York: Prentice House. Goffman, E. (1976). Replies and responses. In Language in society, 5(3), 257 -313. Grice, H. P. (1975). Logic in conversation. In P. Cole & J. L. Morgan . (Eds.) (1975). Syntax and semantics, 41-58. New York: Academic Press. Levinson, S. C (1983). Pragmatics .Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Liddicoat, A. J. (2007). An introduction to Conversation Analysis. London: continuum. McCarthy, M. (1991). Discourse Analysis for language teachers. Cambridge: C. U. P. Richards, J. C. Conversationally speaking: approach to the teaching of conversation. In J. C .Richards The Language teaching matrix.67-86 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Richards. J. C & M. Sukwiwat. (1983). Language Transfer and Conversational Competence. Applied Linguistics, 4(2), 113-125. Richards J. C &Schmidt, R. W. (1983). Conversation Analysis. In J. C Richards & R. W. Schmidt and Communication. 4. 177- 154. Harlow: Longman. (Eds). Language Sacks, H. (1973). On some puns with some intimations. Report of the Twenty- Third Annual Round - table Meeting on Linguistics and Language studies. Ed. R. W. Shuy. DC : Georgetown University Press. 44-135. ALLS 6(4):171-178, 2015 178 Schegloff, E. A. ,Jefferson, G. , & Sacks, H. (1977). The preference for self- correction in the organization of repair in conversation. Language, 5(3). 361-381. Schegloff E. A, & Sacks, H. (197). Opening up closings. Semiotics, 8(3), 289-327. Silverman, D. (1998). Harvey Sacks : Social science and Conversation analysis. Cambridge: Polity. Wardhaugh, R. (1985). How conversation works. Oxford: Blackwell. Appendix Setting: At a compound Participants: Two women who are neighbours living in the same compound. They were later joined by a passer- by. Transcription Notation: (From Psathas, (1995). A. Simultaneous utterances: Where two people began to speak at the same time- [ B. Overlapping utterances: Where a speaker starts to talk while the second speaker is still talking- [ C. Contiguous utterances: Where there is no gap between one person’s talk finishing and another person’s talk – starting = D. Intervals within and between utterances: where there is no talk - (0.5), (1.2), etc. E. Very brief Pauses- (.) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. Mama Udoka: What is this country turning into eh? = Mama Nkechi: What is it mama Udoka? (0.5) Mama Udoka: How can you be asking that kind of question, mama Nkechi ? Are you from the moon? Are you the only one who does not know what is happening in the northern part of this country? Mama Nkechi: Oh! (0.15) is it the bombings and killings of innocent citizens of the country by the Boko Haram? = Mama Udoka: Yes now! This thing is getting out of hand. Do you know the latest? We heard that the bombing which took place in Madala in Niger state on Christmas day killed the only surviving son of late Mazi Nnachi. = Mama Nkechi: Don’t say that again. Mama Udoka: You mean you’ve not heard? Huh! The issue now is not that the boy is dead but to break this tragic news to the sick mother. Mama Nkechi: so that woman is sick (.) Why wouldn’t she be sick after what she did to herself on the day of her husband’s burial. Ewooh! (.) And now her only son who just went back to his base is dead. Chei! (.) Are you sure someone is not behind [all this? Mama Udoka: [How can you say someone sent Boko Haram to kill him. He was not the only one who died in the bomb blast. Passer by: Sorry to interrupt your conversation. Boko Haram is the latest news. I am just coming from that compound where I went to console my colleague whose son was involved in the shooting that took place in Adamawa state by Book Haram. Do you know that this man that was shot just wedded and the wife is even pregnant of their first baby. Mama Udoka : Mama Nkechi, did you hear that? Chineke Onye Ebere! Mama Nkechi: Ewoo! (0.5). What did you just say ? Passer-by: If you listen carefully, you’re hear the crying of people. In fact people are there now. You’ll not even see the leg to come out from the place if you go. I just managed to come out now to rush to my place of work to sign my name in the attendance register and after which I’ll come back. Let me run along, bye. Mama Udoka and mama Nkechi: Bye, bye . Mama Udoka: If not that am already late to work, I would have gone there now, but I will do that as soon as am back from work. Mama Nkechi : I’ ll like to go there when the news is fresh. Am going to see you when I come back. Mama Udoka: Bye, bye! Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia The Effect of Supplementary Materials on Reading Comprehension Improvement of Iranian Female High School EFL Learners Based on Gaj and Khate Sefid Text books Zahra Abbasi Department of English Language Teaching, Islamic Azad University, Ilam Branch, Ilam, Iran Akbar Azizifar (Corresponding author) Department of English Language Teaching, Islamic Azad University, Ilam Branch, Ilam, Iran E-mail: akb1354@yahoo.com Habib Gowhary Department of English Language Teaching, Islamic Azad University, Ilam Branch, Ilam, Iran Mina Heidari Department of English Language Teaching, Islamic Azad University, Ilam Branch, Ilam, Iran Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.179 Received: 10/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.179 Accepted: 15/06/2015 Abstract The Impact of using Supplementary books alongside the national academic text book has received great attention of the curriculum and material developers. Since the beginning of language studies, Second &Foreign Language Acquisition (SLA & FLA) researchers have been searching for effective ways of improving learners’ language skills. This study aimed at investigating the effects of using supplementary text books (Gaj and Khate Sefid) on English as a foreign language (EFL) learners’ Reading skill. Data from this study demonstrate a significant role of using two kinds of books Gaj and Khate Sefid in improving the reading skill of participants in the experimental groups. The findings of this study may help the learners to enhance their independent English language learning and improve their reading comprehension and the overall learning of English by using Supplementary books. Keywords: Reading Comprehension, Supplementary Text books, EFL Learners 1. Introduction The use of supplementary texts like Gaj and Khate Sefid has many benefits for EFL teachers and students in improving vocabulary. By using its passages we can develop vocabulary of EFL learners, EFL teachers have the benefit of teaching vocabulary through context. Teaching vocabulary through context simply means to look for clues in the sentence that might tell the reader something about the meaning of the word in question. Researchers have studied the impact of visual and verbal clues on learning words in context. In this regard, Walters (2006) reported that improved reading comprehension resulted when 11 ESL students, ranging in age from 17 to 47, enrolled in an English language program were shown strategies of how to derive meanings of unfamiliar words from context clues. Among many strategies for improving reading skill using supplementary books might be one of the effective strategies. Everyone knows about the many text books available in the market. As Richards (2001) holds, for learners the text book might provide the main source of contact they maintain with the language. The way to select the most appropriate one is what needs close scrutiny and research. Taking heed of all these disfavors, in the middle of the 1980s some practitioners and language scholars resurrected literature and related text book as a language learning material after a long period of being neglected (Duff & Maley, 1991). This can be confirmed by seeing so many publications heralding the coming back of literature (Maley, 1989b) in language classes (e.g. Collie & Slater, 1987; Duff & Maley, 1991; Hill, 1986; Maley & Duff, 1989; McRae, 1991). Besides, applied linguistics fueled the return of literature and supplementary text books for language teaching (Belcher & Hirvela, 2000). Supplementary textbooks are considered as a promising tool for language learning purposes. Scholars in the field have proposed various advantages for the use of these books in English as a second or foreign language (ESL/EFL) classes. Stern believes that, supplementary books offer potential benefits of a high order for ESL/EFL. Linguistically, they can help students master the vocabulary and grammar of the language as well as activate the four language skills: reading, writing, listening, and speaking (Celce-Murcia, 1991). According to Sivasubramaniam (2006), those of us who learned a foreign language through an exposure to its literature will always be intended to speak and read in support of its superiority and efficacy in foreign language teaching. This is to clarify that we have a deeper realization of literature’s positive impact on our emotional and mental features. What is ALLS 6(4):179-184, 2015 180 clear in all language teaching methods and approaches, the materials and text books have always demonstrated the principles and notions prevailing in a given period in history. Supplementary text books deal with things which are interesting in nature and includes little if any uninteresting things (Maley, 1989a). Literature and language learning promotes cultural and intercultural awareness (Van, 2009) especially in the era of globalization (Tayebipour, 2009) Moreover, due to its authenticity, literature and supplementary texts of different type (here Khate Sefid) can develop sociolinguistic and pragmatic knowledge as manifested in communicative competence models (McKay, 2001). In Iran, In the realm of textbook evaluation, different authors and researchers have conducted a vast body of studies in different contexts. In this regard, they have used different text books evaluation schemes or checklists. Jahangard (2007) tried to evaluate four EFL text books used in Iranian public highschools and employed a 13 item checklist to investigate the merits and demerits of the textbook. Riazi and Mosallanejad (2010) using Bloom’s taxonomy, evaluated the types of learning objectives represented in Iranian senior highschool and pre university English text books. Sahragard, Rahimi and Zare moayeddi (2008) concluded an in depth evaluation of Interchange series with a focus on the real application of communicative and task-based approaches applied in the materials of the text book. When the learners read out other sources of English and enjoy the success of handling those texts, for sure, it would lead to better understanding of the nature of language and the real successful performance on it. For this reason, students can feel a real sense of achievement at understanding a piece of highly respected text. Also, in the supplementary text books they are really endowed with a lot of points and themes which in close harmony with the real texts of the schools. But the themes should be “consistent with the traditions that the learners are familiar with” (Widdowson, 1983, p. 32) to avoid conflicts and their attentions do not get shattered too much beyond the limits of the expected materials. It is worth mentioning that supplementary can be used to improve many sub-skills in reading. Learners must be persuaded to predict what is going to occur by reading the title, the first paragraph and to induce what the passage will be about. Then, learners should be able to defend their imaginations with proofs from the text (Goodman, 2007) and the possible impact it may have on the reading performance of the passages. What we see at the end of Gaj and khate sefid series regarding the passages and the short stories for the sake of improving reading ability are all on the line of the same purpose and objective. Furthermore, as mentioned regarding reading passages, reading short passages can be an input to practice other language skills. Anderson (1967) stated that learners practice the listening skills at the same time when they listen to their classmates retell the stories. After finishing reading, learners can be asked to narrate the story in their own words, to give chronological sequences of happenings in the story, to paraphrase or to state a summary of the story. Besides, students can do the role play, act out some of the story parts, or dramatize the characters in the story. This is due to the fact that they (the skills) interrelated in action. To sum up, using supplementary textbooks in the classroom can result in better language comprehension and higher interest. This technique can promote learning of cultural aspects and develop learners' motivation. There is little research on this topic, so the present study investigated the effect of the supplementary textbooks on improving learners' reading skills and enhancing their motivation in learning language. 1.1 Research Question Q1: Is there any significant relationship between Gaj and Khate Sefid supplementary text books on Iranian EFL learners’ reading performance? 1.2 Research Hypothesis HO1: There is no significant difference between Gaj and Khate Sefid supplementary text books on Iranian EFL learners’ reading performance. 2. Methodology 2.1 Participants The subjects in this research are 90 Iranian second grade female in highschool female learners studying at Fatemeh Zahra highschool in Ayvan, Ilam, Iran. The number of female learners is equal in three groups. Among the 150 learners taking the Michigan test, 90 students (the sample of the study) qualified to be classified equally into one control and two experimental groups, each group 30 female members. 2.2 Instruments As the first instrument, a modified Michigan test(version1997), was used to select 90female students at the same level of proficiency among 150second grade learners of English language. Its validity and reliability were taken for granted as they were standardized. The materials used in this research are selected reading texts of Gaj and Khate Sefid supplementary text books which can be used as tools for applying teaching and reading comprehension in the treatment group’s class. Since the participants of experimental group in this research were not familiar with using such books as supplementary text books, the researcher showed them the correct deployment of these texts to the students. The control group’s members was conducted in traditional techniques of class using their course national book. ALLS 6(4):179-184, 2015 181 2.3 Procedure Collecting data started at Mehr1393(Septamber, 2014), the researcher obtained the consent of manager of Fatemeh Zahra highschool located in Ayvan, Iran for participating their second grade learners in the study. In this study, for collecting data, the teacher used Gaj in one of the experimental classes, Khate Sefid in another class (both were focusing on and were specifically developed on these groups of students’ grade) along with the normal textbook, as for the control group he just dealt with the normal academic book. At the end of the treatment after two and a half month of Azar(middle of November) the researcher assigned a post test on the materials taught to detect the impact of treatment. 2.4 Statistical procedure After collecting data from the performances of control and experimental groups, the researcher analyzed the data of research groups’ performances by helping one Statistics teacher and using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Science) software. 3. Results In this part, the research hypotheses are considered. To consider the effect of using short story on speaking improvement of learners, the independent T-test was used to compare the score of both control and experimental groups. That will be shown in following. Table 1. T-test Statistics on the Differences between the Experimental one group and Control Group in Pre-test Group NO M S.D T df Sig.(2-tailed) Pre-test scores 30 13.85 3.15 -0.14 58 0.88 C.G 30 13.96 3.03 E.G1 The T-test analysis showed that the difference in the pretest means between the control group and the experimental group was not statistically significant, because the P value(0.88), was higher than 0.05. Therefore, the null hypothesis was confirmed and it was concluded that, before the beginning of the treatment, both control and experimental groups were of the same level at their reading ability. Figure 1. T-test Statistics on the Differences between the Experimental one group and Control Group in Pre-test The figure for this comparison shows that the experimental group has had a better performance. But the difference is not big enough to be significant. Table 2. T-test Statistics on the Differences between the Experimental two group and Control Group in Pre-test Group NO M S.D T df Sig.(2-tailed) Pre-test scores C.G 30 13.85 3.15 -0.14 58 0.86 E.G2 30 13.88 3.10 Figure 2. T-test Statistics on the Differences between the Experimental two group and Control Group in Pre-test Table (2) and its figure shows the better performance of the experimental group in comparison to the control group. The significance of their performance can not be touched upon as they have not yet received the treatment. ALLS 6(4):179-184, 2015 182 Table 3. T-test Statistics on the Differences between the Experimental one group and Control Group in Post-test Group NO M SD T df Sig.( 2-tailed) Post-test scores C.G 30 13.93 3.56 -2.09 58 0.04 E.G1 30 15.81 3.32 The T-test analyses (Table 3) indicated that the difference in the post-test means between the Control group and the Experimental group was statistically significant, because the P value (0.04) was lower than 0.05. Therefore, the null hypotheses were rejected. That is, There was a significant difference between the post-test score of the two experimental groups and it was indicated that the students using educational supplementary text books as treatment (experimental groups) performed significantly better than the group having traditional and only national academic text book one (control group). So research hypothesis is confirmed. Figure 3. T-test Statistics on the Differences between the Experimental one group and Control Group in Post-test This figure show the comparison of the post test performance of the experimental one group Khate Sefid, and the control group. As will be seen the difference is significant revealing the acceptal performance of the experimental group and the appropriacy of the treatment. Table 4. T-test Statistics on the Differences between the Experimental two group and Control Group in Post-test Post-test scores Group NO M S.D T df Sig.(2-tailed) C.G E.G2 30 30 13.93 15.57 3.56 3.28 -2.05 58 0.04 Figure 4. T-test Statistics on the Differences between the Experimental two group and Control Group in Post-test As seen the difference between their performance is significant revealing the appropriacy of the treatment. 4. Discussion The purpose of this study was to address the effectiveness of using supplementary text books (Gaj and Khate Sefid) on reading skill of learners in classroom. Findings indicated that using supplementary text books like Gaj and Khate Sefid is effective in improving EFL reading of learners at the intermediate level of English. This result can be more approved by this evidence that there was a significance difference between the means of pre-tests and post-tests. The means of the post-tests were higher than pretests. Also, T-observed were much greater than T-critical. The reason for the better performance of experimental groups in using supplementary might be due to the fact that, using supplementary text books may help them to retain only the main idea of the passages and applying this capability to going over the whole passage and the related questions accordingly. One possible explanation of such result is that positive and correct use of such learning materials by students helps them to enhance their reading proficiency. Supplementary instructional materials are instructional materials designed to serve, but are not limited to one or more of the following purposes for a given subject or grade level: 1. To provide more complete coverage of a subject or subjects included in a given course. ALLS 6(4):179-184, 2015 183 2. To provide for meeting the various learning ability levels of students in a given age group or grade level. 3. To provide for meeting the diverse educational needs of students with a language disability in a given age group or grade level. 4. To provide for meeting the diverse educational needs of students reflective of a condition of cultural pluralism. The students would not feel bored with the environment. This would as well lead to greater concentration on learning materials. Since in this approach teacher is not the sole presenter of materials, students would take an egalitarian attitude towards him/her and so the classroom would be a friendly atmosphere where optimal learning occurs. This positive social atmosphere is assumed to increase learning much more than where learners receive instruction through traditional approaches and focusing just on form and grammar. With regard to this, the teacher puts the burden of learning vocabulary, structure, and class interactions on the learners' shoulders by assigning them some portion of the materials of the supplementary text books. Deployment of supplementary text books has the potential not only to involve EFL students in an enjoyable reading experience but also to develop their linguistic ability and cultural awareness. They had some doubt in their ability to handle the anticipated difficulty of using short stories, but their attitudes were generally positive. After a semester supplementary text book-using process, they demonstrated improvement not only in attitudes, confidence, and interest, but also in their perceived reading ability. 5. Conclusion As mentioned, this study aimed at testing the research hypothesis including the effect of independent variable (i.e., supplementary text books) on dependent variable (i.e., reading comprehension) of Iranian EFL learners. More specifically, it aimed at understanding the extent to which using supplementary text books would affect reading proficiency among Iranian intermediate students. Also, poor performance of English learners on reading comprehension tests may be due to the negligence of education in the target culture, lack of communicative activities, limited English input outside the classroom, and lack of exposure primarily to other written as opposed to other activities within the classroom, which are the characteristics of foreign language learning settings. After finishing the course of study and by analyzing the data, it was found that using supplementary text books as an instructional tool had a positive impact on reading comprehension of English learners in experimental groups. This research began with the assumption that teaching supplementary text books materials including Gaj and Khate Sefid could enhance the intermediate language learners' reading capability. Deployment of such supplementary text books promote students' motivation and this makes them more interested in classroom and outside classroom participation while students who merely and conventionally read the main national texts have fewer chance of input and its future intake. Seemingly, it is not easy to stimulate these students to take part in classroom activities since some of them do not have information about such books and they are not interested in more materials for learning Also, many, if not all, students enjoy reading supplementary text books, doing its tests, and learning more about the grammatical and lexical contents of the national routine text books. If strategy training to enhance the reading skill is felt advantageous, it should be used to notifying intermediate language learners of supplementary text books which they have to read outside the classroom to make them better learners and reader of English. References Anderson, V., Dieckman, P., Anderson, S., Ballantine, F., &Howes, V.M (1967). Reading in the Language Arts.(5th edition). New York: Macmillan. Belcher, D. & Hirvela, A. (2000). Literature and L2 composition: Revisiting the debate. Journal of second language writing, 9(1), 21-39. Celce Murcia, M., D.Brinton and J.Goodwin. (1996). Teaching Pronunciation Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Collie, J. and S. Slater (1987): Literature in the Language Classroom. Cambridge: University Press. Duff, A. &Maley, A. (1991).Literature. Oxford: Oxford University Press Goodman, Y. M., & Carolyn A. B. (1972).Reading Miscue Inventory Manual Procedure For Diagnosis And Evaluation. New York: Macmillan Publishing. Hill, J. (1986). Using Literature in Language Teaching. London: Macmillan. Jahangard, (2007). http://www3.telus.net/linguisticsissues/tefliranian.html. Maley, A. (1989a).Down from the pedestal: Literature as resource. In R. Carter, R. Walker & C. Brumfit (eds.), Literature and the learner: methodological approaches. (pp. 1-9). Modern English Publications and the British Counsel. Maley, A. (1989b).A comeback for literature?Practical English Teacher, 10, 59. Maley, A., & Duff, A. (1989).The Inward Ear. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. McKay, S. (2001) Literature as Content for ESL/EFL. In M. Celce-Murcia (Ed,), Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language. Heinle&Heinle. McRae, J. (1991). Literature with a Small `l'. London: Macmillan ALLS 6(4):179-184, 2015 184 Riazi, Mosallanejad (2010). http://www.tesl-ej.org/pdf/ej52/a5.pdf. Richards, J.C. (2001). Approaches and Methods in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Sahragard, Rahimi & Zare moayeddi (2008) http://www.consortiacademia.org/files/journals/3/articles/70/public/70-268-1-PB.pdf. Sivasubramaniam, S. (2006).Promoting the Prevalence of Literature in the Practice of Foreign and Second Language Education: Issues and Insights. Retrieved October 9, 2007 from http://asian-efl-journal.com/Dec_06_ss.php Stern, S. L. (2001) An Integrated Approach to Literature in ESL/EFL. In M. Celce-Murcia (ed.) Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language.Heinle&Heinle. Tayebipour, F. (2009).In Defence of Teaching literature to EFL students in the era of Globalization. Van, T.T.M. (2009).The relevance of literary analysis to teaching literature in the EFL classroom. English Teaching Forum, 3, 2-9. Walters, J. (2006). Methods of teaching inferring meaning from context. Regional Language Centre Journal, 37(2), 176-190. Widdowson, H. G. (1983). Talking shop: H.G. Widdowson on literature and ELT. ELT Journal, 37(1), 30-35. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Syllable Structure in Rumthawi Arabic Naser N. AlBzour Department of English Language and Literature, Al AlBayt University (AABU), Jordan E-mail: nnnbzour@gmail.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.185 Received: 08/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.185 Accepted: 16/06/2015 Abstract This paper aims at investigating some phonological aspects of syllable structure in Rumthawi Arabic, a Levantine variety spoken in the northern region of Jordan. It basically sheds light on the OT constraint interaction that determines the surfacing onsets and codas of syllables in this dialect. The scope of this paper is more specifically confined to examining the optimal candidates that surface when the definite article morpheme is prefixed. It thus proves that OT constraints in RA interact in an interestingly distinctive way that triggers divergence and sometimes convergence with other dialects due to the parametrical ranking of these constraints in this dialect unlike some other dialects. It is hoped that this humble endeavor will give insight to many interested researchers to deeply investigate various phonological aspects of this dialect. Keywords: optimality, syllable structure, onset, coda, epenthesis, constraints, faithfulness, markedness 1. Introduction As controversial as the way its name is in multiple variation when articulated as [ər.rəm.thə], [Ir.rəm.thə], [Ir.rIm.thə] and [Ir.rʊm.thə], Rumthawi dialect is distinctively peculiar. Al-Rumtha, the researchers’ beautiful serene hometown, is a major Jordanian city lying in the utmost northern boarder-line region at the corner point of Huran Plains between Jordan and Syria. Approximately, ninety thousand people constitute the population of this agricultural area. Many integrated historical, economic, social and linguistic aspects pour in one crucible that may contribute to marking this Rumthawi dialect as such among other regional dialects. This markedness can be noticeably recognized at various levels: lexical, syntactic, semantic and for sure phonological. The significance of this paper emanates from the fact that most recent phonological studies tend to label Arabic dialects into broad categories such as Arabic, Egyptian Arabic, Levantine Arabic, Jordanian Arabic ,etc. Broad categories will definitely engender broad generalizations that might be inaccurately construed and construed. Few studies have tackled particularly exclusive dialects in their regional and socio-demographic contexts. Many studies have been conducted in the over-generic mood examining Levantine Arabic, and less generically Abu-Salim’s (1982) Palestinian Arabic, let alone what appears to be incognizance of the relationship between such dialects as it is evident in Kager’s erroneous remark (1997, 496), “Into the second class (‘categorial deletion’) fall syncope patterns found in various Arabic dialects (Levantine and Palestinian Arabic syncope and metrical structure are analyzed in an OT framework in Kager 1995)”. The claim that ‘Levantine and Palestinian Arabic…’ ignores the very axiom that Palestinian Arabic is one of the Levantine Arabic varieties in addition to Jordanian, Lebanese and Syrian. This unfortunately reflects that there is a spirit of ad hoc analysis of these dialects either because the authors investigate ad hoc data or because the data have not been authentically attested. However, Irsheid-Kenstowicz’s (1984) Bani- Hassan Arabic is one of the first works in phonology that seriously endeavors to explore a specific Jordanian dialect as such, yet it is carried out and implemented in terms of segmental and metrical phonology. 2. Significance and Scope of the study The present study attempts to study the syllable structure and its role in determining syllabification patterns in Rumthawi Arabic (henceforth, RA), with respect to some universal constraints. Theoretically this paper is expected to present tangible evidence in support of the major assumptions whether the syllable is a universally phonological constituent in a phonological theory or not. It is an attempt to elucidate some aspects of the syllable structure as elaborately established by various phonologists who have elicited a plethora of issues pertaining to syllabification constraints such as Maximal Onset Principle and Sonority Hierarchy; phonological changes such as syncope, geminates, epenthesis; in addition to manifesting syllable internal structure and syllable types. However, the scope of this research is technically confined to examining the onset and the coda of the syllable in RA. The focus of the analysis will be, therefore, within a non-linear framework of generative phonology, in general, with particular emphasis on basic relevant assumptions of optimality theory to fathom the rudimentary structure of RA syllables which might consequently diverge or converge at certain levels with previous analyses implemented to other vernacular or Standard Arabic varieties. ALLS 6(4):185-194, 2015 3. 186 Results and Analysis Speech sounds do not normally occur in isolation. Rather, they are put together according to certain constraints (some are language–specific and some are universal) to build up larger units like syllables and words. Words can, therefore, be subdivided into smaller units called syllables. The syllable has for long been taken as a phonological unit (Selkirk 1982, Katamba1989, Roca and Johnson 1999, et al). Such studies have shown that in many languages of the world many phonological features can be properly accounted for by recognizing the syllable as a unit rather than combinations of segments. The syllable is therefore a linguistically significant unit which must have its place in a phonological theory. There is evidence that the syllable is a universal phonological constituent. First, the most general and explanatory statement of phonotactic constraints in language can be made only by reference to the syllable structure. Selkirk (1982) and Katamba (1989) emphasize that the syllable is the essence of phonological representation, and that it is purely a phonological entity. Second, many phonological generalizations and rules are best stated in terms of the syllable structure, or, put differently, cannot be sufficiently expressed without reference to it . By the same token, the syllable structure plays a pivotal role in the placement of word stress. When stress falls on a syllable, that syllable is referred as being stressed. Non-linear phonology, on the other hand, looks at the syllable as a hierarchical unit consisting of onset and rhyme constituents. By adopting this approach, it has become more possible for linguists to formulate substantial rules for word stress placement in different languages without resorting to very complicated sequences of segments, even though those languages may have diverse syllable structures. The distinction between heavy and light syllables (i.e. syllable weight) is a fundamental property of syllable constituency in non-linear phonology. In a nutshell, the study in hand investigates the syllable structure of Rumthawi Arabic adopting the non-linear phonology, mainly OT which considers the syllable (rather than segments) as the basic phonological unit. Traditionally, O’Connor (1973, 200) defines the syllable as “a unit containing one and only one vowel either alone or surrounded by consonants in certain numbers and certain arrangements.” It is apparent that O’Connor focuses on the distributional, phonotactics description of the syllable. This functional definition is language–specific; that is, it’s peculiar to one language but may not apply to another. After the segmental/linear approach (see McCarthy 1979, Kiparsky 1979, Selkirk 1980, et al), the hierarchical analysis of the syllable structure rejected the linear representation of syllables and adopted a hierarchical structure represented by means of a binary tree diagram. The syllable, according to this hypothesis, is divided into two constituents: onset and rhyme. The onset occupies the pre-nuclear position, while the rhyme divides into nucleus and coda. Abu Salim (1982) examined syllable structure and patterns of Palestinian Arabic within the framework of metrical phonology, yet his analysis seems somehow misleading in some instances because Palestinian Arabic encompasses various dialects that Abu Salim apparently handled as one without specifically delineating the drastic differences that might distinguish these dialects according to differences of their syllable structure. On the other hand, Irsheid and Kenstowitcs (1984) studied Bani Hassan Arabic (BHA), a dialect spoken by a tribe inhabiting the north-eastern regions of Jordan at vicinity with Rumtha, where RA is, nonetheless, distinctively spoken in a manner that undoubtedly marks these two dialects significantly different in terms of their syllable structure and syllabification. Their study, of course, is within the framework of generative phonology not OT, which had not been yet born. The following data from RA and BHA reflect the fact that there is some divergence between these two adjacent dialects. Such divergence is due to prioritizing various violable constraints that each dialect differently stratifies in its hierarchy. Such variation rationalizes different constraint interactions among Arabic varieties as it can be seen in the following data where BHA tends to epenthesize /?I/ syllable initially unlike RA. (1) RA səħ.bət TIl.ʕət ʃIr.bət Sər.χət Thər.bət Næ.dət ʕIrf.ət sək.bət nId.mət TIl.ʕət BHA ?Is. ħə.bət ? IT.lə.ʕət ? Iʃ.rʊ.bət ? I S.rʊ.χət ? IT.hrʊ.bət ? I n.dI.hət ? Iʕ.rʊ.fət ? I s.ku.bət ? In.dI.mət ? IT.lə.ʕət Gloss ‘she pulled’ ‘she went out’ ‘she drank’ ‘she screamed’ ‘she hit’ ‘she called’ ‘she knew’ ‘she poured’ ‘she regretted’ ‘she went out’ The structure of the syllable in Arabic is similar to English Syllable structure in the way that it consists of a nucleus (an obligatory segment either short or long) and rhyme: onset and coda (only the coda is an optional segment). Arabic onset differs from English onset in that it is obligatory and always consists of a single consonant; the coda consists of zero, one, or two consonants . Every vowel in an utterance in Standard Arabic (SA) represents a syllable nucleus. Moreover, syllabic consonants are not found in SA. Thus, the number of syllables in an utterance is identical to the number of vowels (Al-Ani and May 1978: 120). ALLS 6(4):185-194, 2015 187 3.1 Standard Arabic Syllable Types Phonologists seem to agree that the following five types of syllable occur in Arabic: 1. CV as in / kə.tə.bə / ‘he wrote’ 2. CVV as in / kaa. tə. bə / ‘he corresponded’ 3. CVC as in / ʕəm / ‘paternal uncle’ 4. CVVC as in / sææd / ‘prevailed’ 5. CVCC as in / ʕərD / ‘honor’ With respect to length, the syllable in SA can be divided into the following: (a) Short syllable : CV (b) Medium syllables : CVV, CVC (c) Long syllables : CVVCC, CVVC, CVCC In terms of open/closed distinction, the syllable in SA can be classified into : a. Open syllables: CV, CVV b. Closed syllables: CVC, CVVC, CVCC, CVVCC Regarding frequency of occurrence, the first three types (CV, CVV, CVC) occur much more often than do the last three (CVVC, CVCC & CVVCC); the short open syllable (CV) being the most frequent of all , and CVVCC being the least frequent (Al-Ani and May 1978, 118). As for distribution of syllable types, Al-Ani and May (ibid) argue that the first three patterns (CV, CVV, CVC) occur without restriction, i.e., initially, medially, and finally in an utterance. The last three types, nevertheless, are not freely distributed. CVCC and CVVC, for instance, occur mainly in final position of words and utterances in pause. The CVVCC type occurs exclusively syllable-finally in an utterance in pause form. The six syllable types in SA clearly refers to the fact that SA syllable structure never begins with a vowel, and if it starts with a vowel, the glottal stop /ʔ/ is consequently epenthesized before that vowel. 3.2 Syllable Structure in RA At the phonetic level, there are five basic syllable types in RA. These types are exemplified below. The first five types are used freely in any position within the word, that is, initially medially and finally. The other three types are somehow frequent only in initial position as exemplified below: (2) Distribution of RA Syllable Types: Word-Initially, Medially and Finally Syllable Type CV Initially Medially Finally /sə .mə/ ‘sky’ CVV /bei.tu/ ‘his house ’ CVC /Təm.mən/ ‘she reassured ’ /zʊmm.nI/ ‘carry me / beit.kʊ / ‘your house’ /stə.wa/ ‘he became ripe’/ /stəw.ħəʃ/ ‘he felt lonely/like a beast ’ /ʧlaab.hum/ ‘ their dogs’ /Slaa.xI/‘jerk.(m)’ /bin.Tə.rId/ ‘to be expelled’ /ðə.rei.beh/ ‘tax’ / Təm.mən.nə / ‘he reassured us’ /ðə.bəħt.ta/ ‘I killed her’ /xab.beit.hə/ ‘I hid her’ /Tə.rət.tʊ/ ‘I eplelled him’ /səm.maaU/ ‘he named him’ / ðə.ma:n/ ‘insurance’ /In.ħə.bəst/ ‘I was jailed’ /səb.beit/ ‘I cursed’ CVCC CVVC CCV CCVC CCVVC CCVV Optimality Theory is supposedly the mainstream trend in phonological theories that may best explain differences among dialects. OT, therefore, accounts for such differences in light of setting pertinent violable constraints. Language-specific rules, within this model, are “attained through the language-specific ranking of the crucially violable constraints, the substance of which is ideally conceived of as universal”, (Roca and Johnson 1999, 584-585). The Optimal nominee ‘winner’ is thus decided primarily in accordance with satisfying the top ranked constraints unlike ‘losers’, which are accordingly excluded as a result of fatal or more serious violations. Then, the OT basic assumptions can be best understood in a continuous competing relationship between two categories of constraints, namely, Faithfulness and markedness Constraints (Prince and Smolensky,1993). Accordingly, McCarthy (2007b, 266) sums up: Faithfulness constraints are inherently conservative, requiring the output of the grammar to resemble its input. Because markedness constraints favor some linguistic structures over others, they are often in tension with faithfulness constraints, which resist changes to input structures. This tension is called constraint conflict, and it is resolved in OT by ranking. McCarthy (Ibid) argues that every syllable in Arabic must have an onset, therefore, [?] is epenthesized whenever ‘it is needed to ensure that outcome’. So he correctly, yet in less accurate terms concludes that if Onset dominates the ALLS 6(4):185-194, 2015 188 antiepenthesis faithfulness constraint (and certain other ranking requirements are met), then candidates that resolve onsetless syllables by epenthesis will be preferred to candidates that preserve them, so /al-wələd/ ‘The boy’-> [?alwələd], *[al-wələd]. He, Furthermore, reiterates the following: The mapping from underlying /ktub/ to surface [uktub] ‘write!’ in Arabic involves a two-step derivation in rule-based phonology, with vowel epenthesis creating the context that necessitates [?] epenthesis. In OT, on the other hand, the grammar compares candidates that may show the simultaneous effects of two or more epenthesis operations, and [?uktub] is among them. (ibid, 282). (3) /ktub/ ☞ a. ?uktub b. ktub c. uktub ONSET *#CC DEP ** L *L *W *W (McCarthy:282) McCarthy’s analysis in (3) is undubiously neat and elegant, yet it sometimes lacks accuracy to be so generalized to ‘Arabic’, so which Arabic is in question in this given case. If the answer is Standard Arabic, then that would be incorrect because there are different Standard varieties of Arabic that contradict MacCarthy’s winner /?uktub/- at least some different readings of the ‘most standard’ versions of almost unanimously agreed upon standard Arabics exist in the Holy Qur’an (Muslims’ Holy Scripture), where the non-epenthesized version /ktub/ in Warsh Recitation of Standard Arabic is the optimal choice along with the other Qurashi SA/?uktub/. More intriguingly, RA and Lebanese Arabic which belong to the same Levantine Arabic, lend themselves rather differently to this very constraint- though McCarthy (2007 b) treats almost all Levantine Arabic varieties under the same broad label ‘Levantine’. For instance, the Lebanese optimal choice is /ktoub/ i.e neither initial vowel nor glottal epentheses, but rather with medial diphthonganization. RA, on the contrary, prefers to have alliance with the ‘standard’ version with epenthesized elements, so the winner is /?ktub/. More interestingly, Lebanese prefers the ‘standard’ mechanism of SA choice /?alwələd/, although the epenthesized vowel is almost the high front vowel /ɪ/, so the optimal choice is /?ɪlwələd/. However, RA shows sheer divergence with the ‘standard’ choice, so we have the optimal choice /lwələd/ which disprefers epentheses, yet it realizes the sonority profile. These two examples clearly reflect how each dialect can be differently deemed susceptible to these constraints in a disparate manner which, therefore, exemplifies a parametric choice of these dialects based on different hierarchical interaction between these constraints. Examine the following two rules and consequently the accompanying tableaus that can show such an interaction in RA which is similar to SA in (4) and discrepant in (5). RA /ktʊb/ UR V-epenthesis [?] -epenthesis SR [?ʊk.tʊb] /ktʊb/ ʊk.tʊb ? ʊk.tʊb [?ʊk.tʊb] (4) Tableau /ktub/ ☞ a. ?ʊktʊb b. ktʊb c. ʊktub ONSET *#CC DEP ** L *L *W *W Now compare this: RA / el-wə.ləd / UR V-epenthesis [?] -epenthesis V-deletion SR [lwə.ləd] / el-wə.ləd / --------------------lwə.ləd [lwə.ləd] (5)Tableau /el-walad/ ☞ a.lwə.ləd b. elwalad c. ?alwalad *ONSET *W CC * *W DEP * *L ALLS 6(4):185-194, 2015 189 Syllables universally prefer C- onsets. It is evident, thus far, that RA is no exception, and it lends itself in the same vein to such a universal constraint, so it solves the problem of onsetless syllables by either a process of epenthesis or resyllabification. These two processes anticipate the unique interaction between two constraints; the first bans epenthesis and the second motivates it as it can be formulated below: a. b. DEP-IO: Every segment of the output has a correspondent in the input. ( McCarthy and Prince, 1995) ONS:Every syllable has an onset. (Prince and Smolensky, 1993) To substantiate the validity of this argument, sufficient and authentic data should be herein provided. One of the best examples that may manifest such constraint race is the definite article prefix /el/ in RA, which is equivalent to /al/ in SA. This prefix surfaces in two different forms when attached to nouns, thus showing a kind of interaction different from SA and many other vernacular Arabic varieties like Bani Hasan’s. The first case represents the so-called the Moon Definite Article, where the consonant /l/ of the definite morpheme prefix /el/ or /al/ is retained and surfaces in the output. (6) The Moon Definite Article /el/al+stem/ Ħma:r ɣra:b Ktaab Kra:r Ħsaab Ħwa:r fra:q qma:r ɣlaal ɣba:r djʕa:r SA ?əl.ħI.ma:r ?əl.ɣʊ.ra:b ?əl. I.taab ?əl.KI.ra:r ?əl.ĦI.saab ?əl. ĦI.wa:r ?əl.fI.ra:q ?əl.qI.ma:r ?əl.ɣI.laal ?əl.ɣu.ba:r ?əl.djI.ʕa:r RA lIħ.ma:r lIɣ.ra:b lIk.taab lIk.ra:r lIĦ.saab lIĦ.wa:r lIf.ra:g lIg.ma:r lIɣ.laal lIɣ.ba:r lIdj.ʕa:r BHA ?ə.ləħ.ma:r ?ə.əɣ.ra:b ?ə.lək.taab ?ə.laK.ra:r ?ələĦ.saab ?ə.ləĦ.wa:r ? ə.ləf.ra:g ?ə.ləq.ma:r ?ə.ləɣ.laal ?ə.ləɣ.ba:r ?ə.lədj.ʕa:r Glosses The donkey The raven The book The young donkeys The account/ Maths/ judgment The young camel The departure The gambling The harvest The dust The donkey’s bray The data given in this table (6) can delimit the basic phonological features that distinguish the onset in RA from the other two dialects. Examining these words, one can notice the following: a) All these stems are monosyllabic. b) All these stems have a CCVVC or CCV:C templates. This means that they are extra-heavy syllables. c) When the definite prefix is added they all resyllabify. d) The suffix morpheme has a VC template, and this creates the problem because V-onset syllables are impermissible. e) The resulting words in SA and BHA consist of three syllables while in RA they consist of two syllables. f) The structure of the first syllable in SA is subject to glottal stop insertion to avoid V-onset, so VC+CCVC CVC.CV.CVVC. BHA almost operates in the same manner except that the coda consonant re-syllabifies to serve as an onset to the second epenthetic vowel, so VC+ CCVC CV.CVC.CVVC g) Interestingly, RA syllables behave differently, so the initial vowel elides, thus leaving the consonant /l/ to resyllabify with the next syllable which originally has a consonant onset. To avoid another problem ,and as a repairing strategy of undesirable output, a vowel is epenthesized medially as a nucleus; the prefix C serves as an onset; and the first consonant of the first syllable of the stem serves as a coda of the first syllable, so the output is CVC. CVVC or CVC. CV:C thus realizing MAX-ONS constraint as well: *COPLEX: Syllables have at most one consonant at edge. (Archangel and Langendeon.1997) Hence, we may assume the following constraint hierarchy in RA as represented in the following tableau where the winner candidate is the one that incurs the least fatal violations although it does violate the faithfulness constraint DEPIO. In addition, it seems that ALIGN (R) plays a significant role in determining the optimal candidate in RA; that is why candidate (c) wins over candidate (d). ALIGN (R): Align root morpheme boundaries with syllable boundaries at both edges; hence, *ONSET>> MAX.ONS-CC >> ALIGN (R) >>DEP-IO. In RA, furthermore, the markedness constraint SON (Clements, 1990) which stresses the scale of sonority is realized in (c) unlike (a) and (b). Compare the following three tableaus to realize the difference between constraint interaction in RA, on the one hand, and the other two varieties, on the other hand. ALLS 6(4):185-194, 2015 190 (6.a.) Tableau RA: /el-ktaab/ a. el.ktaab b. lk.taab ☞c. lIk.taab d. II.ktaab (6.b.) Tableau SA: *C-ONSET *! /al-ktaab/ a. al.ktaab b. lk.taab c. lIk.taab d. . lI.ktaab ☞e.?al.kI.taab (6.c.) Tableau BHA: *C-ONSET *! /al-ktaab/ a. al.ktaab b. lk.taab c. lIk.taab d. . lI.ktaab ☞e.?a.lIk.taab *C-ONSET *! MAX.ONS-CC ** *! ALIGN (R) DEP-IO * * * * * * MAX.ONS-CC ** *! *! MAX.ONS-CC *! *! *! ALIGN (R) DEP-IO ** * * * * * * * ALIGN (R) DEP-IO ** * * * ** * * The second case is manifested in the so-called the Sun Definite Article, where the consonant /l/ of the definite morpheme prefix /el/ or /al/ is entirely deletes in the surface output. (7) The Sun Definite Article /el/al+stem/ Sa.məĦ sə.ra:b Tə.laaq sə.ma:r zə.raq sə.waad də.ma:r ʃə.ra:b ʃə.ra:r ʃu.djaʕ Sə.fa:r Sə.da:q nə.ha:r Sə.diq SA əs.sə.maĦ ?əs. sə.rab ? ə T.Tə.laaq ?as.sa.ma:r ?ə z.zə.raq ?əs. sə.wad ?əd.da.ma:r ?əʃ.ʃə.ra:b ?əʃ.ʃə.ra:r ?əʃ.ʃu.djaʕ ?əS.Sə.fa:r ? s.Sə.da:q ?ən. nə.ha:r ?ə S.Sə.diq RA ? Is.sə.maĦ ? Is. sə.rab ? IT.Tə.laag ? Is.sə.ma:r ? Iz.zə.raq ? Is. sə.wad ? Id.də.ma:r ? Iʃ.ʃə.ra:b ? Iʃ.ʃə.ra:r ? Iʃ.ʃu.djaʕ ? IS.Sə.fa:r ? Is.Sə.da:q ? In. nə.ha:r ? IS.Sə.diq BHA ?əs.sə.maĦ ?əs. sə.rab ?əT.Tə.laag ?əs.sə.ma:r ?əz.zə.raq ?əs. sə.wad ?əd.də.ma:r ?əʃ.ʃə.ra:b ?əʃ.ʃə.ra:r ?əʃ.ʃI.djaʕ ?əS.Sə.fa:r ?əS.Sə.da:q ?ən. nə.ha:r ?ə S.Sə.diq Glosses The forgiveness The mirage The divorce The bronwishness The blueishness The blackishness The destruction The juice The sparkles The brave The yellowishness The dowry The day/daylight The friend Examining these data, one can notice the differences between the behavior of the data in the case of the Moon Definite Article and the Sun Definite Article, which van be summarized in the following issues: a) All these stems are disyllabic. b) All these stems have a CV.CVVC or CV.CV:C templates. This means that the first syllable in each is light while the second of each is extra-heavy syllables. c) When the definite prefix is added they all resyllabify. d) The suffix morpheme has a VC template, and this creates the problem because V-onset syllables are impermissible. e) The resulting words in all SA, RA and BHA consist of three syllables with a unified template CV.CV.CVVC or CV.CV.CV:C , so the last syllable of each word is bimoraic and thus it is the accented one. f) The structure of the first syllable in all these dialects alike is subject to glottal stop insertion to avoid V-onset, so VC+CCVC CVC.CV.CVVC/ CV:C. (7.a.) Tableau RA: /el+Sadiq/ a. el.Sə.dig b ?eS. ə.dig c. ?e.Sə.dig ☞d.?eS.Sə.diqg ONSET * *! MAX.ONS-CC ALIGN (R) DEP-IO ** * * * * ALLS 6(4):185-194, 2015 191 (7.b.) Tableau SA: /al+Sadiq/ a. al.Sə.diq b ?aS.ə.diq c. ?a.Sə.diq ☞d.?əS.Sa.diq (7.c) Tableau BHA: ONSET * *! /al+Sadiq/ a. al.Sə.dig b ?əS.ə.dig c. ?ə.Sə.dig ☞d.?əS.Sa.dig ONSET * *! MAX.ONS-CC MAX.ONS-CC ALIGN (R) DEP-IO ** * * * * ALIGN (R) DEP-IO ** * * * * The coda in Arabic at large is not prohibited; on the contrary, it is optionally or rather preferably realized. Examining the data given in (6), one can discern the following interesting phonological processes: in all these dialects the consonant /l/ deletes; hence, the first syllable would surface without coda. Because Arabic prefers syllables with codas, gemination is triggered, so the onset consonant of the second syllable is replicated into two: one to serve as an onset and another to serve as a coda of the preceding syllable. Thus the following tableau shows the interaction between basic onset and simple coda constraints, where the candidate (e)[.?eʃ.ʃa .ra:b] wins although it violates some other constraints, but of course less seriously than the other candidates: it violates – COD twice in the second syllable. On the other hand, (c) does violate – COD once, yet it does not win it violates ALIGN which over-ranks – COD. COD : A syllable must not have a coda. (Prince and Smolensky.1993) (8.a.) Tableau RA: /el+ʃə.rə:b / a. el.ʃə.ra:b b.? Iʃ.ə .ra:b c. ? I.ʃə.ra:b d. ? Iʃ.ʃər.a:b ☞e.? Iʃ.ʃə.ra:b *ONSET *! *! ALIGN (R) * * *! -COD ** ** * *** ** DEP-IO -COD ** ** * *** ** DEP-IO -COD ** ** * *** ** DEP-IO * * * * (8.b.) Tableau SA: /al+ʃə.ra:b / a. əl.ʃə.ra:b b.?əʃ.ə .ra:b c. ?ə.ʃə.ra:b d. ?əʃ.ʃər.a:b ☞e.?əʃ.ʃə.ra:b *ONSET *! *! ALIGN (R) * * *! * * * * (8.c.) Tableau BHA: /al+ʃə.ra:b / a. al.ʃə.ra:b b.?əʃ.ə .ra:b c. ?ə.ʃə.ra:b d. ?əʃ.ʃər.a:b ☞e.?əʃ.ʃə.ra:b *ONSET *! *! ALIGN (R) * * *! * * * * We have, thus far examined the data on The Moon Definite Article in (6) and The Sun Definite Article in (7) in isolation i.e. the definite article prefixed to the stem. Now, what will happen if we study these data in more interacting environments i.e. when another morpheme precedes the definite article morpheme with the original stem? Would we have a similar constraint interaction in RA as well as the other two varieties, or would we expect different interaction to emerge, and thus new forms to surface? (9) Morpheme+ The Moon Definite Article+ Morpheme /stem+el/al+stem/ Sawt+el+Ħma:r Sout+el+ɣra:b loun+el+Ktaab SA Saw.tul.ħI.ma:r Sou.tul.ɣu.ra:b lou.nul.kI.taab RA Sawt.lIħ.ma:r Sawt.lIɣ.ra:b lawn.lIk.taab BHA Saw.ta.laħ.ma:r Saw.ta.laɣ.ra:b law.na.lak.taab Glosses sound of the donkey Sound of the raven color of the book ALLS 6(4):185-194, 2015 192 sbaaq+el+Kra:r sI.baa.qul.KI.ra:r sI.ba:g.lIk.ra:r sI.baa.ga.laK.ra:r yawm+el+Ħsaab laĦm+el+Ħwa:r yaw.mul.ĦI.saab laĦ.mul. ĦI.wa:r youm.lIĦ.saab la.ĦIm. lIĦ.wa:r you.ma.laĦ.saab laĦ.ma.laĦ.wa:r yawm+el+fra:q laʕb+el+qma:r sInin+el+ɣlaal Ħab.bat+el+ɣba:r Sawt+el+djʕa:r yaw.mul.fI.ra:q la.ʕI.bul.qI.ma:r sI.ni.nul.ɣI.laal Ħab.ba.tul.ɣu.ba:r Saw.tul.djI.ʕa:r yaum.lIf.ra:g lI.ʕIb. lIg.ma:r sI.nin.lIɣ.laal Ħab.bat.lIɣ.ba:r Sawt.lIdj.ʕa:r yaw.ma.laf.ra:g lIʕ.ba.lIq.ma:r sI.ni.n a.lIɣ.laal Ħab.ba.ta.laɣ.ba:r Saw.ta.ladj.ʕa:r Race of the young donkeys The day of judgment Meat of the young camel The day of departure The gambling game The harvest years The dust grains The donkey’s bray a) All these stems preceding the definite article morpheme are monosyllabic or disyllabic. What is significant about them is the fact that the adjacent syllables preceding the article are all closed syllables. b) These adjacent syllables, therefore, have a final C or CC. This creates the difference between RA and other dialects. c) Hence, when the these stems precede the definite prefix in SA and BHA , they all resyllabify, so the coda of the preceding syllable serves as an onset to the definite article syllable which has required an epenthetic glottal stop in (10) to satisfy the ONS constraint. d) This issue in RA is solved in the same manner it has been solved in (10), so the definite article /el/ deletes the /e/ and the /l/ serves as a new onset to the following syllable. However, the preceding syllable in the stem preceding the definite article does not interact with it unlike SA and BHA, so the resulting syllable structure is CVC+CVC+CVVC/CV:C e) The resulting phrase in SA and BHA consists of the preceding stem ( whether it is one or two syllables) followed by three syllables: (stem CV) +CVC+CV.CVVC/ CV:C so the preceding closed syllable becomes an open syllable. (9.a.) Tableau RA: /yawm+el+fra:g/ a. yau.mlIf.ra:g b. yaum.lI.fra:g c. yau.mlIf.ra:g ☞d. yaum.lIf.ra:g *ONSET MAX.ONS-CC *! *! *! ALIGN (R) * * * * DEP-IO * * * * (9.b.) Tableau BHA: /el-ktaab/ a. yau.mal.If.ra:g b. yau.mlIf.ra:g ☞c. yaw.ma.laf.ra:g d. yaum.lIf.ra:g *ONSET *! MAX.ONS-CC ** *! (10) Morpheme+The Sun Definite Article + Morpheme /stem+el/al+stem/ SA RA Talab+el+sa.maĦ Ta.la.bus.sa.maĦ Ta.la.bIs.sa.maĦ miɵl+el+sa.ra:b miɵ.lus.sa.rab mi.ɵI.lIs.sa.ra:b waraq+el+Ta.laaq wa.ra.quT.Ta.laaq wa.ra.qIT.Ta.laag lawn+el+sa.ma:r law.nus.sa.ma:r law.nIs.sa.ma:r lawn+el+za.ra:q law.nuz.za.ra:q law.nIz.za.ra:g lawn+el+sa.waad law.nus. sa.wad law.nIs. sa.wad sInin+el+da.ma:r sI.ni.nud.da.ma:r sI.ni.nId.da.ma:r taʕm+el+ ʃa.ra:b Taʕ.muʃ.ʃa.ra:b Ta.ʕI.mIʃ.ʃa.ra:b mIɵl+el+ʃa.ra:r mIɵ.luʃ.ʃa.ra:r mI.ɵI.lIʃ.ʃa.ra:r umm+el+ʃu.djaʕ um.muʃ.ʃu.djaʕ Um.mIʃ.ʃu.djaʕ lawn+el+Sa.fa:r law.nuS.Sa.fa:r law.nIS.Sa.fa:r waraq+el+Sa.da:q wa.ra.qus.Sa.da:q wa.ra.gIs.Sa.da:q waqt+el+na.ha:r waq.tun. na.ha:r wa.gI.tI n. na.ha:r raaĦ +el+Sa.diq raa.ĦaS.Sa.diq raa.ĦIS.Sa.diq a) ALIGN (R) * * * BHA Ta.la.bas.sa.maĦ miɵ.las.sa.ra:b wa.ra.qaT.Ta.laag law.nas.sa.ma:r Law.naz.za.ra:g law.nas. sa.wad sI.ni.nad.da.ma:r Taʕ .maʃ.ʃa.ra:b mIɵ.laʃ.ʃa.ra:r um.m aʃ.ʃI .djaʕ law.n aS.Sa.fa:r wa.ra.gas.Sa.da:q wag.tan. na.ha:r raa.ĦaS.Sa.diq DEP-IO * * * * Glosses Ask for the forgiveness Like the mirage Documents of the divorce The bronwishness color The blueishness color The blackishness color Years of the destruction The flavor of juice Like the sparkles Mother of the brave The yellowishness color Documents of the dowry Time of the day/daylight The friend went away Again, all these stems preceding the definite article morpheme are monosyllabic or disyllabic and what matters is the fact that the adjacent syllables preceding the article are all closed syllables with a final C or CC. b) Hence, when the these stems precede the definite prefix in RA,SA and BHA , they all resyllabify, so the coda of the preceding syllable serves as an onset to the definite article syllable which has required an epenthetic ALLS 6(4):185-194, 2015 c) 193 glottal stop /?/in (10) to satisfy the ONS constraint; the resulting geminate still behaves in the same was it does in(16) i.e. branching into an onset of the original syllable and a coda of the previous syllable The resulting phrase in SA and BHA consists of the preceding stem (whether it is one or two syllables) followed by three syllables: (stem CV) +CVC+CV.CVVC/ CV:C so the preceding closed syllable becomes an open syllable. (10.a.) Tableau RA: /mIɵl+el+sə.ra:b/ a. mI.ɵIl. Is.sə.ra:b b.. mIɵ.l Is. ə.ra:b ☞c. mI.ɵI. IIs.sə.ra:b d.mIɵ. Il. Is.sə.ra:b e.mI.ɵIl.? Is.sə.ra:b *ONSET *! *! ALIGN (R) * * *!*! * -COD *** *** ** *** *** DEP-IO * * * * *** -COD *** *** *** *** *** DEP-IO * * * * ** (10.b.) Tableau RA: /mIɵI+el+sə.ra:b/ a. mI.ɵIl.Iə.sa.ra:b b.. mIɵ.l Is. ə.ra:b ☞c. mIɵ. las.sə.ra:b d.mIɵ. Il. Is.sə.ra:b e.mI.ɵIl. ? Is.sə.ra:b *ONSET *! *! ALIGN (R) * ** *!*! * 4. Conclusion In conclusion, Arabic varieties show considerable phonological differences among them at various levels. These differences can be best described and interpreted in terms of what each variety may optimally opt for while preferring a particular candidate over others in accordance with the different ranking of such violable constraints that each variety has in its constraint hierarchy. RA is not an exception since its syllable structure proves to behave sometimes in a similar way, and oftentimes in a different way to syllables in SA and other dialects. These differences logically result in deletion, insertion and assimilation in various forms. This study is the first research that handles the phonological structure within any generative approach, let alone OT. Therefore, it is evident that much research is still recommended in this rich and virgin area of variation and language varieties. This is a modest attempt that might trigger many other research to follow. References Abu-Salim, I. M. (1982). A Reanalysis of some aspects of Arabic phonology: A metrical approach. Doctoral Dissertation. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois. AL-Ani, Salman & Darlene R. MAY. (1973): The phonological structure of the syllable in Arabic. American Journal of Arabic Studies, 1. 113-125. Archangeli, D. and D. Terence Langendoen. (1997). Optimality theory: An overview. Blackwell Publishing. Clements, G. N & Elizabeth V. Humes. (1995). The internal organization of speech sounds. In Goldsmith, John A. (Ed.), The hand Book of phonology theory. Blackwell Publishing. 245-306. Hayes, Bruce. (1995). Metrical stress theory: Principles and case studies. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Irshid, O. (1984). The phonology of Bani Hasan Arabic. Unpublished Doctoral Dissertation, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Irshied, Omar, & Michael Kenstowicz. (1984). Some phonological rules of Bani-Hassan Arabic. Studies in the Linguistic Sciences.14 (1),109-48. Kager, René (1997). Rhythmic vowel deletion in optimality theory, In Roca, Iggy (Ed.), Derivations and constraints in phonology (463-499). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Kager, René. (1999). Optimality theory. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. Katamba, F. (1989). An introduction to phonology. London: Longman Kenstowicz, M. (1999). Phonology in generative grammar. Blackwell Cambridge MA & Oxford UK. Kiprasky, Paul (2003). Syllables and moras in Arabic. in Caroline Fery & Ruben Van De Vijver (Eds.). The Syllable in Optimality Theory (147-83). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. McCarthy, J. (1979). On stress and syllabification. Linguistic Inquiry. 17. 207-63. McCarthy, J. & A. Prince (1995). Faithfulness and reduplicative identity. Occasional Papers in Linguistics 18: Papers in Optimality Theory. [ROA #60]. University of Massachusetts. ALLS 6(4):185-194, 2015 194 McCarthy, J. (2007.a). What is Optimality Theory? Language and Linguistics Compass 1/4: 260–291. McCarthy, J. (2007. b). Hidden generalizations, phonological opacity in optimality theory. Equinox Publishing. O'Conor J. D.(1973). Phonetic drill reader. CUP. Prince, A. & P. Smolensky. (1993). Optimality Theory: Constraint interaction in generative grammar. RUCCS-TR-2. ROA-537. Roca, Iggy (Ed.), (1997). Derivations and constraints in phonology. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Roca, Iggy. and W. Johnson. (1999). Course in phonology. Oxford: Blackwell. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy An Analysis of the Language of Humour in Chinua Achebe’s A Man of the People Daniel Oppong Adjei College of Humanities and Legal Studies, Department of English, University of Cape Coast, Cape Coast, Ghana E-mail: dantrigger@yahoo.com; daniel.adjei@ucc.edu.gh Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.195 Received: 12/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.195 Accepted: 18/06/2015 Abstract This paper shows how humour is deployed in Achebe’s A Man of the People by analysing the make-up of the various instances of humour as well as their significance in attaining the desired effects. To Veatch (1998), humour contains two incongruous elements; one element is socially normal while the other is a violation of the ‘subjective moral order’. Veatch’s principle of incongruity allows this paper to foreground the various instances of humour which have both congruent and incongruent elements. These instances of humour show the strong attachment or detachment of a character towards somebody or something, and further describe the mood of characters and the atmosphere under which comic utterances are made, among other roles. In the end, Achebe’s A Man of the People stands out as a classic example of a humorous narrative that effectively attains its thematic concerns also through the use of incongruity. Keywords: Achebe, A Man of the People, Humour, Incongruity, Laughter 1. Introduction A closer look at the literature produced in Africa by Africans and others will reveal the lively role that humour enjoys in such pieces. A number of African writers such as Ola Rotimi, Ngugi Wa Thiong’o, Chinua Achebe, Wole Soyinka, Ama Ata Aidoo and Ayi Kwei Armah have dealt with various concerns in their work which are also anchored by vast examples of humour. The Nigerian novelist, poet and critic, Chinua Achebe, was considered the leading literary scholar, if not one of Africa's leading literary scholars, by critics and scholars like Carol (1975) and Dwivedi (2008). Achebe has written a number of novels which include the much-celebrated Things Fall Apart, Arrow of God, A Man of the People and Anthills of the Savannah. In his works Achebe, like Ayi Kwei Armah and Ngugi Wa Thiong’o, often considers the levels of rot and decay in the individual and society at large, as well as the various colonial issues that plagued and still plague the continent of Africa. These thematic concerns of the African writer are often at times amply depicted also because of the use of humour, a powerful devise that can serve a writer well in making his or her work interesting to read. Humour actually occurs in a myriad of forms such as “physical slapstick, visual humour, jokes relying on gestures or sounds, aphorisms, short stories” (Ritchie, 2010, p. 33), et cetera. With forms like the aforementioned, humour helps the writer to achieve a number of functions in a literary work. It helps the writer like Achebe to downplay the importance of serious issues like misfortune, death, politics, et cetera, as they are narrated with some level of casualness. Even when the issues discussed in a text may not interest a reader, the creative use of humour in the narration of such issues has the tendency to make the reader enjoy reading the text since his or her senses are appealed to. This is to say that in many instances of humour, the reader experiences emotional feelings like a smile, a giggle, a chuckle or even a loud laugh because his or her senses are “tickled” by the power of words, even as these same words do more in literary works by revealing the thematic concerns of their creators; that is, writers. Evidently, humour could play a number of roles in any literary work. With the above as the introduction, the concern of this work is to consider an analysis of the language of humour in Achebe’s A Man of the People. This is achieved by looking at the various forms of humour and their incongruities to establish their make-up and enjoyment or otherwise thereof by the reader of the text. However, since the paper addresses the issue of humour, it will begin with an exposition on the concept of humour in order to create a context for the discussion. The study will then proceed to look at the analysis of humour in Achebe’s A Man of the People, and finally provide a conclusion that will sum up the discussion. 1.1 The Concept of Humour Polimeni & Reiss (2006) observe that “humor is a complex cognitive function which often leads to laughter” (p. 347). It has also been noted by researchers that humour and laughter are not the same even though they are closely related. Humour is perceived as the cognitive process which often, but not always, leads to the realization of the seizure-like activity called laughter. In actual fact, laughter is achieved or experienced by one when one undergoes a humorous cognitive stimulus, and by other physical stimuli like tickling or caressing. “So although laughter is not a necessary or sufficient condition of humour, from a common sense point of view it’s a useful starting point for a definition” (Ross, ALLS 6(4):195-202, 2015 196 1998, p. 2). As a concept, “humour relies on ambiguities, uncertainties and shifts in perspectives, as well as playing with the limits of language, logic and representation” (Franklyn, 2006, p. 13). It is seen as one of the marginalized aspects of human civilization that until quite recently has been overlooked as an important area for investigation. But as noted by researchers and scholars alike, “laughter, humour and joking surround and permeate our every business” (Rutter, 1997, p. 1). In other words, all cultures are regarded as being familiar with humour (Polimeni & Reiss, 2006; Franklyn, 2006). Humour has a way of defining human interactions as it may promote or endanger the kind of social relations people establish. This ability of humour is known by literary writers like Achebe and it is one of the strong reasons for their use of this device in their works. A notable traditional issue that has concerned a number of scholars and critics alike is whether humour is subversive in the sense that it is a catalyst to undermine authority, or even repressive in the sense of encouraging a safe outpouring of emotions which could have otherwise been expressed unfavourably (Franklyn, 2006). However, these disputes or concerns, as Franklyn notes, “have been largely focused on the content of humour” (p. 68). People obviously enjoy humorous situations without considering or appreciating all the causal effects. This is where theories or methodologies become useful in revealing not just the content of humour, but its make-up and appreciation or otherwise. There are therefore a number of methodologies or theories that can be followed to underscore the very make-up of humour, its content and the very role it plays in communication. Notwithstanding the number of classifications of humour and studies done by scholars like Attardo (1994; 2001), Norrick (2004), Zabalbeascoa (2005) and Chiaro (2008), Ritchie (2004) observes and concludes from studies done by Morreall (1983) and Raskin (1985) that “perhaps the common classification is the tripartite: relief or release theories, superiority or aggression theories, and incongruity theories” (p. 18). Attardo (1994) provides a similar classification whereby he presents one with “The three families of Theories” (p. 47) in a tabular form and under each of these classifications he has some subheadings. Thus, he has cognitive (incongruity, contrast), social (hostility, aggression, superiority, triumph, derision, disparagement) and psychoanalytical (release, sublimation, liberation, economy). Let us briefly consider the tripartite classification of these theories. Taking superiority theories, for instance, proponents believe that humour is essentially derisive and that laughter originated as an act of aggression. These theories have their origin from classical times and can be traced to scholars such as Aristotle, Quintilian, Thomas Hobbes and Charles Darwin (Chapman & Foot, 1977). The impression from a superiority theory is that people laugh down at others they perceive to be inferior. As a theory it works quite well with studies conducted in hierarchical institutions such as prisons, hospitals, schools, churches, among others. In such institutions, senior members would ordinarily make most jokes about their junior members because of the privilege of hierarchy. Junior members may also make their own jokes which would usually be self-depreciative, especially in the presence of their superiors. A modern proponent of superiority theory is Gruner (1997). His version of the theory is one of “playful aggression”. Here, without any exception Gruner believes that any instance of humour can be scaled to a game scenario which ends with two sides: the winner and the loser. This cannot be the case in some games; that is, even in instances of humour we could have participants all winning or losing together too, sometimes with no clear winner or loser. As a theory that works very well with hierarchical institutions, it will not function too well with a written text like A Man of the People, even though it will aid in explaining (for instance) the political rank of Chief Nanga and his subsequent relationship with his people. Besides superiority theories, release or relief theories “maintain that humor ‘releases’ tensions, psychic energy, or that humor releases one from inhibitions, conversions and laws” (Attardo, 1994, p. 50). It has therefore been hypothesized that an optimum condition of arousal exists to enjoy humour in whatever form it is presented (Apter & Smith, 1977; Rothbart, 1977). The most influential proponent of release theory is Sigmund Freud. Freud looks at humour as a release of excessive sexual or aggressive tension. Having their stronghold in Freud’s views of the unconscious mind, “humour and laughter release the psychic tension related to inhibiting unconscious sexual or aggressive impulses” (Polimeni & Reiss, 2006, p. 351). Laughter is thus considered to be a healthy and pleasurable activity that can reduce anxiety. Considering the strength and limitation of this group of theories, Polimeni & Reiss (2006) observe that there are indeed numerous jokes which have a hostile edge. However, “many others seem to lack prominent aggressive themes (although it is acknowledged that depending on social context, covert or low level aggression could conceivably be interpreted in any humorous comment)” (Polimeni & Reiss, 2006, p. 351). Incongruity theories are also noted and remarked by Franklyn (2006) to be “the most widely accepted school of thought concerning humour” (p. 77), although it is also noticed that there are marked variations between the theories which come under the umbrella term. The notable authors generally associated with incongruity theories of humour are Immanuel Kant (LaFollette & Shanks, 1993), Norman Maier (Vaid, 1999), Arthur Schopenhauer (Provine, 2000) and Arthur Koestler (1964). Of these writers, Attardo (1994) remarks that Schopenhauer’s definition of laughter has “incongruity” clearly mentioned. Attardo consequently cites Schopenhauer’s definition: The cause of laughter in every case is simply the sudden perception of incongruity between a concept and the real objects which have been thought through it in some relation, and laughter itself is just the expression of this incongruity (p. 48). Apart from this clearly defined theory of incongruity and the one by McGhee (1979), Veatch (1998) is “perhaps” seen as the one who “has formulated the most precise and encompassing humour theory” (Polimeni & Reiss, 2006, p. 350), ALLS 6(4):195-202, 2015 197 although he builds on Raskin’s (1985) linguistic-semantic theory of verbal humour. To Veatch, humour contains two incongruous elements. One element is socially normal while the other is a violation of the “subjective moral order”. He explains the “moral order” as the “rich cognitive and emotional system of opinions about the proper order of the social and natural world” (Veatch, 1998, p. 168). Veatch’s humour theory, and by reference incongruity theory, will serve in underscoring the various incongruities in Achebe’s A Man of the People. However, it must be established that not all incongruous instances are humorous. Therefore, it cannot be claimed that one will find all the answers by employing Veatch’s incongruity theory. As observed by Ritchie (2004), this inadequacy is noted by Raskin (1985) when he writes that there is “no a priori reason why all aspects of every example of humour should be explicable in terms of a single principle” (p. 40). Nevertheless, for a more interesting and detailed analysis of the make-up of humour in Achebe’s novel, the incongruity theory comes as a very resourceful tool. 2. Analysis of Humour in A Man of the People “A Man of the People delineates the conflict between morality and corruption by contrasting the protagonist Odili Samalu with his opposite, the Minister of Culture, Chief Nanga. These characters are worlds apart, with radically different ideologies” (Dwivedi, 2008, p. 3). In the story, Odili, the teacher-turned-politician and narrator of the story comes into conflict with Chief Nanga, the corrupt Minister of Culture. For Odili, the reason for the clash is not entirely to address the rot of Chief Nanga and his government, but also because Odili has a personal reason; Chief Nanga seduces his girlfriend, a catalyst that sets into motion his hatred of Chief Nanga and all that he stands for. The novel ends with the narrator’s near-death experience in the hands of Chief Nanga’s followers, and his subsequent recovery. The final episode of the novel also reveals the overthrow of the government and the arrest of Chief Nanga and other corrupt government officials. One particular type of humour arises from the titles of characters and also in name-calling. Some of these titles are ridiculous and so exaggerated, often flattering the individuals they refer to and portraying them as incompetent. When the novel opens, the narrator-cum-character, Odili, introduces Chief Nanga as “the most approachable politician in the country” (p. 1). No doubt Chief Nanga is seen as “a man of the people” (p. 1). He is therefore ascribed different titles and some of which are summarily quite humorous and tainted with sarcasm. Two of these titles are “Chief the Honourable M.A Nanga” and “M.A. minus opportunity” (p. 1). Powerful and well-connected, Chief Nanga is highly esteemed by his people despite the fact that a great number of them (including his wife) know that there is nothing honourable about him. Here lie the two incongruous elements. As an honourable person, Chief Nanga should engage in “socially normal” or acceptable acts that are honourable. However, throughout the novel he is seen in dishonest practices like bribery and immoral acts such as sleeping with the wives of others. It therefore becomes incongruous that people should still refer to him as “Chief the Honourable”. Chief Nanga’s immoral and corrupt deeds, by Veatch’s standards, constitute “a violation of the ‘subjective moral order’” (Polimeni & Reiss, 2006, p. 350). Chief Nanga’s deeds are summarily incongruous to the august office he holds as the “Honourable” Minister of Culture. Chief Nanga’s dishonourable acts do not endear him to the narrator. Early in the reading of the narrative, one senses the narrator’s dislike of Chief Nanga, an individual who had risen too quickly like the unnatural growth of the “man-child” in Armah’s The Beautyful Ones Are Not Yet Born. Chief Nanga had actually taught Odili in “Standard three” and was “something like his favourite pupil” (p. 2). The narrator therefore knows how corrupt Chief Nanga and his government are, but his own people are prepared to turn a blind eye to his corrupt deeds and hold on to their own. The people are thus complicit in the corruption that engulfs their society. As Odili, the narrator, remarks: Tell them that this man had used his position to enrich himself and they would ask you – as my father did – if you thought that a sensible man would spit out the juicy morsel that good fortune placed in his mouth (p. 2). It is therefore incongruous that when one expects the rejection of Chief Nanga due to his corrupt activities, he is rather praised by his people as “a man of the people”. What even infuriates the narrator is the consideration given by Chief Nanga’s government for one to be appointed into any political office. Thus, experience does not matter for one to be considered for a position in government but “loyalty to the party”, as Chief Nanga exhibits. This situation appears to be a major problem in a number of African nations. The congruency is that it is socially acceptable for people to be appointed into offices with regard to their level of competency or experience. It is, however, incongruent to appoint people into office because of how loyal one is to the party in government. But as Achebe depicts in the example of Chief Nanga, people are appointed into political offices without any experience. So now the “M.A. minus opportunity” man (Chief Nanga) remains loyal to the government and is appointed into a ministerial office without sweat at all. To the narrator, Chief Nanga’s ascendancy to power is questionable and ridiculous. No more does it become amusing to Chief Nanga (although it does to the narrator and other teachers in his school) when a colleague teacher calls him “M. A.” (“M.A. Nanga” being his actual name) and he should respond, “minus opportunity”. He now has a position in government, having capitalized on the opportunity to gain one. It thus becomes insulting to him, though he is supposed to find it amusing, that he is still referred to as “M.A. minus opportunity”. It also appears that the people in power in the novel are preoccupied with titles to the chagrin of the narrator and other concerned activists like Max. Chief Nanga himself remarks in a conversation with others how he will soon be given the title, “Doctor of Laws, L.L.D”. As if he is not content with just “Doctor”, he even expresses interest in the title of his colleague minister, “Chief the Honourable Alhaji Doctor Mongo Sego, M.P.” (p. 18). Although Chief Sego is regarded ALLS 6(4):195-202, 2015 198 as corrupt as Chief Nanga (and so it is incongruous to refer to him too as “Honourable”), his name is remarked not to match Chief Nanga’s new name: “Chief the Honourable D.M.A. Nanga, M.P., L.L.D.”, when Chief Nanga is awarded his “Doctor of Laws”. These long titles portray a humorous and sarcastic situation as these leaders are bent on acquiring empty titles that do not encapsulate their performance. Following Chief Nanga’s expression of interest in Chief Sego’s name, the narrator “mischievously” asks Chief Nanga what he thinks about “Chief Dr Mrs”. Chief Nanga immediately retorts, “That one no sweet for mouth...E no catch” (P. 19). This means that the title is so undesirable that it does not even permit one to utter it. A bit of a giggle or a stronger form of laughter may be realised here (because of the outright dismissal by the speaker and his use of pidgin English), but one cannot gloss over the depiction of the patriarchal setting of the novel and the gender imbalance in the distribution of titles. To this effect, Mrs. John, a party loyalist and a friend to Chief Nanga remarks that: “Because na woman get am e no go sweet for mouth. I done talk say na only for election time woman de get equality for dis our country” (p. 19). Obviously Mrs. John has a valid point since no woman is presented with such titles as Chief Nanga and Chief Sego or any other male political figure in the novel. In the words of the journalist who accompanies Chief Nanga, this title: “Dr Chief Mrs” (making an inversion of it) “rough like sandpaper for mouth…E no catch at all” (p. 19). This remark will likely elicit some desired laughter or giggle from the participants and the reader as well. In the world of this patriarchal setting, it is incongruous for the woman to have such esteemed titles as those carried by male contenders such as Chief Sego and Chief Nanga. Besides, Chief Nanga’s own Prime Minister is referred to as “The Tiger, the Lion, the One and Only, the Sky, the Ocean and many other names of praise” (p. 5). These titles are heard when the Prime Minister addresses the people in “Parliament”. They are praise names given to the Prime Minister to flatter him. In this charged atmosphere he justifies sacking the Minister of Finance and “two-thirds of the Cabinet” for refusing to support him in printing million pounds, instead of cutting down the price paid to coffee planters as a way of managing the financial crises in the country. The Prime Minister fails to adhere to the advice of the sacked ministers because coffee farmers are the “bulwark” of the party and he does not want to risk his re-election chances. Incongruity between the expected actions and the actual actions is presented in the immediate paragraph. Now the sacked Minister of Finance and others who deserve genuine praise for their nationalistic efforts are rather condemned and ascribed all manner of names. Name-calling thus becomes an avenue for others to be humorous in Achebe’s A Man of the People. The sacked Minister of Finance, for instance, is referred to as “Traitor”, “Coward”, and “Doctor of Fork your Mother” (p. 6). This last name-calling, though serious in its intent, is also humorous considering the corruption of the word “fuck” for “fork”. The corruption of the word places a greater strength on the middle vowel in the word and enforces the intent of the utterance. The corruption of the word may also portray the ignorance of “the editor of the Daily Chronicle” who contributes this one from the public gallery of “Parliament”. To this effect, the narrator remarks about the editor that: “Encouraged, no doubt, by the volume of laughter this piece of witticism had earned him in the gallery he proceeded the next morning to print it in his paper. The spelling is his” (P.6). There are also other individual words or phrases, not titles as such, that evoke so much humour in Achebe’s A Man of the People. One of such words is “anikilija”, an onomatopoeic name for Mr. Nwege’s rickety bicycle with faulty brakes. This particular humour in the novel is captured as “a popular Anata joke”. In this joke, there is shared knowledge between Mr. Nwege and the inhabitants of Anata, Chief Nanga’s hometown. Thus, this “anikilija” initially becomes incongruous to readers of the novel, but we come to be part of the “shared-audience” when the narrator relays the story of “anikilija” to us in the following words: One day as he was cascading down a steep slope that led to a narrow bridge at the bottom of the hill he saw a lorry – an unusual phenomenon in those days – coming down the opposite slope. It looked like a head-on meeting on the bridge. In his extremity Mr. Nwege had raised his voice and cried to the passing pedestrians: ‘In the name of God push me down!’ apparently nobody did, and so he added an inducement: ‘Push me down and my three pence is yours!’ From that day ‘Push me down and take my three pence’ became a popular Anata joke (p. 13). From the extract, one can understand Mr. Nwege’s confused state of mind when he sees a lorry, an incongruous phenomenon, and it appears his own life will come to an end because of the possibility of a head-on collision. His fear is expressed in the first utterance of “In the name of God push me down”. The force of the humour is felt here, and more pronounced too when Mr. Nwege adds an inducement (because no one pushes him the first time): “Push me down and my three pence is yours!” This situation may evict an explosive laughter from the reader, especially when the laughter has already been teased out of him or her with “In the name of God push me down!” This explosive laughter is due to the element of fear and surprise on Mr. Nwege’s face when he sees the lorry and realises his helplessness. The reader actually imagines Mr. Nwege on his faulty and rickety bicycle as he repeatedly shouts for people to help him. Incongruity is strongly established here, as it becomes bizarre that instead of helping Mr. Nwege people actually stare and laugh at the helpless man. People may just look on too since they are themselves powerless. Mr. Nwege’s situation is serious because it involves his life; but the use of humour here belittles the seriousness of the situation. It is as if Achebe wanted to say that Mr. Nwege survived the situation after all. There are further examples that bring about explosive laughter, but the punch of the humour is often delayed. Thus, the effect or force of the humour is often not realised immediately after a humorous utterance. This is perhaps what Ritchie (2010) captures when he notes that “some presentations of humour leave some of the necessary linguistic connections implicit, so that the audience must fill these in for themselves” (p. 41). In such a situation, humour is achieved by the ALLS 6(4):195-202, 2015 199 audience or reader after a careful thought of the utterance, or when all the details such as the context, the butt of the joke, the mood and atmosphere have been revealed. A good example in the text is when someone comes knocking at Odili’s door while he is lighting his “Tilley lamp”. In response, Odili declares: “Come in if you are good-looking” (p. 20). It is congruent for one to knock and expect to be asked to come in; of course not because one is “good-looking” as Odili makes it appear. It is perhaps this addition by Odili that makes his utterance incongruous. Society may regard Odili as biased in receiving only “good-looking” people into his home. That established, this utterance by Odili would not necessarily bring out any form of laugher or smile in the reader. However, when the corresponding response is, “‘Is Odili in?’ asked an unnatural, high-pitched voice” (P. 20), there is a gradual built-up of smile on the reader’s face. This smile is consequently prominent when one reads further that, to this response Odili remarks, “Come in, fool” (p. 20). It is here that the “unnatural, high-pitched voice” is actualized as Andrew, a jovial male friend of Odili. The reader then wonders why Andrew would play such a prank on Odili since it is likely the case that Odili expects a female companion. This situation is finally clarified by Odili when he reveals that it is a “silly joke” he plays with Andrew. To Odili, “the idea was to sound like a girl and so send the other’s blood pressure up” (p. 20). Odili’s blood pressure (that is, excitement) rises up, no doubt, when he hears the knock. But when he realises that it is his friend, Andrew, disappointment sets in; hence, his remark of “Come in, fool”. The reader receives the effect of this humour as he or she continues to laugh loudly or lightly in his or her head because of the disappointment of Odili. Closely linked to this example is the interest in girls by these two friends. When Odili asks Andrew if he had found out about a girl he showed interest in some time ago, Andrew condemns Odili for being too interested in girls all the time. The clever retort by Odili to this accusation is what sparks the laughter in the reader; thus, Odili declares: “‘O.K., Mr Gentleman’… ‘Any person wey first mention about girl again for this room make him tongue cut. How is the weather?’ He laughed” (p. 21). In actual fact the catalyst that elicits humour in the exchange between the two is the seriousness with which Odili makes his defence in pidgin English. His sudden shift in the topic of conversation to the “weather” is quite incongruous, truly amusing and makes the reader laugh. Andrew joins in the laughter because there is shared knowledge between these two (that they will surely talk about girls again). There is also delayed humour in the conversation that ensues between Chief Nanga and Odili when the latter goes to visit the former in the city. It becomes clear that these two are womanisers and that Chief Nanga has some mistresses besides his wife. As a result, both Chief Nanga and Odili often engage in “tales of conquest” where they discuss their experiences with women. In one of such tales, Chief Nanga talks about his conquest of a “young married woman who never took her brassiere off” even after many encounters with Chief Nanga. This weird act by the woman does not elicit any sense of humour but curiosity in the reader - curiosity because of the incongruous nature of the situation. It is therefore significant that this curiosity turns into sheer humour and subsequent laughter when the woman admits finally “that the husband (apparently a very jealous man) had put some juju on her breasts to scare her into faithfulness; his idea being presumably that she would not dare expose that part of her to another man much less other parts” (p. 59). The reader laughs at this situation especially because of the man’s fruitless attempt to keep the wife faithful to him. Though serious, the above situation has a morale that even the adulterer Chief Nanga and the flirtatious Odili highlight in their discourse, further reinforcing the humorous mood of the reader. Both Chief Nanga and Odili accept that a man cannot force his wife to be faithful to him if the woman decides otherwise. Chief Nanga remarks about the husband of his mistress that: “E fool pass garri… Which person tell am na bobby them de take do the thing? Nonsense” (p. 59). Certainly the husband forgets that it is the penetration of the wife that should have mattered to him and not the “bobby” or breasts that could entirely be abandoned in the scheme of sexual intercourse. This idea and similar ones like how the wife manages to cheat on the husband are elements that flood through the mind of the reader and make him or her laugh the more. A more creative example of a piece of humour in Achebe’s novel where the author dedicates three pages to its gradual development is realised in the fear of death by Honourable Simon Koko. The full force of the humour is delayed and gradually released as details are given. Thus, in this instance, the effect of the humour (which is mostly laughter) is heightened and released soon, only to be raised again and suddenly released until the full force of the humour is achieved. When Chief Nanga and Odili decide to visit Chief Koko, the Minister for Overseas Training, in order for him to assist Odili, Chief Koko decides to drink coffee while he offers his guests whisky and soda. Apparently enjoying his coffee with his “satisfied Ahh!” Chief Koko suddenly drops “the cup and saucer on the drinks-table by his chair” and jumps “as though a scorpion had stung him” (p. 33). Curiosity then fills the reader’s mind, as it does in the minds of Chief Nanga and Odili. Chief Koko then starts wailing, “They have killed me” (p. 33); yet, he gets the energy to threaten his cook, whom he believes has poisoned him. Humorous enough, this poisoned man has a last wish: he desires to kill his cook before he dies. He fruitlessly resists the attempt by Chief Nanga and Odili to call a doctor for him. The desire of Chief Koko to kill his cook and how he insists that no doctor is called for him are arguably two incongruous wishes that could be asked by a poisoned man who was apparently afraid of dying. At least a congruent situation would be to seek the service of a doctor, as was suggested by Chief Nanga. However, Chief Koko desires otherwise. Thus, Chief Koko resigns himself to fate and moans: “‘What is the use of a doctor?’… ‘Do they know about African poison? They have killed me. What have I done to them? Did I owe them anything? Oh! Oh! Oh! What have I done?’” (p. 34). Laughter is strong here, since Chief Koko is helpless and refuses any doctor’s help. He shows his confused state of mind when he starts blaming “them” (his supposed perpetrators) when he initially singles out his cook as the perpetrator. Chief Koko’s confusion and helplessness create humour for the reader, but not his guests who remain alarmed ALLS 6(4):195-202, 2015 200 throughout this experience. For his guests the incongruity of the situation lies in the expected action and the actual action of Chief Koko after drinking just coffee. When Chief Koko’s supposed perpetrator is brought before them, he calms nerves by drinking the supposedly poisoned coffee as a show of his innocence. The cook reveals that he had to brew his locally processed coffee for his master when he realised that his master’s coffee was finished. The ironic twist to this event is fully foregrounded. The situation is even sarcastic since Chief Koko as well as his government promotes “OHMS – Our Home Made Stuff”. Now, here he is thinking that he has been poisoned when he has actually drunk an “OHMS” coffee. Typical of Chief Nanga, he sets another stage of laughter when he teases his friend in the following words: “But S.I…you too fear death. Small thing you begin holler ‘they done kill me, they done kill me!’ Like person wey scorpion done lego am for him prick” (p. 35). It is Chief Nanga’s use of simile to compare Chief Koko to a person who has been bitten at his penis by a scorpion that strongly evicts the desired laughter in the interlocutors and readers alike. Hence, in response to the aforementioned remark by Chief Nanga, Chief Koko himself begins to laugh “foolishly”; after all he is alive and will prefer it that way. Laughter indeed facilitates further laugher in others (Chapman, 1976) and this is the situation Chief Koko creates when he (already laughing) sets the stage for further humour by informing his colleague that he (Chief Nanga) would have pissed in his trousers if it had been him in his situation. It is Odili, the narrator, who brings the reader back to reality from his or her humorous mood. The reality is that Chief Nanga fears for his own life seeing that Chief Koko could have indeed been poisoned and that it could have been him. As a way of achieving humour, the author also makes use of pun. Ritchie (2010) observes that puns “also feature in fictional dialogues, for e.g. novels” (p. 45) and they are “the most widely discussed type of verbal joke” (p. 42). With puns, “the technique is to use an expression which, while making sense at the moment of use also evokes some other expression, either well-known in the culture, or associated in some way with the context in which the utterance is made” (Ritchie, 2010, p. 45). Thus, some people can subvert the meaning of a word or a phrase to achieve a certain effect such as humour. A perfect example is seen in the ambiguous use of the word, “bar”, by the “Senior Tutor”. In Achebe’s A Man of the People, the “Senior Tutor”, “a jolly old rogue”, decides to walk out of the lodge of Mr. Nwege “with one bottle of beer under each armpit - to the amusement of everyone except Mr. Nwege who had clearly not gone out of his way to buy beer at its present impossible price for members of his staff to take home” (p. 20). The scene itself is humorous as one can imagine the drunken “jolly old rogue” with extra beer tucked under his armpit for home. Not bothered by the impression he creates, the Senior Tutor asks those present “why so many young people travelled to Britain to be called to the Bar when he could call them all to Josiah’s bar” (p. 20). With “a fine sense of humour”, the Senior Tutor plays on the word “bar” as he acknowledges that there is the legal term “bar”, but he is interested in “bar” as a pub. It is therefore not surprising that as “a great frequenter of Josiah’s bar across the road” the Senior Tutor would wish to invite others to join him there. And, of course, it will certainly be incongruous for anyone to be called to the “bar” only to realise that it is a drinking bar and not the law fraternity as suggested by the drunken “jolly old rogue”. Another example is the play on the catch-phrase, V.I.P. (Very Important Person). A drunken kinsman and trader who visits the home of Chief Nanga during Christmas remarks that Chief Nanga is “what white man call V.I.P.” (p. 96). Now this does not strike any cord of humour in the reader. Instead, the kinsman may be pitied because he has to flatter Chief Nanga in order to get the bottle of beer he desperately wants. What makes the situation humorous and perhaps incongruous is when this drunken man adds “Me na P.I.V. - Poor Innocent Victim”, after which he laughs. If this wit of his does not create a smile on one’s face, then his own laughter alone could make the engaging reader to laugh too (if not smile the more). The wit of his utterance does not escape the comment of the narrator as he writes: “I couldn’t help smiling; the wit and inventiveness of our traders is of course world famous” (p. 96). The analogy the drunken man creates out of the situation is that he wants his “national cake” from Chief Nanga’s wealth. So for him, a “common beer, common five shilling beer” can be afforded by Chief Nanga who is building a new house, “four storeys”. The mention of a new house indirectly points out the corruption of Chief Nanga as the narrator observes that the building is “a ‘dash’ from the European building firm of Antonio and Sons whom Nanga had recently given the half-million-pound contract to build the National Academy of Arts and Sciences” (p. 96). For all his wit and inventiveness, the drunken man is not rewarded with his “common beer” but persuaded to leave and come back later. Here, one may sympathize with him especially after he succeeds in creating a desired emotion (at least a smile) with his inventiveness, P.I.V. – Poor Innocent Victim. Apart from the above examples, there is humour that arises out of the shared knowledge and experience the reader of Achebe’s novel has with the speaker of an utterance. In such situations, the speaker does not need to give further details as is done in “the popular Anata joke”. For example, at the book exhibition hosted by the President of the Writers’ Society, the narrator describes the attire worn by the President in such terms: “He had on a white and blue squarish gown, with a round neck and no buttons, over brown, striped, baggy trousers made from the kind of light linen material we sometimes called Obey the Wind” (p. 61). The expression that teases out at least a smile from the reader is “Obey the Wind” which is originally italicised in the text, as if to bring out the humour in it by giving it prominence. One could therefore imagine, because of the shared knowledge with the speaker, how the wind could blow the President’s trousers open anytime it became intense. A scene like that will certainly be humorous to observe. In addition, one finds it understandable that Chief Nanga’s desire to give Odili more girls to sleep with is not amusing to his friend. It becomes awkward for Odili that Chief Nanga outsmarts him by sleeping with his “good-time girl”, Elsie, when Odili goes to visit him in the city. But as friends should do when one hurts the other, Chief Nanga offers his “unreserved apology” and adds an inducement. Thus, he tells Odili: “If you like I can bring you six girls this evening. You go do the thing sotay you go beg say you no want again. Ha, ha, ha, ha!” (p. 72). The speaker himself laughs, ALLS 6(4):195-202, 2015 201 perhaps together with the reader who understands the import of Chief Nanga’s utterance and how tempting it could be for anyone truly interested in flirting with women to take the offer. It is shocking to Chief Nanga when Odili turns down his offer and insults him for betraying him with Elsie. Elsie actually informs Chief Nanga that there is nothing serious between Odili and her. This situation marks the beginning of the marred relationship between Odili and Chief Nanga. This soar relationship makes Odili to contest Chief Nanga as Member of Parliament on the ticket of another party. The irony of situations is also another source of humour in Achebe’s A Man of the People. For example, it is humorous but also ironical that “The Speaker” of “Parliament” will break “his mallet ostensibly trying to maintain order, but you could see he was enjoying the commotion” (p. 6). The commotion results from the attempts by the “entire house, including the Prime Minister”, to shout down the dismissed Minister of Finance, Dr. Makinde. It is very incongruous that the Prime Minister of a nation, together with the Speaker, will join forces with colleagues in shouting down one of their own. One could imagine the smirk on the speaker’s face as he enjoys the chaos in his own house, the House of Parliament. It is further ironical but humorous too for Chief Nanga to advise “another teacher” that a position in government as a minister shouldn’t be desired by anyone. To him, teaching is a very noble profession: “Sometimes I use to regret ever leaving the teaching field. Although I am a minister today I can swear to God that I am not as happy as when I was a teacher” (p. 9). The candid admission here makes the teachers “collapse” with laughter because they cannot believe Chief Nanga’s assurance. As Polimeni and Reiss (2006) note, “perhaps, the overarching use of humorous communication is to help navigate contentious social situations” (p. 348). Chief Nanga’s admission comes as a surprise to his audience because teachers all over the country are in “an ugly, rebellious mood” (p. 9). His frank admission effectively lightens the mood of the present teachers and helps him to “navigate” through this “contentious” social situation. His speech is therefore welcome by all. Similarly, Chief Nanga affirms his belief that being a minister is full of problems and so no one should desire it. This is re-echoed by him to his audience when he is invited to the proprietor’s lodge (Mr. Nwege’s house). However, to Chief Nanga’s surprise Josiah, the “one-eyed man” and “owner of a nearby shop-and-bar” retorts: “I no kuku mind the katakata wey de for inside. Make you put Minister money for my hand and all the wahala on top. I no mind at all” (p. 15). The reader subsequently laughs at Josiah’s jovial use of pidgin English to express his heart desire, and of course “everyone laughed” too. Josiah therefore prefers all the problems that come with being a minister as far as he continues to enjoy the wealth that comes with it too. Apart from these examples, another comical and ironical situation is seen when Odili wakes up from his coma at the hospital after his near-death experience at the inaugural campaign meeting of Chief Nanga. Making the political mistake of attending his political rival’s rally, disguised Odili is identified and terribly beaten into unconsciousness. Though his near-death experience is serious, it is ironical that he wakes up from coma and belittles his situation: “I remember the first time I woke up in the hospital and felt my head turbanned like an Alhaji. Everything seemed unreal and larger than life and I was sure I was dreaming” (p. 140). The art of comparing his “turbanned” head to an “Alhaji” through the use of simile is what makes his serious situation comical, less serious and even incongruous. There are a few other examples in Achebe’s A Man of the People which are not as explosive as others but are very light examples of humour, often meant as satire. For instance, Chief Nanga is presented as insulting his colleague Minister of Public Construction, Hon. T.C. Kobino, because he delays in constructing the road between Giligili and Anata, Chief Nanga’s home town. Here too there is light humour and ridicule of the government as the government employs incompetent people into public offices. According to Chief Nanga, the Minister for Public Construction delays in executing the road project because “one small boy from his town – whom” they “all helped to promote last year” advises that “the road should not be tarred before next dry season since he wants to carry out tests in the soil” (p. 42). However, Chief Nanga wants the road tarred before the next elections. His frustrations are summed up in the comment he makes about the “small boy”, the expert, that: “He has become an earthworm” (p. 42). Though this remark is serious to Chief Nanga, he makes light humour of it and makes the narrator laugh. It is possible to understand the fury of Chief Nanga since he wants to win elections at all cost; but his efforts are frustrated by a colleague Minister whose constituency is not Anata. Finally, there is a mixture of humour and satire when the narrator describes the opportunistic nature of Chief Nanga. Unlike other followers of Chief Nanga in the novel, the narrator asserts that he has no reason to be enthusiastic about Nanga. The narrator comments on the opportunistic nature of Nanga when he writes that on “seeing the empty ministerial seats”, Chief Nanga “had yapped and snarled so shamelessly for the meaty prize” (p. 6-7). The dog image here makes the whole episode lightly humorous as one could imagine Chief Nanga cursing and yelling at the dismissed two-thirds of Cabinet ministers, all because he wants to be seen as a loyal party fellow. It does not come as a surprise to the narrator when Chief Nanga is later made Minister of Culture. His change in outlook after his ministerial appointment is described by the narrator with a taint of sarcasm: As soon as the Minister’s Cadillac arrived at the head of a long motorcade the hunters dashed this way and that and left off their last shots…The Minister stepped out wearing damask and gold chains and acknowledging cheers with his ever-present fan of animal skin which they said fanned away all evil designs and shafts of malevolence thrown at him by the wicked (p. 7). The “Cadillac”, “damask” and “gold chains” portray Chief Nanga’s newly acquired wealth, and for protection his fan of ALLS 6(4):195-202, 2015 202 animal skin serves him well. One may wonder, and perhaps this is the intention of the narrator, whether truly Chief Nanga’s fan really performs the protective role for him. For a fact, his government is overthrown and he is arrested trying to escape by canoe, dressed like a fisherman. Chief Nanga’s ever-present fan of animal skin is not able to fan away the calamity that befalls him and his government. 3. Conclusion All in all, “humour is a complex cognitive function which often leads to laughter” (Polimeni & Reiss, 2006, p. 347). Employing the theory of incongruity this write-up considers an analysis of humour in Achebe’s A Man of the People. It establishes that there are several sources of humour in the text and they all play significant roles in underscoring the concerns of the text, particularly the subject of corruption. It thus points out that humour results from titles, namecalling, puns, use of pidgin English, irony of situations, comparisons (through devices such as simile) and satire, among other means. These various means bring about the many instances of humour that have both congruent and incongruent elements. Anchoring each other in several instances of the text, the aforementioned means of humour succeed in evicting the desired smile, giggle, or chuckle in a reader. Sometimes too, the laugher is pronounced but short-lived after the punch of the humour wears off. Other times, there is delayed humour as details are given in bits, and then one’s curiosity is suddenly eclipsed by laughter that may be long or short. Most times also, the result of the humour is explosive laughter that could continue for a while and even resurface later. This last situation does not only bring about an abrupt stop in reading, but also a greater desire to continue reading the text when one’s emotional state settles. In actual fact, Achebe employs humour to satirize people in the community, deliver his major theme of corruption, and make his work, A Man of the People, interesting to read. References Achebe, C. (1966). A man of the people (2nd ed.). England: Heinemann Ltd. Apter, M.J. & Smith, K.C.P. (1977). Humour and the theory of psychological reversals. In A. J. Chapman and H. C. Foot (Eds.), It’s a Funny Thing, Humour (pp. 95-100). Oxford, England: Pergamon. Armah, A.K. (1968). The beautyful ones are not yet born. London: Heinemann Educational Books Ltd. Attardo, S. (1994). Linguistic theories of humor. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Attardo, S. (2001). Humour texts: A semantic and pragmatic analysis. In Humour Research (6). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter Carol, D. (1975). Chinua Achebe: Novelist, poet, critic. London: Heinemann. Chapman, A. & Foot, H. (1977) (Eds.). It’s a funny thing, humour. Oxford, England: Pergamon. Chiaro, D. (2008). Verbally expressed humor and translation. In V. Raskin (Ed.), The Primer of Humor Research (pp. 569-608). Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. Dwivedi, V. (2008). African study monographs. 29 (1): 1-13. Franklyn, B.S. (2006). Towards a theory of postmodern humour: South park as carnivalesque postmodern narrative impulse. [Online] Available: http://waikato.researchgateway.ac.nz/ Gruner, C. (1997). The game of humor: A comprehensive theory of why we laugh. London: Transaction Publishers. Koestler, A. (1964). The act of creation. New York: Macmillan. LaFollette, H. & Shanks, N. (1993). Belief and the basis of humor. American Philosophical Quarterly, 30: 329-339. McGhee, P.E. (1979). Humor: Its origin and development. San Francisco-Reading: Freeman. Morreall, J. (1983). Taking laughter seriously. Albany, NY: SUNY Press. Norrick, N.R. (2004). Non-verbal humor and joke performance. Humor: International Journal of Humor Research, 17 (4): 401-409. Polimeni, J. & Reiss, J.P. (2006). The first joke: Exploring the evolutionary origins of humor. Evolutionary Psychology, 4: 347-366. Provine, R.R. (2000). Laughter: A scientific investigation. New York: Viking. Raskin, V. (1985). Semantic mechanisms of humour. Dordrecht: Reidal. Ritchie, G. (2004). The linguistic analysis of jokes. London: Routledge. Ritchie, G. (2010). Linguistic factors in humour. In D. Chiaro (Ed.), Translation, Humour and Literature. (pp.33-48). London: Continuum International Publishing Group. Ross, A. (1998). The language of humour. London & New York: Routledge. Rothbart, M.K. (1977). Psychological approaches to the study of humour. In A. J. Chapman and H. C. Foot (Eds.), It’s a Funny Thing, Humour (pp. 87-94). Oxford, England: Pergamon. Rutter, J. (1997). Stand-up comedy as interaction: Performance and audience in comedy venues. PhD thesis, Department of Sociology, Salford University. Vaid, J. (1999). The evolution of humor: Do those who laugh last? In D. H. Rosen and M. C. Luebbert (Eds.), Evolution of the Psyche (pp. 123-138). Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers. Veatch, T. (1998). A theory of humour. Humor: International Journal of Humor, 11 (2): 161- 215. Zabalbeascoa, P. (2005). Humor & translation-An interdisciplinary. Humor: International Journal of Humor Research, 18 (2): 185-207. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Parents’ Positive Role in Students’ Learning Process at Ishik University Preparatory School Mustafa Tosun Department of Languages, Ishik University, Suleimani, Iraq E-mail: mustafa.tosun@ishik.edu.iq Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.203 Received: 10/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.203 Accepted: 19/06/2015 Abstract The reason that motivated me to initiate this writing is to emphasize the deficiency in the motivation and unwillingness of university youth cause of the parents approach toward the education at preparatory school. Moreover, my aim is to declare realistic suggestions about the issue with the help of observations that have been gained during the profession of teaching. These observations urged me to intensify on the act of the parents and their relations with guidance unit at preparatory school. This study was conducted to attract the significance of parents` involvement and its yield at prepschool. Keywords: Motivation, guidance unit, parents role 1. Introduction In motivation the act of parents is quite substantial. If parents care about their college children, they make more educational achievements than those who are disregarded, but most of the parents usually do not concentrate on this issue. Owing to this conduct, it is getting hard to succeed. Looking at the success and motivation problems you might say the main reason is the attitude of parents at Preparatory school of Ishik University. Although students’ IQ level is not low and they are able to learn easily also they even have little moral problems they feel difficulty in learning. We should draw a right conclusion to find the reason if 91 students from 253 cannot finish the preparatory school on the level of pre-intermediate. The number of the students that enrolled for preparatory school was 253 in the academic year of 2013-2014. The level of the first coming students was A1. It is the beginning level according to Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) standards. In my research I desire to make clear the students` results by the help of data collecting table and questionnaire besides, I wish to find responses for the question of what extent parents are interested in the guidance unit. Data collecting table which indicates students` level after graduation of preparatory school has been given in the part of appendix. More over the chart that was prepared by the evaluating unit would support us in the following parts of the article. 2. Literature Review The aim of this observational research article is to clarify the positive role of the parents for EFL leaners by the help of three components in turns: problems, proposals which date back to different social science articles and a questionnaire that was conducted by teachers at preparatory school. Depending on the introductory sentence will be given several retrieved expressions. For instance, Robinson-Wright also points out that many students at two-year colleges are the first generation in their families to attend college. As a result, their parents want and need more information to understand the mechanics of higher education (Benbow, 2012). Due to giving example, parents play a vital role in the education of their child, whatever child’s age is, (either he read in college or in school). This phrase also supports one of my questionnaire questions of informing the parents at preparatory school. Having an involved parent can be a key to student’s success in college (Foley, 2008). It is a saying that you could be a shoulder to lean when your child stumbles. Clearly, parents have a role to play throughout the entirety of their children’s educational careers. But as time goes on, that role needs to become more advisory (Benbow, 2012). It is clear that initial year (as preparatory school) parents `role of involvement more significant than the subsequent years. The parental involvement factor was positively related to gains in sociopolitical awareness for freshmen. (Harper, Sax, Wolf 2012). As the part of the preparatory school, the unit of guidance should get involved the parents in order that they will develop students` emotional and academic achievement. Involved, supportive parents set their children up for emotional and academic success (Kelmon, 2013). In the light of educators` theories which mentioned above we could analyze the article by means of indicating several problems. This analysis supports our hypothesis and helps to find real responses for drawing conclusion. 2.1 Problem of the statement Providing objective is the most significant matter that influences learning process. The present studies were initially carried out with an aim to explore possible variations in long term socialization goals of mother in terms of their educational background (Yağmurlu, Çıtlak, Dost&Leyendecker, 2009). Because of the literacy level of parents is too ALLS 6(4):203-207, 2015 204 low they don’t know what kind of objective will provide their own children. Besides they are not able to keep in touch with the unit of guidance in preparatory school. Especially teenagers usually separate from their parents because of the psychological problems and reduced sharing in the time of study. The lack of the parents in education is the second inevitable reason for learning. Education levels of family influence on the social status of children. It is considered that the more education mothers level have the better communication they have. (Sarıkaya, Ogelman, 2011). It is the cause of being failed with the cultural deprivation of parents. Moreover, they are not aware of how to educate their children adequately. The higher parents education level develop, the better student’s academic achievement rises. On the other hand, it has been well established that parent-child interactions in early life form the foundation for the child’s social and emotional development (Tremblay, 2010). Due to these well-educated families establish good contact with their children and they increase their motivation of achievement. Parental educational level is an important predictor of children’s educational and behavioral outcomes (Davis&Kean, 2005). If the parents` education level is low, it influences the atmosphere inside the family and prevents the mental development. Not only the mental ability and social life, but also the parents’ attitude effect student’s success. When we look at the education level of parents, they are categorized as both successful and unsuccessful. It is obvious that the level of education which belongs to parents of unsuccessful students is quiet low. In this context lack of reading habits of the parents also is significant for student’s development. One of the most problems with the recent increase in the use of technology; children are getting addicted to digital world. The global changings in mobile devices all around the world caused global digitalization on young generation. Unwillingly they are born as a digital native. According to some scholars they are called net generation or Google generation (McNeill, Ming & Gosper 2011). And parents have insufficient knowledge of behaviour about this issue. When we look from the general perspective of parents they might consider so: “when we were children, we suffered a lot, we had not such beautiful electronic devices, and we wish our children have everything they need” so parents` feelings of compassion let children misuse gadgets and technological facilities. As a result of this their children start living in a virtual world and nearly all relations are broken. In that time parents understand their mistakes but nowhere to back. Upbringing child in a materialistic world is also one of the influencing factors. Some parents of the children are more interested in what they do as a materialistic character, but they ignore the fact that who they are. yet loving and supportive parents can also use material goods to express their love, paving the way for their children to grow up to be more likely than others to admire people with expensive possessions and judge success by the kinds of things people own (Richins &Chaplin, 2015). They have spent their physical and spiritual strength for their children`s grades and achievements but they have been back on the emotional needs. In this context parents face with the irresponsible and reckless children instead of responsible. It causes to lose motivation of the students. If we make it clear we might give you a few examples: First, students are not able to dream about the experience and hardness of real life. Second, let’s say he or she has got a career with the help of his relatives. So we face with a bad-tempered, non-productive, nonintegrated type of people. At this point one of the parents especially father tries to be in this issue but his acquisition of education has not been quite enough. As a result both students and parents are getting non-achiever. Imposing a sense of responsibility affects for the achievement of the students. Recent researches have been made about the senses of responsibility indicate that the embryo in the womb is feeling and sharing the sense of mother (Döner, 2014).If we start the issue with this point, it is clear how important giving responsibility in the period of adolescence and childhood. In this age parents are forced to understand how to approach the students. Although parents are being polite to children with their attitudes it is generally misunderstood and returned to parents as a reaction. In case they do not to take into account generation gap, students are becoming hypocrite like they are loyal dog at home and attacker dog outside. Certainly this kind of attitude triggers lie after that you may meet the miserable generations with no motivation. Parents’ enforcement in the choice of department for students is unavoidable factor before the academic year. In the first year of college, after starting the department of parents preferred , the number of the students are not pretty much who fall in to unhappiness even desire to change their universities. These kinds of students neglect all kind of learning skills because they don’t have any sort of hope that will motivate them. One of the biggest problems with children in today’ society is youth apathy (Gratz, 2006). Sometimes you might face with different ones as if they seem to be expected that their parents will help them. Also most of them think that they need only diploma nothing else. 3. Methods 3.1 Participants Twenty lecturers of Ishik University Preparatory School participated in filling the questionnaire. They were chosen deliberately because they have been working for 5 years as a lecturer at preparatory school. The number of the male lecturers was 15 and the number of the female lecturers was 5. 3.2 Measures I obtained the data from the figure which was shown at the part of findings, appendix and questionnaire that was conducted. I listed six items on the questionnaire. In this questionnaire I used the dichotomous method questions with the help of yes/no/not sure. According to the results of the questionnaire 14 of the15 male lecturers have complied with the necessity of guidance unit and involving parents to the education of preparatory school. 4 of 5 female lecturers have declared positive words about the establishing of guidance unit and involving parents as the female lecturers. ALLS 6(4):203-207, 2015 205 4. Findings The following figure is presented to clarify the observations. According to results of the study it is determined that first, preparatory school should include or establish guidance unit for parents. Second, guidance unit ought to reach the parents and give information to some extend about the attitude of students. More over guidance unit should not give information about the function of preparatory school and use of technology including internet based programs unless they demand. Parents should keep in touch with guidance unit of preparatory school all the time. It may come to mind a question like this. Whether parents must interfere the students issue or it can be solved by students alone. This is a disputable question for different group of people and most of our colleagues who have been working as lecturers of preparatory school prefer to study both with students and parents. Although university students are older than 18 years they don’t know or not to be informed about their future career. As result of this they have been exposed to lack of motivation. Like a ship in a huge Ocean that doesn’t know where to go. Cooperation of parents has been more effective in preparatory school than that of the other departments and some actions should be fulfilled as keeping in touch with parents in necessary conditions. The distinguishing part of the preparatory school from elders is it has been an accustomed period for students. Furthermore, it should be given adaptation education both parents and students at preparatory school in order that students may continue their career with no hesitation. As my research has been done during two academic years in the Region of Kurdistan, Iraq, I noticed that the more parents knew about children, the more successful students would be. 5. Conclusion & Suggestions In the end of this study, I came to conclusion that both parents and lecturers should collaborate to improve students` motivation. Also, following suggestions which are given to both parents and lecturers support my idea. 1. Providing objective: Having an education process which provides a qualified education that is appropriate for university students’ expectations and goals may also serve to meet the needs and expectations of the society (Şahin, Zoraloğlu & Fırat, 2011). One of the biggest problems of the students in this age is aimlessness. Because of this they are not able to think and read the actual problems of the world. Students are influenced negatively or positively according to the aim provided. These objectives might be about faith, consciousness of history, future generations etc. Also they should include vision. 2. It should be done more researches on concrete concepts: Chosen aim and vision ought to create concrete concepts because commitment to concrete concepts is reduced in the development cycle of the students and people. During this age, spiritual sciences are perceived much more than the other social sciences students gain. Adolescents are known to understand the metaphor better. “Such as young people, people of the most dynamic, most utopian, most romantic, most fearless, perhaps the most productive period of investigation; the exploitation of its energetic structure, is almost debt on behalf of humanity” (Tuncay, 2000). The impact of concrete concept would be understood much pretty considering the events of ISIS how deceived the youth have been taken to the war. In addition, it reveals why we need to take care of young people much more. 3. Providing sensible devotion: Love is the first thing to be considered. It is certain that young man would sacrifice himself for his love and purpose and it is obvious that ‘Lover and beloved adolescence’ will obey (Çelegen, 1998). Parents attitude ought to be positive and affectionate if they want to have children`s heart. 4. Incentives should be increased by taking advantage of the use of technology. Education policy makers, curriculum designers, academician should encourage the teachers to integrate them into their classes. Parents should be involved into the process (Pimmer, Pachler & Attwell, 2010). Digital world that has to be tendency to increase in real life, especially mobile phones and tabs should be used as teaching materials with the application of having social infrastructure like Edmodo and Muddle etc. 5. Individual approaches should be used by teachers. So it’s the teachers’ duty to generate motivational strategies to keep the students motivated towards the foreign language ( Koran, 2014) Teacher is not only the course teacher, but ALLS 6(4):203-207, 2015 206 also he or she should be the students’ teacher. It means in addition to teaching, as it was in the course teacher should try to be together with students with the help of social facilities at the university. At least teachers might drink tea, have lunch and find common interests with students. Besides in order to get more quality education, the possibilities of dormitory should be improved and prepared English language practising atmosphere by the guidance unit. References Benbow, C. (2012). Parents’ role for college needs to be more advisory. https://my.vanderbilt.edu/camillabenbow/news/parents role for college needs to-be more advisory. Retrieved from Foley, C. (2008). Family involvement can help with student’s college success. https://enroll.iupui.edu/admissions/documents/presentations/family involvement.pdf. Baskı, İ. (1998). Peygamberimiz Kadınlara Nasıl Davranırdı. Retrieved from http://www.ajansnigde.com/peygamberimiz-s-a-v-kadinlara-nasil-davranirdi-d73488.html Davis-Kean, P. E. (2005). The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: the indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. Journal of family psychology, 19(2), 294. Döner, A. (2014). Ergenlik dönemi yol haritası. Işık Yayıncılık Ticaret. McNeill, M., Ming Diao, M., & Gosper, M. (2011). Student uses of technology in learning: two lenses. Interactive Technology and Smart Education, 8(1), 5-17. Gratz, J., Nation, S. O., Schools, S. O., & Kurth-Schai, R. (2006). The Impact of Parents’ Background on their Children’s Education. Educational Studies, 268, 1-12. Harper, C. E., Sax, L. J., & Wolf, D. S. S. (2012). The Role of Parents in College Students' Sociopolitical Awareness, Academic, and Social Development. Journal of Student Affairs Research and Practice, 49(2), 137-156. Kelmon, J. (2013). Great School. Retrieved from http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/search?q=cache:abiRO5knUzYJ:blogs.greatschools.org/greatschoolsblog. Koran, S. (2015). Analyzing EFL Teachers’ Initial Job Motivation and Factors Effecting Their Motivation in Fezalar Educational Institutions in Iraq. Advances in Language and Literary Studies, 6(1), 72-80. Pimmer, C., Pachler, N., & Attwell, G. (2010). Towards work-based mobile learning: what we can learn from the fields of work-based learning and mobile learning. International journal of mobile and blended learning, 2(4), 1-18. Richins, M. L., & Chaplin, L. N. (2015). Material Parenting: How the Use of Goods in Parenting Fosters Materialism in the Next Generation. Journal of Consumer Research, 41(6), 1333-1357. Sarikaya, H. E., & Ogelman, H. G. (2013). Okul Öncesi Eğitimi Almiş Çocuklarin Akran İlişkileri Değişkenlerinin 5 Ve 6 Yaşta İncelenmesi: İki Yillik Boylamsal Çalişma. Turkish Studies - International Periodical For The Languages, Literature and History of Turkish or Turkic, 8(8),1859-1871 Şahin, İ., Zoraloğlu, Y. R., & Fırat, N. Ş. (2011). Üniversite Öğrencilerinin Yaşam Amaçları, Eğitsel Hedefleri Üniversite Öğreniminden Beklentileri ve Memnuniyet Durumları. Kuram ve Uygulamada Eğitim Yönetimi Dergisi, 17(3), 429-452. Tuncay, S. (2011). Türkiye’de gençlik sorunlarının psikolojik boyutu. Muğla Sitki Koçman Üniversitesi Sosyal Bilimler Ensitüsü Dergisi,1(1). Tremblay, R. E. (2010). Developmental origins of disruptive behaviour problems: the ‘original sin’hypothesis, epigenetics and their consequences for prevention. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(4), 341-367. Yağmurlu, B., Çıtlak, B., Dost, A., & Leyendecker, B. (2009). Child socialization goals of Turkish mothers: An investigation of education related within-culture variation. Turkish Journal of Psychology, 24(63), 16-19. Appendix Students at the beginning of the year Failed by attendance Failed by general average Failed by exam Total students fail Total students success The level in the beginning Required mark in the end Number 253 25 33 58 91 ratio 100% 9.8% 13.04% 22.9% 35.% 65% Cerf A1 A2 A2 A2 A2 B2 A1 B2 /C1 ALLS 6(4):203-207, 2015 207 Questionnaire 1. Is it necessary to establish guidance unit at preparatory school? a) Yes b) no c) not sure 2. Do you think if the guidance unit should collaborate with the parents of preparatory school students? a) Yes b) no c) not sure 3. Do you think if the guidance unit should collaborate only with the students of Ishik University Preparatory School? a) Yes b) no c) not sure 4. Should the guidance unit give information about proceedings (progress) to the parents? a) Yes b) no c) not sure 5. Do all of the matters which we mentioned above depend on the students’ profile? a) Yes b) no c) not sure 6. Do you think if the guidance unit should collaborate with only the students that were forced to study in the departments with parents’ pressure? a) Yes b) no c) not sure Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Oroonoko: A “Royal Slave” and/or a Master of Dignity Banani Biswas Department of English Language & Literature, School of Foreign Languages & Literature Shandong University, PO box 250100, Jinan, 27, Shanda Nan Lu, P.R.China & Department of English, Comilla University, Comilla-3506, Bangladesh E-mail: bb_31jueng@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.208 Received: 17/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.208 Accepted: 23/06/2015 Abstract This paper involves a study on Aphra Ben’s Oroonoko (1688) which is considered by many as the first black narrative of English literature, an abolitionist text, while observed by some others as extremely colonialist. The objective of this study is to examine why the novella accommodates such contradictory readings. It assumes that it is the “scriptiblity” of the text that enables it encompassing heterogeneous meanings which should not be reduced to any privileged interpretation. It holds that Oroonoko is interwoven with multiple codes which serve as different socio-cultural agents proliferating variety of meanings often disseminating one another. In order to explore those intervening meanings, this study applies Barthesian codes for reading narratives. Then, drawing upon deconstructionist approach, it surmises neither the text nor its protagonist, Oroonoko, should be categorized into any absolute category. On the contrary, it asserts Oroonoko informs the postmodernist/plural concept of ‘being’, embracing a variety of identities from the “royal slave” to the ‘master of dignity’. Keywords: Oroonoko, Aphra Ben, Royal Slave, Master of Dignity, Scriptibility, Barthesian Codes 1. Introduction It remains as a literary enigma that though the publication of Aphra Behn’s the Oroonoko: Or, the Royal Slave in 1688 inaugurates the literary genre of the “novel”, the recognition of being founder of this genre does not follow her. With her beginning as the first professional woman in English literature to live by her pen, Behn was among the few who achieved earlier biographical and critical attentions. However, strangely enough, afterwards, the eighteenth and nineteenth century, critics, anthologists, publishers, and, as Jane Spencer mentions, the writers like Steele, Pope, Fielding, and Richardson as well ignore her literary productions which continues into the twentieth century until there appears Montague Summers to edit her works in 1915 to open the door for many others (Spencer 1986). Then, as the eighties of the last century feminism undertakes re-excavating writings by women which were long been hidden under the pages of phallocentric literary history, Oroonoko appears as worth study, captivating scholars and critics with its obvious preoccupations with race, class, and gender. For example, on the critics’ reluctance to Oroonoko, the article titled “The Death of the Mother in Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko” traces the “non-conformity with paternal law in its deep structure”. Female authorship, historical authenticity, and ambivalence regarding the institution of slavery have also been the contentions of some other studies. However, as for the contention of this paper, it is the non-conformity of the discourses of the novel to any fixed structure that makes the critics, who always sort out to categorize every work, confused of its meanings. 2. Literature Review The nonconformity of the discourses in Oroonoko gives rise to a complex web of studies. Contemporary classists feel indifferent for being unable to consider its contents as ‘classic’ while some abolitionists welcome it as ‘first anti-slavery narrative’, yet, some other explore the colonialist stance within the novel. For example, many were dismayed by the idea of ‘royal slave’ introduced in the text which makes it fail to fall into the category of ‘classic’ adhering to the predetermined structure of master/slave relationship. Thomas Southerne's 1696 dramatic adaptation of Oroonoko demonstrates how he tries to diagnose a rationale for slavery as if the planters did not make them slaves but merely bought them “in an honest way of trade”(5). Another group, on the other, draws on the ideological significance of Behn's granting of heroic stature to an African prince. As in his “Anti-colonialism Vs Colonialism in Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko; or, The Royal Slave.”, Said I. Abdelwahed has asserted “Oroonoko did make an early contribution to antislavery thought, whether through its alleged criticisms of Western civilization or through its ennobling and humanizing of an African”. Many critics, however, have challenged such readings. Addressing it a “sentimental antislavery literature”, Anita Pacheco refutes that contribution. She explores, “the double-edged strategy of Behn which endows the African with human stature while simultaneously assuming that human stature is by definition European….” (Pacheco, 1994, 492). Then, George Guffey examines that “the significance of Behn's hero resides not in his African origins but in his royal blood” (Guffey 1975). He claims Behn endorses the conservative, hierarchical principles that legitimate rather than question the institution of slavery. In her 1981 article, Lucy K. Hayden also ALLS 6(4):208-215, 2015 209 observes that Behn's overall presentations supports slavery's continuation, and she asks “does she pity Oroonoko because he is a noble chief in captivity rather than because he is an enslaved human being?” (405). Moira Ferguson in 1992 seems to answer her question. She contends that “class may be Behn's greatest concern in representing Oroonoko and that she views him favorably as long as he upholds her clear royalist position” (339-59). The studies, stated above, seems to bear prejudices against particular discourses they aim to dismantle. However, in the process of altering discourses, those studies fall into the trap of perpetuating the same structure, they seek to deconstruct. Exploring how the novel can accommodate such opposed readings has, therefore, been crucial. As this paper contends, it is the scriptiblity of the ‘writerly’ text that has made it accommodate so many opposite readings. Scriptibility, according to the French literary critic and semiotician Roland Barthes (1915-1980), is that aspect of a narrative text which is capable of proliferating variety of meanings prone to contradictions and, therefore, deconstruction of each meaning itself (Barthes 1970). By applying Barthes’ concept of analyzing narratives through five codes, this paper examines Behn’s dependency upon various codes and conventions. It explores that how those codes exist in a complex, lingua-cultural matrix, function as socio-cultural agencies which are interwoven and overlap, and solidify that no single meaning is final, stable, or ‘universal’. Exposing the way of creating meaning, it surmises that the novel Oroonoko is a multilayered narrative and should not absolutely be categorized either ‘abolitionist’ or ‘anti-abolitionist’. Likewise, neither Oroonoko nor the race he represents should be stereotyped as anything absolute like ‘slave’ or ‘savage monster’. Cutting through the illusion of Eurocentric, universalizing discourses, this paper asserts that Oroonoko could simultaneously be a master of dignity, a slave of royalty, a native but wit, a black but handsome, a killer but a lover. 3. The Possibility of Scriptibility in Oroonoko Oroonoko is a relatively short novel concerning the tragic love story of Oroonoko and Imoinda, two Africans of royal origin enslaved in the British colony of Surinam during 1660s. The full title of the novel, Oroonoko; or the Royal Slave: A True History, with its apparent oxymoronic epithet ‘Royal Slave’ and its historical claim, takes us back to the age of slavery and arouses evocative speculation how a royal being could be a slave and the vice-versa as well. A close reading of the text also makes the readers confused about Behn’s ambiguity regarding the issue. They are likely to interpret it as per their mind-sets as, according to Barthes, human conceptualization is contextual and, therefore, determined by the world s/he inhabits. In his book S/Z (1970), he practises an exercise on a realistic text of Balzac titled, “Sarrasine”, that dismantles the structuralist notion of the ‘universal’ structure underlying all cultures. Barthes methodically moves through the text of the story exploring where and how different codes of meaning function. The codes expounded by Barthes are: 1. The Proairetic code or the code of Actions 2. The Hermeneutic Code or the Code of Puzzles 3. The Cultural Code 4. The Semic or Connotative Code 5. The symbolic Code Barthes argues although we impose temporal and generic structures onto the polysemy of codes (that traditional, “readerly” texts actively invite us to impose such structures), any text is, in fact, marked by the multiple meanings suggested by the five codes. The codes point to the “multivalence” or sriptibility of the text, and expose “its partial reversibility” (20), allowing a reader to see a work not just as a single narrative line but as a constellation or braiding of meanings. Likewise, the idea of ‘Royal Slave’ in Oroonoko immediately pushes the postmodern readers to discover the multiplicity of cultural and other ideological indicators (codes) in the text what Barthes describes as “ourselves writing”. The readers, aware of the discrepancy between artifice and reality, approach the text from an external position of subjectivity and take active part in the construction of meanings. Oroonoko addresses an issue revolving which the whole world had long been divided, and which is, therefore, opened to multicultural discourses. 3.1 Proairetic Code Contributing to the ‘Universalizing’ Mission As a narrative, Oroonoko is elevated almost up to an artifice, braided by a numbers of sequential actions. The actions are organized in a way that creates an air of ‘naturalness’. As the important function of literature at Behn’s time was to create a ‘realistic’ world, the writers heavily depend upon proairetic code. It concerns the basic sequential logic of actions and behaviours, and the readers, unconsciously operating the code, expect each action to be completed and perceive it as ‘natural’. Since the proairetic sequences are “never more than the result of an artifice of reading”, their only definitive characteristic is “the name” we give to each action or episode of the story (Barry 2002). As we go along the text, we give each sequence of actions a name in order to recognize them well. In this regard, the recognizable names for the actions of the Oroonoko might be given as “The Romance of Oroonoko and Imoinda in Coramantien”, “The Rivalry between Oroonoko and the Old King for Imoinda”, “Oroonoko and Imoinda Betrayed by the Nameless White Captain and the Old King”, “The Chance Meeting between Oroonoko and Imoinda in the New Land”, “The Happy Interlude at Surinam”, “The Revolts of Oroonoko against the Institution of Slavery”, “The Killing of Imoinda by Oroonoko”, “The Brutal Dismembering of Oroonoko”, and finally “The Dissection and Distribution of Oroonoko’s Body”. The actions are so realistically arranged that the readers can easily codify. ALLS 6(4):208-215, 2015 210 However, behind the ‘real’ appears a very dark design of European Imperialist mission. By coordinating between the tradition of the ‘medieval romance’ and the myth of the ‘black Nigger’, Behn has familiarized a story far from being innocent. Her Eurocentricity can be reiterated by analyzing the sequential actions of “The Killing of Imoinda by Oroonoko” episode. After realizing that the white colonizers are never going to give the Black slaves ‘liberty’, Oroonoko devices a plan to attain it himself, though in a broader sense. He plots to kill Imoinda first, then to take revenge on his white persecutor, Bayam, and finally to commit suicide in order to get free of a life of slavery. The sequence of actions in this episode are “he [Oroonoko] led her [Imoinda] up into a wood … after thousands sighs and long Gazing silently on her face ... he told her his Design ... told her the necessity of Dying ... took her up, and embracing her with all the passion and languishment of a dying lover, drew his knife to kill his treasure of his soul”. Smiling with joy “[the] victim lays her self down before the sacrifice”. Oroonoko, with a hand resolved and heart breaking “gave the fatal stroke; first, cutting her throat, and then severing her yet smiling face from that Delicate body, pregnant with the fruit of tenderest love. … He laid the body decently on leaves and Flowers and kept her face bare to look on”. When he finds she is dead, his grief swelled up to range “he tore, he Rav’d, he Roar’d, like some monster of the wood, calling on the lov’d name of Imoinda” (Behn 61). The passion of romantic love and the rage of brutality has so artistically been composed that the fiction seems to be real. And the fiction here revolves around a very popular myth – the ‘nigger’ loves, kills and rapes alike. Nobody knows where this brutality happened but the European master says it happened in the darkness where the African history had not yet born! The creative writers, historians, anthropologists, scholars, and the media, come forth to familiarize the myth. The myth, then, becomes the real (?) picture of the natives. So, the romance of a slave can only ends up in dire consequences. Edward Said has perfectly said in his Culture and Imperialism (1994) that the genre of novel is basically a product of bourgeois society and an integral part of the conquests of the Western world. The code, therefore, operates in the unconscious generating meanings we like to know as ‘universal’. The narrator’s seemingly innocent interest and fascination with the slaves in Surinam incorporates a universalizing mission inherent in European imperialism. As the story happily develops in Surinam with the reunion of the lovers Oroonoko and Imoinda, after they treacherously sold from the royal family of Coramantien, the reader could accept in the novel Mary Louise Pratt’s ‘contact zone’ – a social space where disparate cultures meet, clash and grapple with each other often in highly asymmetrical relations of domination and subordination. But in the colonial milieu of Oroonoko, the acts of commerce between colonizer and colonized are governed by hierarchical ideologies. In Conrad’s The Heart of Darkness, a highly educated European (Kurtz) transforms into a savage monster that must be destroyed to repair the fragile and porous boundary between civilization and barbarity. On the other hand, Oroonoko attempts to preserve, by act of rhetorical violence, discrepancies of race while representing the virtual impossibility of doing so in those chaotic, carnivalesque colonial spaces. The black lover ends up as a killer, as the “monster of the Wood”. The proairetic code, therefore, contributes to represent Oroonoko in terms of stereotypes. 3.2 Hermeneutic Code Enabling Ambiguity of Meanings Many critics have identified the use of ironies and ambiguities in presenting a confusing picture of Self/Other binaries as the most important reason for contradictory views of Oroonoko. It is undoubtedly true that Behn’s positionality in the novel regarding this issue is extremely ambivalent. The function of hermeneutic code is obvious in this regard. It refers to any element in a story that is not explained and, therefore, exists as an enigma for the reader, raises questions, creates suspense, and the story, before resolving these questions, proceeds along its course. However, the narratives often frustrate the early revelation of truths, offering the reader what Barthes terms “snares” (deliberate evasions of the truth), “equivocations” (mixtures of truth and snare), “partial answers”, “suspended answers”, and “jammings” (acknowledgments of insolubility). As Barthes explains, “the variety of these terms attests to the considerable labor the discourse must accomplish if it hopes to arrest the enigma, to keep it open” (76). In Oroonoko, Behn seems to apply all these techniques. Making delay to satisfy reader’s curiosity lets the readers of the Oroonoko creating their own versions. The very title entitles an enigma what does it mean by ‘Royal Slave’. It also raises question at what point of history it takes place and what is the place the history encompasses. The suspense is even more intensified in “The Dedicatory Epistle to Lord Maitland” where Behn pays tribute to the Lord: This is a true Story, of a Man Gallant enough to merit your Protection, and, had he always been so Fortunate, he had not made so Inglorious an end: The Royal Slave I had the Honour to know in my Travels to the other World; and though I had none above me in that Country yet I wanted power to preserve this Great Man. (Behn 5) Here in the Epistle again, Behn mentions the history of the ‘Royal Slave’ without unfolding the name of the person and place. But the focus on the ‘Great Man’ making ‘Inglorious an end’ arouses both sympathy and curiosity. Apparently, it seems that Behn is going to represent the ‘Royal Slave’ as a ‘Great Man’. However, the reference to ‘the other World’ postpones such assumption. Besides, it entitles the European projection of creating an ‘other’ world. It gets heightens as Behn proceeds to: If there be anything that seems Romantic, I beseech your Lordship to consider these countries do, in all things, so far differ from ours, that they produce inconceivable Wonders; at least they appear so to us because new and strange. (Behn 5) ALLS 6(4):208-215, 2015 211 The apparent praising tone of the extract is deceptive. In her plea, the ‘native’ is set as ‘romantic’, ‘differ from us [the Europeans]’, and ‘new and strange’. The ‘we/they’ dictum is ever set to assert European superiority over the natives. As Frantz Fanon argues in The Wretched of the Earth (1967), the imperialist imposition of the dichotomy between “us” and “them” ultimately results in the solid division of the whole world (18, 35). And in doing so in the very outset of the Oroonoko, Behn has assisted the Imperial mission of producing Eurocentric knowledge. As Fanon asserts in his Black Skin White Mask (1952), the European knowledge were engaged to establish the difference between black and white and science was ready to demonstrate the difference as innate so that it could not be changed. “Snares” and “partial answer” heightens the process of creating meanings of the text. As it unfolds, it provides partial answer that “the scene of the last part of my adventure lies in a colony in America called Surinam” (Behn 8). Rather than relieving from the thrust, this answer raises another question ‘where does the first part lie?’ After giving a firsthand account of that colony, unfolds the writer the first part of the story in Coramantien, a country in Africa. She relates that the king of Coramantien has no son but a ‘Grand-child’. Yet, the question of the ‘Royal Slave’ remains still an enigma. And it is half past of the text, that we come to know this ‘Royal Slave’ is none but Oroonoko himself as the narrator makes an oblique detail of him. It mentions, he (Oroonoko) wears the uniform of the slave but “the Royal youth appeared in spite of the Slave” (36). The instances of “equivocations’ are also many in the novel. The suspense here is intensified by the mixture of fact and fiction. Behn has used the names of a lot of historical places and persons in order to make her story credible to the readers. However, the transformation of the new world Surinam into the Eden garden, into the “first state of innocence before man knew how to Sin” (Behn 10-11), underlies a dark desires to what Conrad says “exterminate all the brutes”. In the process of brothering the ‘other’ humanity gets lost through familiarizing the ‘de-familiar’. It is reflected in the following detail: They being on all occasions very useful to us, we find it absolutely necessary to caress ’em as friends, and not to treat ’em as slaves, nor dare we do other, their numbers so far surpassing ours in that continent. (Behn 15) Behn can treat the ‘slaves’ as ‘friend’ and not as ‘other’ only in the colonial space far away from home as they are very ‘useful’ as natives to that land and as they are multiple in numbers than the settlers. So, a fear is also entitled in the relationship. The readers switch between the truths - friendly or fearful? It is very likely that all these ambiguities operated by the hermeneutic code are potential for new versions of meanings. In this regard, Oroonoko could be represented as a ‘great man’, as ‘romantic’ but ‘strange’, as ‘useful…friend’, yet dangerous ‘slave’. 3.3 Cultural Code Creating Eurocentric Discourse Behn has definitely contributed to the European mission of what Edward Said proclaims “creating the ‘other’” (Said 1978), producing and generating Eurocentric knowledge and discourse. She applies the politics of the realistic narratives of creating innocent, natural, and universal world where the Europeans are represented as the enlightened master claiming to uphold the moral rights to educate the natives. Cultural code or the ‘code of gnomic’ plays the most important role in this regard. It designates any element in a narrative that refers “to a science or a body of knowledge” (Barthes 20). In other words, the cultural code tends to point to our shared knowledge about the way the world works and refer to those discourses tied to clichés, proverbs, or popular sayings of various sorts. It manifests itself as a ‘gnomic’ , collective, anonymous, and authoritative voice which speaks for and about what it aims at to establish as ‘natural’, ‘real’ and ‘accepted’ knowledge. In the composition of Oroonoko, Behn has employed a numbers of codes, already recognized as so called universal. Oroonoko occupies a fictional space based on the structure of French romance. Idealistic love of the Golden Age, courtship and chivalry of the hero, his improbable adventures and deeds, wild setting - everything has been established through the-interplay of ‘codes’ where there is no flavour of manipulative sex, conventional shame and libertine selfishness. For example, Oroonoko’s courtship in his first meeting to Imoinda recalls the tradition of courtship in romances. He “told her with his eyes” and she “understood that silent language of New-born love” (Behn 15). It is a sort of idealistic love as Oroonoko vows “she should be the only women he who’d possess”. Behn also relates that “Imoinda was female to the noble male”. Then, the elements of chivalry are also well embodied in the text. When Oroonoko says, “if monsters detain her from me, I wou’d venture through any Hazard to free her” (17) like the medieval Red Cross Night saving the damsel in distress. When in Surinam he kills the tiger, saves the women, guides them through Indian colony, the image of the great hero Hercules appears before our eyes. Oroonoko is, therefore, a hero, yet, this heroic structure is drawn after European romances and the readers are manipulated to see him as a ‘noble male’. He will remain a hero as far he can confirm to the norms. Behn’s application of this already established structure demonstrates how the readers unconsciously getting fixed to the universal structure adhering to the privileged groups in society. The cultural coding of Oroonoko also involves the authorial voice in guise of the narrator. She has tried to naturalize some biased cultural forms. She has justified the rule of monarchy and universalized the supremacy of the whites over the blacks. For example, Oroonoko is given the Roman name of ‘Caesar’. In the course of the novel, he has been represented as a man who resembles royal figures as Charles I, Charles II, and James II of England. All these characters are subdued by lesser people of Parliament. Oroonoko himself is told to conquer the tribal war and to present his beloved Imoinda “with those slaves that had been taken in this last battle, as the trophies of her father’s victories” (Behn 15). So, Oroonoko himself, who is going to be entrapped into slavery, enslaves ‘other’ as the privileged person from ALLS 6(4):208-215, 2015 212 the royal family. The politics here in the novel is so vital. Behn needs to justify the system of slavery before she enslaves her black hero. She treats slavery as a fair means of trade. She says: Those who want slaves make a bargain with a master or a captain of a ship, and contract to pay him so much apiece, a matter of twenty pound a head, for as many as he agrees for, and to pay for ’em when they shall be delivered on such a plantation … Coramantien, a country of blacks so called, was one of those places in which they found the most advantageous trading for these slaves.... (Behn 13) Once again, the codes interwoven in Behn’s narrative creating apparent reversed meanings. Oroonoko, at the beginning, resembles a ‘noble male’ from a royal family having “an extreme good and graceful mien, and all the civility of a wellbred great man” (15). However, the superiority of European culture is imposed when Oroonoko, “with all the civility of a wel-bred great man”, goes spectacularly the “wife-killing Monster of the wood” (61). This double-edged strategy, which endows the African with human stature, while simultaneously, assumes that this human stature is by definition European. In the same way, it is difficult to avoid the conclusion that Behn's portrait of her African prince, of both his physical appearance and his character, is profoundly Eurocentric: His Face was not of that brown rusty Black which most of that Nation are, but of perfect Ebony, or polished Jett. His Eyes were the most awful that cou'd be seen, and very piercing; the White of 'em being like Snow, as were his Teeth. His nose was rising and Roman, instead of African and flat. … (Behn 15) It is a novel where the idea of the ‘Manichean Allegory’ - the putative superiority of the European and the supposed inferiority of the native - are imposed as natural. Oroonoko is a “Great Man” because he has “heard of the Romans”, because he knows “French and English”, and, because he has a great inclination for the white European nations. As the narrator relates: He had nothing of barbarity in his nature, but in all points addressed himself as if his education had been in some European court…So, the French tutor also “took great pleasure to teach him Morals, Language, and Science. (Behn 15) It is, indeed, another way of saying that the mobs and the blacks need to be guided by enlightened aristocrats and by the white Europeans. Behn also relies on maxims in order to universalize the Eurocentric discourse. Her coding, “A Negro can change color”, exemplifies it. She shows Oroonoko is not wrong in choosing Trefy, a white man, as friend. He is given the utterance “A man of wit could not be a knave or villain” (14). And finally, when she makes Oroonoko deliver “Blood, shoes every drop ought to be revenged with a life of some of these Tyrants”, she associates the native’s laws with that of the Heathens. All the maxims employed here are Eurocentric which underlies the bias of the writer. As I have said earlier, discourse operates beyond text. The maxims here could never be universal. 3.4 The Semic Code Representing Oroonoko Royal and Slave Simultaneously Aphra Behn’s way of creating conceptions also demands study. Each idea or discourse comes out of a complex web of ‘signifiers’ used in different occasions of the novel centering individual items. She has employed the techniques of employing a number of denotations and implications and connotative meanings are produced via the ‘interplay’ of them. This technique of Oroonoko involves what Barthes names ‘Semic code’. It points to any element in a text that suggests a particular, often additional meaning by way of connotation. It utilizes hints or flickers of meaning generated by certain ‘signifiers’. Certain connotations of a ‘signifier’ in the text may be grouped with similar connotations of some other ‘signifiers’. As we recognize a common nucleus of connotations, we locate a theme in the text. As clusters of connotation cling to a particular proper noun we recognize a character with certain attributes. Interestingly, those clusters of connotations are also contradictory to one another, interwoven among the variety of discourses, and, therefore, foster different versions of meanings. The characterization of Oroonoko in the novel crucially exemplifies the application of the semic code. Throughout the text, Aphra Behn has employed such ‘groups of signifiers’ that simultaneously connote to the themes of royalty and slavery in the figure of Oroonoko. He has been represented as “Royal male” addressing himself “with the best Grace of the World”, with “no sign of Barbarity” (Behn 13, 15). After relating his royal origin, Behn has described him in terms of ‘signifiers’ such as “his Greatness of Soul”, “Greatness of courage”, “wit more quick” (13) and so on. His royalty is exterior even in his physical features. When he is in letters of slave; the European master could distinguish him. Trefry sees “something extraordinary in his face, his shape and his mien; a Greatness of look and Haughtiness in his air” (41). Oroonoko, as a slave in the Surinam colony, wants to hide these but it is such a thing that peeps through the veil of appearance. He could not “conceal the Graces of his looks and Mien... the royal youth appear’d in spite of the slave” (42) He is, therefore, represented as an out and out aristocratic and royal. His royalist ego is so profound that it reflects through his bodily exposures. Ins and outs, he is represented as a ‘noble’ man. Besides establishing him a man of royalty, this detail also underlies Behn’s belief in and advocacy, for monarchy, royalty, and for aristocracy. However, Behn’s Eurocentricity does not allow the black hero to preserve such civility for long. It overpowers the royalty, the dignity, the aristocracy, the wit and knowledge, the generosity the “Great Man” (Behn 13) bears. The narrator’s by born beliefs, the Eurocentric discourse s/he is shaped by peeps through the veil of her/his detail. The association of royalty with Oroonoko gets undercut by some ‘signifiers’ she exploits which is enough to connote ALLS 6(4):208-215, 2015 213 Oroonoko as a slave. For example, when Oroonoko asks for liberty, the white colonizers start to fear him. When he, with all ‘Negroes’ at Surinam plantation, goes to the ‘woods’, they fear “he will come down and cut out our [the European settlers] throats” (43). It has been made natural that for being a Negro, the great man as Oroonoko who has saved them from dangers for many times in that colony, can also cuts their throats. Where this fear originated from? For speculation we need to go back to the beginning of the novel as Behn relates, “we find it absolutely necessary to caress ’em as friends, and not to treat ’em as slaves, nor dare we do other, their numbers so far surpassing ours” (12). Their fear lies in the fact that they are the exploiters but they are few in numbers. The long suppressed rage and anger, grown out of oppression and exploitations can blow out like a volcano to vanish the oppressors. But, as the production of knowledge is in their hands, they solidify that the Negroes are like beasts and can kill humans. They never count for their own dirt. The white officials keep Imoinda aside from seeing the whipping on Oroonoko because she may “miscarry”, and, therefore, they may lose a “young slave”. And finally, Oroonoko is pictured roaring “like some Monster of the Wood” (61). As a European Behn’s ‘unconscious’ will never admit that any African, even though s/he may be of royal origin, could be civilized. She may never inertly consider Oroonoko something other than ‘slave’. She finds him comparatively better slave and justifies that it is for his royal origin. 3.5 The Symbolic Code Demonstrating the Already Deconstructed Meanings The Symbolic code is the code of recognizable ‘groupings’ or configurations, regularly repeated in various modes and symbols in the text which ultimately generate the dominant themes. It consists of ‘binary pairs’ related to most basic binary polarities which the structuralist critics think fundamental to the human way of perceiving and organizing reality. As we explore, all the themes of the novel have been generated from various sets of symbols. The ‘signifiers’ are grouped in contrastive pairs to symbolize something very abstract. However, the ‘binary pairs’ in the Oroonoko is not stable. Throughput the novel they are most often interwoven, overlap, and cross through the binary slashes underlying ample possibility of plural meanings. They demonstrate that each narrative are multilayered, interwoven with multiple codes suggesting apparent reversed meanings. A comparative analysis between the two most crucial themes of the novel, Eurocentricity and royalty, can draw on how the so called binary pairs intervene to each other resulting in contradictory discourses. For Example, the theme of European supremacy over the native has been symbolized in various sets of binaries throughout the novel. I.e.: White/Black Master/Slave Civilized/Savage Self/other We/They European/Native Familiar/Exotic Wit/Naïve Knowledge/Ignorance Enlightened/Followers Language/Sign Again, the theme of royalty and aristocracy, which is associated with the identity of Oroonoko, has been established by following pairs: Royal/Slave Wel-bred/Mob Wit/Naive Great/Trivial Gallant/Moronic Brave/Weak Handsome/Ugly Civility/Barbarity Educated/Ignorant Chivalric/Monstrous Freedom/Bondage Monarch/Parliament French and English/Sign Language ALLS 6(4):208-215, 2015 214 A close examination over the sets stated above discloses that such pairings underlying different themes crisscross and overlap and, therefore, allow multivalence and reversibility. In the first binary sets, the Eurocentric discourse has drawn a black/white dichotomy in order to create a so called inferior ‘other’. Oroonoko, configuring the ‘other’, is, therefore, represented by the Eurocentric discourse as black, slave, savage, monster, exotic, naïve, and etcetera. However, the negative poles of the first sets of binaries are interwoven with the positive poles of the second sets of binaries as the latters have also been employed in order to represent Oroonoko in different occasions of the novel. The African slave of the first set of binaries becomes a royal hero, a great man, learned and handsome, a free wit. The cluster of meanings that centers Oroonoko, therefore, simultaneously encompasses negative and positive poles of binary pairs. He is a great man, a hero of royal origin, an ideal lover, who, however, becomes a killer. It is left to the individual readers whether s/he will consider Oroonoko a ‘monster’ or will look into the heart of the matter to explore why he has been compelled to kill his beloved. 4. Conclusion Together these five codes, therefore, function like a “weaving of voices” (20), as Barthes puts it, exposing Oroonoko to multilayered meanings, often dismantling one another. The five codes together constitute a way of interpreting the text which suggests that textuality is interpretive; that the codes are not superimposed upon the text, but, rather, approximate something that is intrinsic to the text. Indeed, Behn's Oroonoko is a text ripe with possibilities for exploring the author's complex textualization of race discourses and representation of race and colonial slavery. Relying on Barthes’ codes this paper not only helps comprehending the complex position the native occupies within the social codes created through language and culture but also demonstrates meaning depends on how we look on it which is also codified by certain culture. According to the French linguist Ferdinand de Saussure, ‘signs’ are ‘arbitrary’ yet ‘conventional’. What this paper argues is as the ‘signs’ are arbitrary it could be free from the conventionality. But, the European sensibility (Eurocentricity) refuses to accept what is inconvenient to them. Aphra Behn will never present Oroonoko other than ‘uncivilized’. Her ambivalence in the conceptualization of Oroonoko is partly sexual and mostly racial. Therefore, what this paper exposes is that the text is deconstructed within. Rather than being stable to colonialist or procolonialist stance, it switches between the discourses. We use language to reflect what we conceptualize. And our conceptualizations are determined by particular cultures we inhibit. Therefore, meaning varies from culture to culture. The claim of universal truth is merely the ‘centricity’ to certain culture. Similarly, the claim of the European superiority is ‘Euro-centric’ which could not reflect all cultures. By shifting the voices, Oroonoko entitles the multi-facades identity of Oroonoko and the race he represents. The Eurocentric discourse fails to give space to the dignity Oroonoko upholds. Being a free wit, he finds it more dignified to die than a life of slavery. To him, not to give birth is better than giving birth to a slave. He fails to won liberty against the Omni-powered settlers. He feels shame to the unborn baby that in spite of being a father, he could not give it freedom. What answer is to give it? So, this great lover kills his love along with its fruit. It may create scope for the Europeans to represent the ‘nigger’ as ‘monster of wood’. But the motif behind the killing uplifts him to the position of ‘master of dignity’. Therefore, from beginning to death, Oroonoko encompasses a variety of identity rather than being stable to the stereotypes the black slaves are usually stereotyped. References Abdelwahed, Said I. “Anti-colonialism Vs Colonialism in Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko; or, The Royal Slave.” Web http://www.arabworldbooks.com/Literature/oronooko.htm Bandele, ’Biyi. Aphra Behn's Oroonoko in a New Adaptation. Oxford: Amber Lane Press, 1999. Print. Barry, Peter. Beginning Theory: An Introduction to Literary and Cultural Theory Manchester: MUP, 2002. Print. Behn, Aphra. Oroonoko. New York: Norton& Company, 1997. Print. Brown, Laura. “The Romance of Empire: Oroonoko and the Trade in Slaves.” The New Eighteenth Century: Theory, Politics, English Literature. Ed. Felicity Nussbaum and Laura Brown. New York: Methuen, 1987. 41-61. Print Campbell, Elaine. “Aphra Behn’s Surinam Interlude”. Kunapipi 7.2 (1985): 23–35. Print. “The Colonizer and the Colonized in Aphra Behn's Oroonoko.” Web http://www.academia.edu/3741057/The_Colonizer_and_the_Colonized_in_Aphra_Behns_Oroonoko Sep 2007. Conrad, Joseph. The Heart of Darkness. Dhaka: FB, 2002. Print. Dhuicq, Bernard. “Is ‘Misrepresentation’ Still the Lot of Aphra Behn.” Notes & Queries Vol. 42.1 (Mar 1995): 40. Print. Duffy, Maureen. “Aphra Behn Revisited.” Aphra Behn (1640-1689): Identity, Alterity, Ambiguity. Ed. Mary Ann O'Donnell, Bernard Dhuicq, and Guyonne Leduc. Paris: L'Harmattan, 2000. Print. Fanon, Frantz. Black Skin White Mask. New York: Grove Press Inc, 1965. Print. ---. The Wretched of The Earth. Trans. Constance Farrington Middlesex: Penguin Books. 1967. 35, 40-41, 169-170. Print. Ferguson, Margaret W. “Juggling the Categories of Race, Class and Gender: Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko.” Women's Studies 19 (1991): 159-81. Print. ---. “Oroonoko: The Birth of a Paradigm.” NLH 23 (1992): 339-59. Print. ALLS 6(4):208-215, 2015 215 Fogarty, Anne. “Looks that Kill: Violence and Representation in Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko”. The Discourse of Slavery: Aphra Behn to Toni Morrison. Eds. Carl Plasa and Betty J. Ring. London: Routledge, 2000. 1-17. Print. Gallagher, Catherine. “Oroonoko's Blackness.” Aphra Behn Studies. Ed. Janet Todd. University Press, 1996. 241. Print. Cambridge: Cambridge Guffey, George. “Aphra Behn's Oroonoko: Occasion and Accomplishment.” Two Novelists: Aphra Behn and Anthony Trollope. Los Angeles: Clark Library, 1975. Print. Hayden, Lucy K. “The Black Presence in Eighteenth- Century British Novels.” CLA Journal 24 (1981): 400-15. Holmesland, Oddvar. “Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko: Cultural Dialectics and the Novel.” ELH 68.1 (2001). Print. Hughes, Derek. “Race, Gender, and Scholarly Practice: Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko.” URCE Essays in Criticism 52.1 (Jan. 2002): 1. Print. Macdonald, Joyce Green. “Race, Women, and the Sentimental in Thomas Murfin Southerne’s Oroonoko.” Criticism 40. 4 (Fall 1998): 555. Print. Martin, J. E. “Oroonoko in Nineteenth-Century Germany: Race and Gender in Luise MüHlbach's Aphra Behn.” German Life and Letters 56.4 (October 2003): 313–3 26. Print. “Oroonoko Vs. Moll Flunders.” The Death of the Mother in Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko. Comp. Yvonne Martinsson. net]textualities e-lit & other works. http://freewheelin.nu/en/criticism/the_death_of_the_mother_in_oroonoko?/criticism/the_death_of_the_mother_in_oroo noko Pacheco, Anita. “Royalism and Honor in Aphra Behn's Oroonoko.” Studies in English Literature: 1500-1900 Vol. 34.3 (1994): 492. Print. Pearson, Jacqueline. “Gender and Narrative in the Fiction of Aphra Behn.” RES 42 (1991): 40-56, 179-90. Print. Pigg, Daniel. “Trying to Frame the Unframable: Oroonoko as discourse in Aphra Behn's Onoonoko.” Studies in Short Fiction 34.1 (Winter 1997): 105. Print. Reiss, Timothy J. The Discourse of Modernism. Ithaca: Cornell UP, 1982. Print. Rivero, Albert J. “ Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko and the Blank Spaces.” UK: William Marsh Rice University, 1999.Print. Rogers, Katharine M. “Fact and Fiction in Aphra Behn’s Oroonoko.” Studies in the Novel 20.1 (Spring 1988): 1. Print. Said, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Vintage Books, 1994 ---. Orientalism. London: Penguin Books, 1978. Print. Southerne, Thomas. Oroonoko. Ed. Maximillian E. Novak and David Stuart Rodes. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1976. Print. Spencer, Jane. The Rise of the Woman Novelist: From Aphra Behn to Jane Austen. 1989. Print. Spender, Dale. The Mothers of the Novel. London: Pandora, 1986. Print London: Basil Blackwell, Spengemann, William C. “The Earliest American Novel: Aphra Behn's Oroonoko.” Nineteenth-Century Literature 38 (1984): 384-414. Print. Turner, Cheryl. Living by the Pen: Women Writers in the Eighteenth Century. London : Routledge, 1994. Print. Widmayer, Anne F. “The Politics of Adapting Behn's Oroonoko.” Comparative Drama 37.2 (Summer 2003): 189-223. Print. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Patriarchal Hierarchies of Power and the Subordination of Women: Real Doll as a Replacement of Woman Figure Natasha Shokri (Corresponding author) UNESCO Youth Peace Ambassador, The United Nation University of UPEACE, Costa Rica E-mail: Natasha.shokri@gmail.com Moussa Pourya Asl School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia 11800 USM, Pulau Pinang. Penang, Malaysia E-mail: Ms_pourya@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.216 Received: 15/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.216 Accepted: 28/06/2015 Abstract The social structure of the family has always been in the state of transformation. In the past centuries, the nuclear family was replaced with a Patriarchal Family which lasted for only two centuries from 16th to the beginning of 18th century. In this new structure of the family, men were privileged to play the role of the master and the women were marginalized and subordinated. Recent years, however, has witnessed a re-adjustment of this order towards a more equal distribution of power relations. These changes in family structure has ever since initiated new conflicts leading to establishment of the physical and psychological bonds between men and dolls. The present study aims to find out the major sociopsychological reasons behind this conflict. In a qualitative library based study, the researchers attempt to analyse the video interview of some of the doll-owners. In the survey conducted in this study, the video of “Guys and Dolls”, BBC Video Documentary, has been shown to 10 participants, five male and five female. Then, a questionnaire was distributed to ask for their opinion based on their gender. The findings of this analysis reveal that women can hardly accept the notion of using dolls as replacement to real partners in comparison with men. On the contrary, the male participants advocated the employment of dolls as sexual replacement for the real woman figure. Keywords: Patriarchy, Real Doll, Oedipus complex, Female Subordination, Family 1. Introduction The social structure of the family has always been in the state of transformation. These changes in turn have led to alterations in the hierarchies of power at work in the deep structure of the communities. Men desire to obtain social power, their being privileged is undeniable. This is due to the fact that men need to have power in order to boost their self-esteem. Nonetheless, as power asymmetry has been changed during recent decades, remarkably with the first and the second wave of feminism, women have consequently achieved more responsibilities, both economically and politically, in society. Numerous changes in power relations has also inevitably initiated the conflict of “Guys and Dolls”. These Real Dolls are life-size sex dolls produced by Abyss Creations in San Marcos, California. They are made of PVC skeleton with steel joints and silicone flesh, which was tried to replace the real feeling of human bodies` stimulation. The customers of these real dolls are nearly from every country in the world, but the United State, Germany, Australia and The United Kingdom are the largest international markets. Now 4000 real dolls are living with their guy’s owner. Each doll costs around 4,000 pounds and for those guys who love the companionship of real dolls more than that of women, it worth every penny. But what these dolls can provide that women cannot? A Study on Real doll by Cathleen Maslen from the University of Western Australia shows that despite the sexual marketing behind the “Real Dolls”, their owners do not look at their dolls as sexual objects. Even there had been a case who married his doll in a public ceremony. Some of these Guys take their real dolls too seriously and they have emotional investment and deep attachment with them. There is no doubt that the owners who take their dolls seriously, really love them and that they have a huge emotional investment and attachment with them. 2. Statement of the problem and research methodology Conflict is likely to be experienced whenever ideas, activities, structures and people change in relation to each other. Since the change is not only inevitable but also often desirable, conflict is consequently unavoidable (Francis, 2000). Through an overview to the family structure proposed by Lawrence Stone, one would easily figure out that three major family transformations had happened in the meantime of 300 years from the beginning of sixteenth century to the end of eighteenth century. In the earlier years of this period, our society was structured upon nuclear family, which designated ALLS 6(4):216-220, 2015 217 living in small houses but being surrounded by other family members, relatives and perhaps people from the community. Apparently the family was not separated from the society. Choosing partner was not a personal choice and usually elder members like grandparents or parents had the privilege to select partners for their children. At that time romance and love was considered as a disorder. There was no secret in the family and the society had the right to know everything happening within the private sphere of the family. As a result, family design was open, dominated and unemotional. Then, later on, the nuclear family was replaced with a limited Patriarchy Family which lasted for two centuries from 16th to the beginning of 18th century. In this new structure of the family, privileging men to be the head of the family and subordinating the women, i.e. diminishing the role of women merely to house works and taking care of children and their husbands and at the same time focusing on love and internal relationship, was increasingly highlighted. The third transformation, however, happened when the power of patriarchy became limited to nuclear family in which individualism emerged and women found their new role in workplace once again and decreased the power of the patriarch (Stone, 1977). These changes in family structure has initiated new conflicts such as the physical and psychological bonds between guys and dolls. The Real Dolls are designed to recreate and simulate the appearance, texture, and the weight of a female partner. But, despite their primary function of serving as sex partners, there are some more emotional and psychological issues happening between them and men. The owners of these dolls are happy and satisfied by having these dolls as their life companions. Stephen Caroll, for instance, as a user of this doll spelled out, “I do actually enjoy their company. I don't think people truly can appreciate that element” (Joel, 2011). The users of these objects have unanimously confessed that they do love these dolls and they enjoy being with them (BBC). But the question that comes up is, what makes men to be pleased with a doll or with a woman-like-object without head? The present study aims to find out the reasons behind this conflict: What makes men to be pleased by having relationship with women without head? And what we can do to solve this? In the survey conducted in this study, the video of “Guys and Dolls”, BBC Video Documentary, has been shown to 10 people including five male and five female. Then, a questionnaire was given to each one to ask for their opinion based on their gender. By analysing the video and interview of some of the doll-owners, we have found a similar biographical background in these guys’ life style. Most of them have experienced a broken relationship which has made them look for a long lasting relationship. They want to be heroes and masters. They have had a deep fear of being rejected. The detailed analyses are in coming parts. Besides that a survey conducted in order to find out the peoples’ perspective towards the video clip entitled “Guys and Dolls” which was produced by BBC Documentary in 2007, according to their gender. 3. Discussion 3.1 Power Asymmetry and men`s adoption toward it The desire of men to have women as their dominator is undeniable. The mission of domination is to establish power asymmetry and it is dependent on that. It is a relationship that most people, in most cultures, most readily associate with the word power (Francis, 2000). The world of power means the world of men which is dominated by men as well. This is a power relation which makes men realize their masculinity by means of practicing it. The power is a main core of economy, politics and society; it plays a significant role in religion, family and the intellectual life. On individual level, what we assume as masculinity is mixed with men`s ability to represent power and control. It implies having power over people and things and the ability to do something or taking the responsibility of doing and acting on behalf of others (Boulding, 1978). It can be seen in the culture of the dominant which had been wide speared for thousands of years, oppressive male/female relationships (Francis, 2000). Patriarchy is a system in which power relations are unequal and men control women’s production, reproduction and sexuality. The mixture of sex and power in oedipal psychology demands men to be bigger and stronger and central oriented in comparison with their partners, mostly in relation with young girls and daughters and not bigger and more powerful mothers (Kaschak, 1992). The feeling of power and the ability to do things on behalf of women makes men feel satisfied. However, since the power distribution within the families and inside societies had recently been changed, men`s power has decreased in comparison to past decades and it seems that this fact has become quite challenging and intolerable for some of those men who have not overcome their oedipal complex, yet. On the other hand, these dolls help men feel satisfied and happy by their being functionally possible to be dressed up in different types of clothing, to change their wigs or makeup, and to have different body temperature. The dolls, therefore, please men’s desire of dominating over women. Referring to the BBC Documentary video of guys and dolls, Mike, Gordon and many more of the dolls` owners enjoy doing shopping or make up for their dolls in their own taste (BBC) Andrew, another doll owner, says that the best part of owning dolls is that they do not complain, they do not get fat, they look good and they enjoy the same TV programs, music and sports that he does (Joel, 2011) Therefore, it is easy to note that these men can fulfil their desire of being powerful and making decision on behalf of women by doing whatever they want with these dolls without any complains or rejection from them. All the same, unless one appreciates the Freudian concept of Oedipus complex and its subsequent consequences, one would not be able to understand the individual's unconscious impulse towards a displacement of love object and the nature of the power relations existing within his dominant attitude. In his brief analysis of the Freudian concept of Oedipus complex, Pourya and Mehrvand note that according to Freud, in the psychic development of a person there is a process of transition from one phase to the other. He believes that child’s sexual life has one significant phase, called a masculine one. During the masculine phase, which Freud calls it the pre-Oedipus phase, the child's love-object is her ALLS 6(4):216-220, 2015 218 mother. Freud argues that the primary conditions for a choice of objects are the same for all children. Therefore, the little child, initially develops an intense attachment to the mother and a simultaneous hatred for the father as a rival (312). 3.2 Men`s perspective of women The woman’s identity is extremely linked with her appearance. A woman's perception of self (which is based in large part on appearance) incorporates the male perspective. From the masculine perspective, women are defined by their bodies. Everything about a woman is both grounded in and defined by her female body and, in particular, its sexuality, defined in masculine society as the ability to arouse, rather than to experience, desire (Kaschak, 1992). Thus man is the one who defines and gives the identity to the women and also this theory shows the perspective of men towards women as they only value the appearance of the women. Quite unexpectedly, the guys in relation with dolls as well as those appearing in the BBC documentary are very willing to capture photos and video shots with these dolls and frame it as if they are real persons in order to show them to everyone as a proof that they are normal and have even become more successful since they have beautiful women as their life partners. Sometimes finding partners for some men with low self-esteem is impossible. These dolls, then, function to increase their self-esteem by their appearance, one of the most significant factors from the masculine point of view. Gordon, a doll owner, claims that his two dolls, Ginger and Kelly, do provide him with a boost of self-confident. Addressing the same increase in self-worth, Debra, the Office Manager of Real Dolls, shares, “I’ve had customers say to me ‘You know, I’m 50 years old and I’m losing my hair and I’d never be able to get a real woman that would look like [the dolls]. But the Real Doll can give me that and she will love me no matter what” (Loren, 2011). The experts on the field, furthermore, declare that problems of the young men in an on-going romantic relationship may also be linked to their poor emotional well-being, because they may be threatening their identity and feelings of selfworth. (Health and Social Behavior, 2011). 3.3 Men are more emotional and sensitive than women Another major reason that has initiated this conflict is the men’s fear of being heart-broken and feeling rejected. The common belief that women are more vulnerable when it comes to emotional ups and downs of romantic relationships has been challenged in a study from Wake Forest University. According to the Professor of Sociology, Robin Simon, unhappy romances take a greater emotional toll on the mental health of young men than women, even though men sometimes try to appear tough. Simon maintains that guys just express their distress and vulnerability differently than women. As a proof, the study in which more than 1,000 unmarried young individuals between the ages of 18 and 23 years, came to the conclusion that young women have a harder time dealing with a breakup, but men are the ones who experience more stress and strain during the emotional rollercoaster of relationships. In other words, while women's mental health is based on their relationship status, single men's mental health is more related to the quality of their romantic relationships. Furthermore, not only men experienced much more stress during rocky relationships, they were also found to get greater emotional and psychological benefits when the relationship is healthy. Researchers claim that these findings contradict the stereotypic image of tough guys who cannot be affected by what happens in their intimate relationships. Simon, along with a co-author Anne Barrett, associate professor of sociology at Florida State University, suggest a possible explanation for their findings: for young men, their romantic partners are often their primary source of intimacy, while young ladies tend to have more close social ties and are more likely to be closely connected with family and friends (Health and Social Behavior, 2011). The findings of the study reveal that abusive men were likely to view stressful circumstances as personally threatening, while trying to avoid the situation or repress emotional responses. The in-depth interviews also showed that “violent men are more likely to perceive their partner’s behaviour as threatening, regardless of the objective qualities of the behaviour,” Williams stated. The situation was even worse for men who tended to avoid or withdraw from conflicts with their partners. Men who felt threatened and who avoided conflict were eight times more likely than others to commit domestic violence (Williams, 2012). Through an evaluation of the behaviour of men towards women and their hidden fear towards losing their partner, the researchers conclude that men are looking for long-lasting relationships with their partners. In the BBC documentary of the guys and the dolls, we see that these men are looking for long-lasting relationships. Referring to one of these guys who still suffers from the death of his mother and by reviewing the myth of Oedipus as representative of the sexual development of the universal male child and his incestuous desires toward the universal mother, which is indeed a cornerstone of Freudian theory, (Kaschak, 1992), one would easily conclude that men are afraid of losing their partners. And this issue proves that men are more emotional than women. 3.4 Stereotyping of masculinity and feminists Another factor to be taken into consideration is that society trains boys not to expose their emotions, particularly the moments of their crying, and hence not to reveal their vulnerability. In fact, researchers have noted that the only formally approved emotion for men to express publicly is proved to be anger. Perhaps, that is why it is not a surprise that men drown their sadness, vulnerability and emotional pain in alcohol and sometimes even drugs and human replacement objects as dolls (Simon and Barret) ALLS 6(4):216-220, 2015 219 The media and society ideologically display and dictate men to be powerful, supportive and tough even though some may not be so. Nowadays, within this new structure of the families women also do not accept men`s domination. Some men say that they are not powerful and muscular enough that the media propagates and makes them to strive for. And from stereotypical point of view and considering the politics of media, if one does not have enough power, one will definitely be not considered as a qualified masculine. These controversies sometimes make men prefer having dolls as their life partners, for acting as a hero for a doll is much easier than being one for a real person. Furthermore, the dolls would not have the chance of rejecting their male companions. Violence, the harmful and destructive exercise of power over others, is both the means and the outcome of domination. A culture of domination is a culture of violence. In the words of Johan Galtung, “cultural violence makes direct and structural violence look, even feel, right – or at least not wrong” (Galtung, 1990: p291). Therefore, having a doll, being its master as well as its hero seems to be one significant solution to satisfy the desire of men or the desire that the society might want from them. Another key issue is a common worry that men generally encounter in their sexual relationships. In this regard, Gorden, a user of one of the dolls, has stated, “I’d say for me the sex with real dolls is better because in the back of my mind when I’m having sex with a real woman, it’s like ‘damn I hope I don’t get her pregnant’ or ‘I hope she does not have any disease” (22). After all, it’s true that sex with dolls offers limited opportunities for contracting sexually transmitted diseases, but as Loren has confirmed, their rubber vaginas do require regular cleaning to prevent the festering of bacteria (29). This key issue also reflects the fact that that these men are not able to take the responsibility of their own action. 4. Conclusion The results show that women can hardly accept the fact of using dolls as replacement to real partners in comparison with men. For four of these women, this issue was unbelievable and not logical and only one of them claimed that she respects the choice. On the contrary, for men, the results were different. Despite two of them who rejected the idea and considered it as an illogical deed, two of them claimed that they can understand the situation yet in turn it would also imply men’s weakness. One of the male participants also believed that this issue can be acceptable since these guys are happy with the dolls and they need a relationship so they do have it now. Both parts’ assumption is, the need of men to have power leads them to want to have relationship with dolls since they cannot achieve it, in their willing in real life. From a psychoanalytic point of view, no one is able to fully resolve the oedipal complex incorporated in the unconscious of the individual from the very stages of early childhood. In addition, the civilization and the culture in which the individuals live not only does not demand or require its resolution but it also, on the contrary, rewards and perpetuates it. If men are called upon to resolve the issue, it is merely through women, who have taken the lead in this phase of psychological-cultural development. For a man in the oedipal phase of development to allow a woman, or women collectively, the prerogative of taking this initiative is not a psychologically simple task. Even if the masculine is intellectually able to comprehend and realize that women are treated unfairly, he must cut off access to his own unresolved oedipal conflicts, access to which would thrust him into the experience of his own relative powerlessness, his own mortality, in sum, his own mundane humanity. He turns into an object of being, no more and no less than a woman. The male subject would be compelled to see for himself, to discontinue placing women between himself and his own experience of himself (Kascha, 43). Breaking the stereotypes of men should be dominating and aggressive and women should be caring, loving and submissive. These stereotypes of masculinity and femininity are not only social constructs but also have been internalized by both men and women. While the pressure to earn and look after the family is more on the man, the women are supposed to do the menial jobs and take care of their children and even other members of the family. It is because of these gender stereotypes that women are at a disadvantage and are vulnerable to violence and other kinds of discriminations and injustice (Ray, 71). Laws of Manu insist that since women are disloyal by their very nature, they must be made dependent on men. The husband should be constantly worshiped as a god, which symbolized that man is a lord, master, owner, or provider and women were the subordinates. It legitimized that a woman should never be made independent, as a daughter, she should be under the surveillance of her father, as a wife, of her husband and as a widow, of her son (Chakravarti, 2006: 75). All these stereotypes empower men to demand for the worship and subordination of women, but the society has dramatically transformed in recent decades and the need for an eradication or alteration of these stereotypes to suit the new design of relationship has been highlighted. The belief of “Civilized Man says: I am Self, I am Master, all the rest is other — outside, below, underneath, subservient. I own, I use, I explore, I exploit, I control. What I do is what matters? What I want is what matter is for. I am that I am, and the resits women and wilderness, to be used as I see fit” should be altered in the mind-set of men for their acceptance of women as the people who have the right to refuse them and say no or make a choice (Zerzan, 43). References Abele, S., & Holt, N. (2007). Guys and Dolls [Documentary]. Available from the British Broadcasting Corporation, Broadcasting House. United Kingdom: Portland Place London W1A 1AA. ALLS 6(4):216-220, 2015 220 Francis, D. (2004). Culture, power asymmetries and gender in conflict transformation in Transforming Ethnopolitical Conflict: The Berghof Handbook (pp. 91-107). Berline, Germany: VS Verlag für Sozialwissenschaften. Kaschak, E. (1993). Engendered Lives. A New Psychology of Women´s Experiences. NY, United States: Basic Books. Lane, Michael. (1999). Real Doll. http://www.monk.com/display.php?p=People&id=38 Monk Magazine, Retrieved from Loren, A. (2011). Yes, There Are Men That Date Life-Size Dolls. Clutch Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.clutchmagonline.com/2011/08/yes-there-are-men-that-date-life-size-dolls MAN, M. K. (1994). Men, Feminism, and Men’s Contradictory Experiences of Power. In Theorizing masculinities. (pp. 142-165). NY, United States: SAGE Publications. Pourya Asl & Ahad Mehrvand. (2014). Unwelcomed Civilization: Emily Brontë’s Symbolic Anti-Patriarchy in Wuthering Heights. International Journal of Comparative Literature & Translation Studies. Australian International Academic Centre, 2(2). Ray, Surayita. (2000). Understanding Patriarchy. Political Science Department, University of New Delhi, pp. 1-21. Scott, Lisa. (2006,). Flexible Friendship. friendship-21056. Metro News, Retrieved from http://metro.co.uk/2006/02/22/flexible- Stone, L. (1979). The family sex and marriage: in England 1500-1800. New York, United States: Harper and Row. Whelan, J. (2011). Silicone love: Guys and Dolls. ABC News. Retrieved from http://www.abc.net.au/news/2011-0721/australian-men-living-with-realdolls/2802302 Zeran, J. (2004). Patriarchy, Civilization, And The Origins Of Gender. http://theanarchistlibrary.org/library/john-zerzan-patriarchy-civilization-and-the-origins-of-gender Retrieved from Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Flourishing Creativity & Literacy Australian International Academic Centre, Australia A Comparative Study of the Use of Persian vs. English in Teaching English Grammar to Iranian Students in Junior High School Kowsar Mehrseresht English Department, Ilam Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ilam, Iran E-mail: Mehrseresht125@yahoo.com Habib Gowhary (Corresponding author) English Department, Ilam Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ilam, Iran E-mail: h_gowhary@yahoo.com Akbar Azizifar English Department, Ilam Branch, Islamic Azad University, Ilam, Iran E-mail: Akb1354@yahoo.com Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.221 Received: 13/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.221 Accepted: 29/06/2015 Abstract This study compared the relationship between the use of Persian vs English in teaching English grammar to Iranian students and their achievement in learning English grammar. The participants of this study include 50 female students from a junior high school in Mehran. The researcher randomly selected 2 groups, one group was taught through the medium of Persian, while the other group was taught the same material through the medium of English. The materials were based on the content of the 3 lessons of third grade English text-book. Then a 30-item achievement test (pre-test) was administered to two groups to be getting insured of their homogeneity. The instruction began in two groups separately and the treatment lasted for 5 weeks. After the end of the instruction, the test was administered to two groups as post-test again. The data analysis showed that two languages (Persian & English) lead to positive learning outcomes in the post-test, although the instruction through Persian caused better results than the instruction through the English. Keywords: Teach, Grammar, English, Persian, Junior high school, Language 1. Introduction One of the most controversial issues in English Language Teaching (ELT) has been the question of the use of the first language (L1) in English language classes. According to Butzkamm (2003), since the Great Reform at the end of the 19th century, the role of L1 has been second only to grammar as the most discussed methodological problem. Reviewing the twentieth century history of ELT, one can detect violent swings of pendulum in this subject. For a long time, the use of the L1 in the EFL classroom has been a 'skeleton in the cupboard' (Prodromou, 2002). This metaphor has been used since we have for a long time treated the mother tongue as a 'taboo' subject in our field, a cause of embarrassment and on the teachers' side and a sign of their failure to teach properly, i.e., using 'only English' (Prodromou, 2002). Different methodologies have had different approaches towards the role of the students native language in English classes. For example, Grammar-Translation Method used MT as the medium of instruction while the Direct Method never allowed the use of it. The use of L1 in ESL classes has been debated for many years. There have been many arguments about the use of L1 in L2 learning. The use of L1 has been considered as detrimental in ESL classes; on the contrary, mother tongue plays a crucial and facilitative tool in foreign learning process. The benefit of using L1 in foreign language learning has been recognized by many researchers. It should be noted that L1 remains a natural resource in L2 learning. The teacher is whether native or non-native speaker, the learner is whether beginner or advanced level, the use of L1 is whether allowed or banned, the use of L1 in ESL classes can not be avoided would gain the control of the communication. Macaro (1997) identifies five factors to use L1 in L2 learning (adapted from Cook, 2008, p.182). 1) Using the first language for giving instructions about activities 2) Translating and checking comprehension 3) individual comments to students 4) giving feedback to pupils 5) using the first language to maintain discipline. Harmer (2001) states that the over use of L1 restricts the students’ exposure to the target language. The use of L1 to a great extent in second language learning will be a hindrance to achievement in the target language. Too much dependence on the mother tongue in ESL classes may have some disadvantages: ALLS 6(4):221-225, 2015 222 1) Unless it has been translated into their native language teachers or students feel that the language items will not be understood 2) The teacher and/or the students fail to observe distinctions between equivalence of form, semantic equivalence, and pragmatic features, and thus over simplify to the point of using crude and inaccurate translation (Atkinson, 1987, p. 246). 3) Although students have the ability to express what they mean in the target language, they will speak to the teacher in their native language 4) Students will fail to realize the importance of the second language. According to Polio and Duff (1994) an examination of classroom language has been a fruitful endeavor for applied linguists in the past decades, especially those studying the teaching and learning of English as a Second Language. Even in our country, Iran, the role of mother tongue in English classroom has been a controversial issue. Some (e.g.SiahChashm, 1995) has tried to link the failure of language learning to the use of the MT, while some others (e.g. MoradAbadi, 2003) recommend the use of the mother tongue, Persian, and translation techniques in English classes. 1.1 Statement of the Problem The study was motivated by a debate in the field, in which theorists and practitioners of language teaching discuss whether L1 has a place in the language classroom. Although the call for a complete exclusion of L1 has abated, the tenor still remains that good language teaching equals a minimization of L1 use there in (e.g., Chambers, 1991). Opponents of the use of mother tongue bring forth many arguments that are meant to discourage the recourse to the mother tongue (e.g., Polio & Duff, 1994; Harbord, 1992; Mori, 2004). Their concerns are a detrimental decline in quantity of teachers' foreign language (L2) use and subsequent lack of chances of negotiation of meaning. These factors are considered critical for language learning success. Furthermore, similar to how children absorb the language patterns of L1 around them adult FL learning is seen to take place in a same fashion . Nevertheless, no conclusive empirical evidence has been gathered to support these claims (Atkinson, 1993; Auerbach, 1994; Macaro, 1995). Advocates of the use of L1 in FL classrooms come from a variety of viewpoints to support the use of L1.They do not argue for a regression to the traditional method of language teaching, in which the foreign language was used very rarely. However, they ask for a critical assessment of the current dominant belief that foreign language learning should take place exclusively through the medium of the target language (e.g., Atkinson, 1993). Especially, proponents of occasional use of L1 question the similarity between FL and L1 learning. They argue that students who have learned their mother tongue are sophisticated cognitive individuals who constantly refer to their L1 to make sense of the world, new concepts, and a new language. Therefore, supporters of the use of L1 propose that the rejection of L1 would only mean putting away a valuable pedagogical tool for lexical contrasting and discussion of L1/FL transferability. L1 use proponents also contend that eliminating L1 from the FL classroom would disregard the cognitive fact that connecting new concepts to already existing knowledge creates better chances for language learning achievement (Artemeva, 1995). However, not many studies have explored the relationship between teachers' use of their L1 and their students' achievement in learning different skills of the language. Teachers may not always be aware of when and for what purpose they use L1 (Duff & Polio, 1990; Polio &Duff, 1994). The present study investigated the effect of the use of students' mother tongue, Persian, vs. FL, English, on the students' achievement in learning English grammar. This study took place in a foreign language context, which is characterized by students learning a language that they do not actually encounter outside of class. In the foreign language context, students and teachers share a common language. This is different from a second language context, in which students study a language in the country where the language is spoken. In such a context, they come from a variety of language backgrounds with which few teachers are familiar. Thus, the issue of using L1 is mostly relevant to the foreign language context. 1.2 Research Hypothesis Regarding the purposes of the study outlined above‚ the following research hypothesis is posed: 1. There is no meaningful relationship between the use of Persian vs English in teaching English grammar to students in junior high school and their achievement in learning English grammar. 1.3 Purpose of the Study The present study was designed to measure the effect of use of persian‚ participants’ L1, vs English, students’ foreign language, in teaching grammar on the students’ achievement in learning English grammar in junior high school. Furthermore‚ the research examines whether any difference exist between the effect of the two languages on the students’ achievement in English grammar acquisition. The medium of instruction in public school and not private language schools was of our interest‚ because in Iran there are differences between private language institutes and public schools regarding the syllabi‚ the teachers‚ the facilities‚ etc. 2. Methodology 2.1 Participants The participants of this study include 50 female students. These students were randomly selected from Parvin junior high school in Mehran. The age range of the students is between 14 to 15. The official language of all the students is Persian. All of them have the same background. Then researcher randomly divided them into two groups of 25 students from among 50 third grade students. 25 students were assigned to group A and the other 25 students were assigned to group B. ALLS 6(4):221-225, 2015 223 2.2 Instrument The instrument used in this study was a 30-item multiple choice grammar achievement test. This test was developed by the researcher and was based on the content of the 3 lessons (6,7,8) of the third grade junior high school English text-book. The content validity of the instrument was approved by three colleagues involved in teaching English as a foreign language to junior high school students. As a result the test was administered to 50 students as pre-test. Then the instruction began and there was a sufficient 5 week time distance between the pretest and posttest. After the instruction‚ the same test as post-test was also administered to measure the participants’ achievement at the end of the treatment. It consisted of 30 questions and each lesson was examined by 10 questions. The full score of every test was 20 points. 2.3 Procedure In order to conduct this study‚ 50 female students randomly were selected as participants from a junior high school in Mehran. The researcher randomly divided students into two groups of 25 from among 50 third grade students. 25 students were assigned to group A and the other 25 students were assigned to group B. Then a 30-item achievement test (pre-test) was administered to two groups (A‚B) to be getting insured of their homogeneity. As a result the instruction began in two groups (A‚B) separately and the treatment lasted for 5 weeks. During the instruction two groups A&B received the same materials which were the grammar section of third grade junior high school English text-book (lessons 6‚7‚8). Group A was taught through Persian and group B was taught through English. After the end of the instruction‚ the test was administered to the two groups (A‚B) as post- test again. Then the researcher had the scores on the post-test. Next researcher compare the mean scores of the two groups (A‚B). 3. Results and Discussion The statistical procedure of q-variance was used to analyze the data obtained from two groups under study. The mean scores of two groups were compared and the results of pre/post-test scores of two groups are shown in table 1and graph 1. Table 1. The results of mean scores for pre-test & post-test in two groups Groups N Mean Std. Deviation Minimum Maximum Pre-t Post-t Pre-t Post-t Pre-t Post-t Pre-t Post-t Junior Persian 25 6.740 7.650 2.107 1.877 3.50 5.50 10.75 12 high school English 25 6.550 6.810 1.968 2.010 3.50 4 10 11.50 The table 3.1 shows the performance of two groups in junior high school. The mean of the Persian group in post-test was 7.650 while the mean of same group in pre-test was 6.740. So, mean of the Persian group in post-test is higher than the same group in pre-test. The mean of the English group in post-test was 6.810 while the mean of same group in pretest was 6.550. So, mean of the English group in post-test is higher than the same group in pre-test. Figure 1. The results of mean scores for pre-test & post-test in two groups Figure 1 shows the means of the English/Persian groups in pre-test are almost equal while the means of the English/Persian groups in post-test are different. 3.1 Results Obtained from the Pre-test The performance of the two groups was compared and analyzed through the statistical technique‚ q-variance which was based on the results of per-test scores of two groups to make sure that the two groups were almost homogenous. The results of pre-test scores of two groups are shown in table 2. ALLS 6(4):221-225, 2015 224 Table 2. Analysis of the results for pre-test in two groups Groups N Pre-test Junior high school Persian English 25 25 Mean Std.Deviation 6.740 6.550 2.107 1.968 The table 2 shows that the means of the Persian group is 6.740 and that of the English group 6.550. The standard deviation of the Persian group is 2.107 and that of the English group 1.968. So it is concluded that there is almost no significant difference between the means of Persian groups and English groups on the pre-test. This implies that the two groups had been almost homogeneous. 3.2 Results Obtained from the Post-test After making sure about the homogeneity of two groups, the instruction began and the treatment lasted for 5 weeks in two groups. Then post-test was given to students. As a result the mean scores of two groups were compared. Table 3. The number of participants in two groups(Persian & English)in junior high school Groups N Instruction 1 Persian 25 2 English 25 Table 3 reveals that the participants of the study are 50 students. There are 25 students in Persian group and the other 25 students in English group. Table 4. The results of mean scores of two groups (Persian & English) in post test Instruction Mean Std. Deviation N Persian 7.6500 1.87778 25 English 6.8100 2.01075 25 Total 7.2300 1.97164 50 Table 4 shows the results of mean scores of two groups in post test. The mean of Persian group was 7.6500 while the mean of the English group was 6.8100. So mean of the Persian group is higher than the English group. Table 5. Analysis of the results for post-test in Persian & English groups in junior high school Source Corrected Model Intercept q1 Instruction Error Total Corrected Total Type III Sum of Squares a 113.759 24.100 104.939 6.150 76.721 2804.125 190.480 Df Mean Square F Sig. 2 1 1 1 47 50 49 56.880 24.100 104.939 6.150 1.632 34.845 14.764 64.287 3.768 .000 .000 .000 .058 a. R Squared = .597 (Adjusted R Squared = .580) ( H৹: B = ৹, H1 ;B ≠৹) Table 5 reveals the univariate analysis of variance has given F = 34.845 which is higher than the critical F at DF of 2 & 47. Therefore, H৹ is accepted. So, the difference found between the Persian & English groups in junior high school is significant after students received teaching English grammar. Since, F = 64.287 and P = ./000 in pre-test‚ so instruction is an effective factor in learning grammar and students’ achievement. 4. Conclusion The present study designed to compare the relationship between the use of Persian vs English in teaching English grammar to Iranian students in junior high school and their achievement in learning English grammar. Students’ use of their first language knowledge can be another reason for better achievement in the Persian group. Students are sophisticated cognitive individuals who constantly draw upon their mother tongue to make sense of the world‚ new concepts and a new language (Atkinson‚1993). It is a congnitive reality that connecting new concepts to already existing knowledge creates better chances for language learning success (Artemeva‚1995). ALLS 6(4):221-225, 2015 225 This study showed that the use of two languages (Persian & English) in teaching English grammar caused positive results on students achievement in junior high school, but the students in Persian groups improved more significantly than the English groups. References Artemeva, N. (1995). The adult learner as incipient bilingual: The role of L1 in the adult ESL classrooms. Carleton Papers in Applied Language Studies, XII, 113-136. Atkinson, D. (1987). The Mother Tongue in the Classroom: a Neglected Resource? ELT Journal, 44(4), pp. 241-247. Atkinson, D. (1993). Teaching in the target language: A problem in the current orthodoxy. Language Learning Journal(8), 2-5. Auerbach, E. R. (1994). Comments on Elsa Roberts Auerbach's 'Reexamining English only in the ESL classroom', The author responds. TESOL Quarterly, 28(1), 157-161. Butzkamm, W. (2003). We only learn language once. The role of the mother tongue in FL Classrooms: death of a dogma. Language learning journal, 28, p. 29-39. Chambers, G. (1991). Promoting use of the target language in the classroom. Language Learning Journal, 4, 27-31. Cook, V. (2008). Second Language Learning and Language Teaching. London: Hodder Education. Duff, P. & Polio, C. (1990). How much foreign language is there in the foreign language classroom?. Modern Language Journal, 74(2), 154-166. Harbord, J. (1992). The Use of the Mother Tongue in the Classroom. ELT Journal, 46(4), 30-55. Harmer, J. (2001). The Practice of English Language Teaching. Edinburgh Gate: Pearson Education Ltd. Morad-Abadi, B. (2003). The effect of translation as a facilitating factor in the teaching and learning of English on Iranian students. Alame Tabatabai University, Tehran. Mori, R. (2004). "Staying-in-English rule revisited" System, 32, 225-236. Polio, C. G. & Duff, P. A. (1994). Teachers language use in university foreign language classrooms: A qualitative analysis of English and target language alternation. The Modern Language Journal, 78, 313-326. Prodromou, L. (2002). From mother tongue to other tonge. [Electronic Version] Tesol Greece Newsletter from. http://www.tesolgreece.com/tesol-67.pdf. Siah-Chashm, K. (1995). The precedence of teaching English through English over, teaching English through Persian. Alame Tabatabai University, Tehran. Advances in Language and Literary Studies ISSN: 2203-4714 Vol. 6 No. 4; August 2015 Australian International Academic Centre, Australia Flourishing Creativity & Literacy An Evaluation of Output Quality of Machine Translation (Padideh Software vs. Google Translate) Haniyeh Sadeghi Azer (Corresponding author) Department of Translation Studies, East Azerbayjan Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran E-mail: Haniyeh.sadeghiazar@gmail.com Mohammad Bagher Aghayi Department of Translation Studies, East Azerbayjan Science and Research Branch, Islamic Azad University, Tabriz, Iran Doi:10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.226 Received: 10/04/2015 URL: http://dx.doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.6n.4p.226 Accepted: 30/06/2015 Abstract This study aims to evaluate the translation quality of two machine translation systems in translating six different texttypes, from English to Persian. The evaluation was based on criteria proposed by Van Slype (1979). The proposed model for evaluation is a black-box type, comparative and adequacy-oriented evaluation. To conduct the evaluation, a questionnaire was assigned to end-users to evaluate the outputs to examine and determine, if the machine-generated translations are intelligible and acceptable from their point of view and which one of the machine-generated translations produced by Padideh software and Google Translate is more acceptable and useful from the end-users point of view. The findings indicate that, the machine-generated translations are intelligible and acceptable in translating certain texttypes, for end-users and Google Translate is more acceptable from end-users point of view. Keywords: Machine Translation, Machine Translation Evaluation, Translation Quality 1. Introduction Language is a tool for communication. Every people, all over the world need a language to communicate with others. Sometimes people do not know each other’s language, so it gets impossible to interact with each other. In those cases, a person or a tool is needed to translate the source Language into the target language. From earlier times till now, human translators, translate speech and documents in a foreign language and help people to understand each other. However, human translators are not always available and easy to find. Also, the amount of written material that a person can translate in a specific time is very limited. The translation process is very time consuming, and moreover, having a human translator is costly. Therefore, searching for alternative methods for translation is crucial. By the emergence of computers, the idea of using them in the automatic translation process developed. Using computers for translation proposes a solution for all these costly and time consuming processes which have to be done by human translator. Machine translation’s purpose is to reduce the cost of the translation process and increase the quality of the translated material. However, translating a language into another one through computer is not an easy task. A human language is a very complicated system, so Machine translation involves a great deal of complicated analysis and manipulation, and despite the advances that are done in this field but it is not accomplished yet. The evaluation of machine translation systems is an important field of research, for optimizing the performance of MT systems and their effectiveness. There are a range of different evaluation approaches for evaluating MT systems; progress in the field of machine translation relies on assessing the quality of a new system through systematic evaluation. The evaluation strategy adopted in this study is human evaluation, and the focus is on manual corpus analysis and human judgments on machine-generated translation. It intends to report an evaluation of the output quality of two prevalent English-Persian MT programs, named, Padideh software and Google translate. The aim of the research is to find out which program produces a relatively better output, in dealing with diverse text-types in translation direction from English to Persian, and its acceptability and usability for end-users. The use of MT or any sort of computerized tool for translation support is completely unknown to the vast majority of individuals and organizations, even those involved in the ‘language industries’, like translators. Most of the time, users of MT cannot select proper MT systems compatible to their needs and their purpose for using MT. Arnold, et al (1994) indicates that the purchase of an MT system is in many cases a costly affair and requires careful consideration. It is important to understand the organizational consequences and to be aware of the system’s capacities. Evaluation of MT systems helps to inform about the usability and acceptability of them. The present study raises questions, regarding the evaluation of the two so-called MT systems, and aims to investigate the following main questions: ALLS 6(4):226-237, 2015 227 RQ1: Are machine-generated translations intelligible and acceptable from the point of view of end-users of diverse texttype of documents? RQ2: Which one of the machine-generated translations produced by Padideh software and Google translate is more acceptable and useful from the end-users point of view? The Aims of present study is to establish whether six different text types target language translations produced by two prevalent machine translation softwares (Google translate and Padideh translator) are considered intelligible and acceptable from the point of view of end- users (RQ1), and which one of the machine-generated translations produced by them is more acceptable and useful from their point of view (RQ2). These research questions are investigated through human evaluation of machine translation output. Therefore in order to meet the aims proposed, the study developed to use a human evaluation model to conduct end-user evaluations of diverse text-types. 2. Methodology 2.1 Overview The research design, employed in this study is build on previous work conducted by Van Slype (1979). Criteria of evaluation are established by Georges Van Slype (1979) Method for evaluating the quality of Machine Translation from the perspective of acceptance and usability for the end-users. Two English-Persian Machine translation program (Padideh software & Google Translate) are selected as the subject of this research. The research only evaluates the output quality of Machine translation programs. Different text-types have been selected, in order to examine the translation produced by each program. 2.2 Theoretical Framework The evaluation made in this research focused on the quality of the output, i.e., the translation of two prevalent English-Persian MT programs. The evaluation of these two different translation programs will be established by implementing Van Slype (1979) method, for evaluating machine translation. In 1979, Van Slype compiled a comprehensive critical review of MT evaluation methods on behalf of Bureau Marcel van Dijk for the Commission of the European Communities, who had set up a program aimed at “lowering the barriers between the languages of the Community” (Van Slype, 1979, p.11). The purposes of this study were: to document the kinds of methodologies being employed at this time in MT evaluation; to make some recommendations to the Commission, amongst other things, on the methodology it should use when evaluating its machine translation systems; and to conduct research which would help in the long term with the efficiency of these evaluations. The report distinguished between two levels of evaluation: macroevaluation (or total evaluation) determines the acceptability of a system, compares the quality of two systems or two versions of the same system, and assesses the usability of a system; while microevaluation (or detailed evaluation) determines the improvability of a system. 2.2.1 Macroevaluation This level of evaluation concerns itself with the assessment of the system’s overall performance (Van Slype, 1979, p. 88). It deals with all the criteria and all the methods used or proposed to assess the “static” quality of an MT system, i.e., its quality at the moment of evaluation, and regardless of the manner by which this quality has been reached. It aims at examining the acceptance of a translation system, comparing the quality of two translation systems or two versions of the same system and/or assessing the usability of a translation system (Van Slype, 1979, pp.12 and 21). Van Slype (1979, p.56) points out that the macroevaluation of a system is the operation which consists in assessing the manner in which the system answers the requirements and the needs of its users, actual or potential, regardless of what occurs inside the “black-box”. It has the purpose of measuring the adequacy of the output from the system to its environment, without seeking to diagnose the causes of its inadequacy, if any, and without pinpointing the component(s) that could usefully be modified to improve adequacy. Van Slype (1979) broke down the various criteria into ten classes, assembled in turn into four groups according to the level at which they approach the quality of the translation. - Cognitive level (effective communication of information and knowledge). • Intelligibility • Fidelity • Coherence • Usefulness • Acceptability - Economic level (excluding costs). • Reading time • Correction time • Translation time - Linguistic level (conformity with a linguistic model) ALLS 6(4):226-237, 2015 228 - Operational level (effective operation). Description of criteria and methods of macroevaluation, used in this study: Cognitive level: 1. Intelligibility: Van Slype (ibid) defines the criteria as: Subjective evaluation of the degree of comprehensibility and clarity of the translation. Van Slype (ibid): Measurement of intelligibility by rating sentences on a 4-point scale. * Method: -Submission of a text sample in several versions (original text, MT without and with post-editing, human translation with and without revision) to a group of evaluators; the texts being distributed so that each evaluator: · Receives only one of each of the versions of the texts. · Receives a series of sentences in sequence (sentences in their context). -Rating of each sentence according to a 4-point scale. -Calculation of the average of the ratings per text and version, with and without weighting as a function of the number of words in each sentence evaluated. * Scale of intelligibility: 3: Very intelligible: all the content of the message is comprehensible, even if there are errors of style and/or of spelling, and if certain words are missing, or are badly translated, but close to the target language. 2: Fairly intelligible: the major part of the message passes. 1: Basely intelligible: a part only of the content is understandable, representing less than 50% of the message. 0: Unintelligible: nothing or almost nothing of the message is comprehensible. 2. Fidelity: Van Slype (ibid), defines fidelity as: Subjective evaluation of the measure in which the information contained in the sentence of the original text reappears without distortion in the translation. The fidelity rating should, generally, be equal to or lower than the intelligibility rating, since the unintelligible part of the message is of course not found in the translation. Any variation between the intelligibility rating and the fidelity rating is due to additional distortion of the information, which can arise from: -A loss of information (silence) (example: word not translated). -Interference (noise) (example: word added by the system). -A distortion from a combination of loss and interference (example: word badly translated). Measurement of fidelity by rating on a 4-point scale: * Method: -Submission of a sample of original texts, with the corresponding translations, to one or more evaluators. -Successive examination of each sentence, in the first place in the translation, then in the original text. -Rating of the fidelity, sentence by sentence. -Calculation of the average of the fidelity ratings. * Scale of fidelity: 3: Completely or almost completely faithful. 2: Fairly faithful: more than 50 % of the original information passes in the translation. 1: Barely faithful: less than 50 % of the original information passes in the translation. 0: Completely or almost completely unfaithful. 3. Coherence: One author only, Y. WILKS (cited in Van Slype 1979), proposes this criterion: * Definition of the criterion: The quality of a translation can be assessed by its level of coherence without the need to study its correctness as compared to the original text. Once a sufficiently large sample is available, the probability that the translation should be at the same time coherent and totally wrong is very weak. ALLS 6(4):226-237, 2015 229 * Method of evaluation: Y. WILKS does not indicate, unfortunately, how in practice it is possible to rate the coherence of a text. He notes that if an original text may be coherent; this means that any assessment of the coherence of its MT version may not be absolute, based on the MT, but must be relative, as compared to the coherence of the source text. But then one is once again compelled to use bilingual evaluators. 4. Usability: Definition of the criterion: One author, W. LENDERS (cited in Van Slype 1979), defines usability (which he also calls applicability) as the possibility to make use of the translation. Another, P. ARTHERN (cited in Van Slype 1979), defines usability as far as a translation service is concerned, as revisibility. * Method: B.H.Dostert (ibid): Measurement of the quality by direct questioning of the final users. 5. Acceptability: Definition of the criterion: Van Slype defines acceptability as “a subjective assessment of the extent to which a translation is acceptable to its final user” (ibid, p.92). Van Slype maintains that acceptability can be effectively measured only by a survey of final users and this is illustrated in his suggested subjective evaluation, the second of two methods for evaluating acceptability in the report: 1. Measurement of acceptability by analysis of user motivation, and 2. Measurement of acceptability by direct questioning of users. Measurement of acceptability by direct questioning of users: * Method: - Submission of a sample of MT with the original texts and the corresponding HTs, to a sample of potential users. - Questions asked (among others). · Do you consider the translation of these documents to be acceptable, knowing that it comes from a computer and that it can be obtained within a very short time, of the order of half a day? * In all cases. * In certain circumstances (to be specified). * Never. * For myself. * For certain of my colleagues. · Would you be interested in having access to a system of machine translation providing texts of the quality of those shown to you? 6. Reading time: Reading time can be assessed in various ways: Van Slype (ibid): by timing the time spent by the evaluator in reading each text of the sample. 2.3 The Corpus The corpus selected for this study is, six different text types which are selected for English to Persian MT and evaluation. The different text-types are: 1) Kid’s Story 2) Political Text 3) Computer Science Text 4) Legal Text 5) A Poem as a Literary Text 6) A Webpage. The corpus selected for the study is six complete texts, that haven’t separated from their context. The SL texts have been collected from university textbooks and Internet websites. Most of these texts have been selected on the basis of being rich in domain-specific terminologies. Each of the sample texts has translated once by Padideh software and once by Google Translate. 2.4. Research Methodology and Approaches In this study we employ a quantitative research design, that using this approach enables a better understanding of research problems. For a study to be valid it must be reliable. For this study it is essential that valid and reliable measurement techniques are developed and employed when collecting and analysing the data. Relating this to our study of MT evaluation, we must ensure the corpus analysis techniques in the interview questionnaire design are valid and reliable. In order to minimize errors, we systematically conduct the analysis on the corpus, and for the design of the interview questionnaire we build on the work of Van Slype (1979). ALLS 6(4):226-237, 2015 230 The proposed model for the functional attributes is a black-box type superficial, comparative and adequacy-oriented evaluation. In other words, there is no interaction with the systems tested and the goal is to determine whether output is actually helpful to the user groups in question. On the basis of the tasks relevant to the end-user’s needs in this study, only six functional quality characteristics have been investigated. These include: ‘intelligibility’, ‘fidelity’, ‘coherence’, ‘usability’, ‘acceptability’ and ‘reading time’. In this work, the black-box evaluation has been chosen due to the fact that commercial MT systems can only be evaluated by this approach (Volk, 2001). Consequently, there has been no access to the inner workings of these systems. Even so, it is desirable to be able to draw from such an evaluation enough conclusions about the various system components. 3. Data Analysis 3.1 Overview This section discusses the data analysis and findings of the study. Detailed analyses and classifications of the results concerning the various criteria types are presented with tables and charts. The questionnaire used in this study was carefully analysed to ensure that the data gathered was presented clearly. A detailed analysis based on the black-box approach, superficial and adequacy/ declarative evaluation of six various text types for each of the two MT systems reveals the results. These results are classified and presented on the basis of: • Variation in scores between raters. • Comparison of systems for text types. • Average of scores of raters. • Percentage of scores of raters. The result of the application of the evaluation methods in testing the criteria, take into consideration the grades on the scoring scale, the total score value, and the average score value with respect to each rater and each of the tested MT systems. The evaluation results are reported in tables, which show the distribution of the scores obtained from the investigation of text-types for each of the quality characteristics and MT systems. 3.2 Analysis and Classification of Results This part is the most important process, which is to calculate the human judgments based on the assigned questionnaire. The evaluators were asked to consider each text and its machine translated outputs to examine the parameters which are provided in the questionnaire. The scores assigned to each parameter by evaluators are shown in Tables and for better analysis; the results are presented in charts for each parameter. 3.2.1 Intelligibility Analysing the scores rated by sixteen evaluators in testing the intelligibility of six different text types for translations produced by each system, results in information showed in Table 3.1 and Figure 3.1. The average quality for intelligibility of all six text-type for Padideh is 23.33% and for Google Translate is 47.77%. Intelligibility Table 3.1 Intelligibility Padideh Google translate Kid's Story 1 1.5 Political Text 0.1 1.6 Computer Science Text Legal Text 1.2 1.9 0.1 0.9 Poem 0.6 0.9 Webpage 1.2 1.8 Figure 3.1 ALLS 6(4):226-237, 2015 231 3.2.2 Fidelity After analysing the data reported by evaluators, in evaluating the fidelity of six different text types for translations produced by each system, results in information showed in Table 3.2 and Figure 3.2. The average quality for fidelity of all six text-type for Padideh is 29.22% and for Google Translate is 49%. Fidelity Table 3.2 Fidelity Padideh Google translate 1 1.56 0.69 1.44 1.19 1.75 0.5 1.13 Poem 0.75 1.19 Webpage 1.13 1.75 Kid's Story Political Text Computer Science Text Legal Text Figure 3.2 3.2.3 Coherence Exploring the scores rated by sixteen evaluators in examining the coherence of six different text types for translations produced by each system, results in information showed in Table 3.3 and Figure 3.3. The average quality for coherence of all six text-type for Padideh is 36.66% and for Google Translate is 55%. Coherence Table 3.3 Coherence Padideh Google translate Kid's Story Political Text Computer Science Text Legal Text 1.1 1.7 1 1.7 1.3 1.9 0.9 1.1 Poem 1.4 2.2 Webpage 0.9 1.3 Figure 3.3 ALLS 6(4):226-237, 2015 232 3.2.4 Acceptability For evaluating the acceptability of the systems under investigation, the evaluators were asked, two questions. The evaluators have to answer these questions for each text-type, translated by each system. The analysis of answer of evaluators, have been reported in the base of options number. The collected data from the answers of the evaluators from questionnaire, in evaluating the Acceptability of six different text types for translations produced by Padideh, reveals the information showed in Table 3.4 and Figure 3.4. Acceptability(Padideh) Table 3.4 Acceptability(Padideh) Kid's Story 0% 63% 37% Political Text 0% 31% 69% Computer Science Text 0% 56% 44% Legal Text 0% 25% 75% Poem 0% 44% 56% Webpage 6% 75% 19% Figure3.4 The answers of the evaluators, in evaluating the Acceptability of six different text types for translations produced by Google Translate, reveals the information, that you can see in Table 3.5 and Figure 3.5. Acceptability(Google translate) Table 3.5 Acceptability(Google translate) In all case In certain Never Kid's Story 12% 69% 19% Political Text 19% 44% 37% Computer Science Text 19% 56% 25% Legal Text 6% 44% 50% Poem 18% 38% 44% Webpage 38% 56% 6% ALLS 6(4):226-237, 2015 233 Figure 3.5 The data collected from the answers of sixteen evaluators to the second question in examining the acceptability of the translations produced by Padideh and Google Translate, is showed respectively in Table 3.6, Figure 3.6, and Table 3.7, Figure 3.7. Padideh Table 3.6 Padideh Always Never sometimes Kid's Story 0% 44% 56% Political Text 0% 75% 25% Computer Science Text 0% 37% 63% Legal Text 0% 44% 56% Poem 0% 37% 63% Webpage 0% 19% 81% Figure 3.6 ALLS 6(4):226-237, 2015 234 Google translate Table 3.7 Google translate Always Never Sometimes Kid's Story 12% 25% 63% Political Text 31% 25% 44% Computer Science Text 31% 19% 50% Legal Text 31% 37% 32% Poem 12% 44% 44% Webpage 38% 12% 50% Figure 3.7 3.2.5 Usability For evaluating the usability of the translations produced by each system, according to Van Slype (1979), evaluators were directly asked about the usability of the systems for each text-type. The information got from analysing the scores rated by sixteen evaluators is showed in Table 3.8 and Figure 3.8. Usability(Padideh) Table 3.8 Usability(Padideh) In all case In certain Never Kid's Story 0% 75% 25% Political Text 0% 37% 63% Computer Science Text 6% 69% 25% Legal Text 0% 37% 63% Poem 0% 63% 37% Webpage 12% 88% 0% ALLS 6(4):226-237, 2015 235 Figure 3.8 Usability(Google translate) Table 3.9 Usability(Google translate) In all case In certain Never Kid's Story 19% 69% 12% Political Text 12% 38% 50% Computer Science Text 19% 75% 6% Legal Text 6% 63% 31% Poem 19% 44% 37% Webpage 38% 56% 6% Figure 3.9 3.2.6 Reading Time According to Van Slype (1979), evaluation method for reading time is, by timing the time spent by the evaluator in reading each text of the sample. ALLS 6(4):226-237, 2015 236 Because of comparative nature of this study, for testing the reading time, the evaluators were asked, for reading which of the translations produced by each system, you have spent much more time? (The evaluators ought to answer this question for each text-type.) Collecting data from answers of evaluators in questionnaire revealed that all of the 100% of sixteen evaluators, had spent more time for reading the translations produced by Padideh in relation to Google Translate, for all the six texttypes. The evaluators believe that, it was because of incoherency and existence of inaccuracy and mistranslations in translated texts. 4. Conclusion With all the progress in the field of MT and improvements in machine translation systems, the present evaluation has been carried out and the results thereof have confirmed that there are still serious drawbacks with these systems in translation direction from English to Persian. In general, both two MT systems under investigation, produced average or below average quality. The total quality performance for each system is as follow: For Padideh the total average of intelligibility, fidelity and coherence respectively, are: 23.33%, 29.22% and 36.66%. The total average of intelligibility, fidelity and coherence for Google Translate respectively is: 47.77%, 49% and 55%. In fact, their outputs reflect many deficiencies in translating various text types. The end-user can use them to grasp, the general idea of the ST, or translate short, simple texts. Long and complex sentences are especially hard to understand when translated by these systems. One can hardly say that any of them is much better than the others when translating from English into Persian, as much time and efforts are required for intensive post editing of their product. However, Google Translate is better than Padideh in performing translations of all six text-types, with a quite satisfactory translation. In short, they all need serious improvements. 4.1 Strengths and Weaknesses of the MT Systems Evaluated 4.1.1 Google Translate Google Translate has obtained higher quality as compared to Padideh software. The TT produced by this system is almost clear especially in translation of computer science text and translation of webpage, it is rather difficult to understand the translation of some text types like literary text, legal text and kid’s story, but this is possible after reading the text for two or three times, and the translation produced by this system is rather informative. It also reflects a fairly faithful translation to the ST. In general, the translation of this system is fairly accurate and can be used as a source of information especially in the fields of computer science and translation of webpage. On the other hand, Google Translate has lower reading time, in comparison to Padideh. 4.1.2 Padideh Software This MT system, which is supposed to have quality level, generally speaking, close to Google Translate, but considering the total system performance, shows that it has given poor results, and it is a lot more below average and has less acceptable quality. Only with certain text types, (e.g. computer science, webpage), although lower than Google Translate, the system can produce translation, where useful information can be extracted. Otherwise, the system performs poorly, compared to Google Translate. The texts are hard to read, some meaning of sentences can be gleaned with some effort, reflect poor fidelity to the ST and are ill-formed. The general idea is comprehensible, but it is very hard to read large fragments of the MT product. This is attributed to various kinds of mistakes. In short, the translation of this system can only be used by the end user for grasping the general idea of the ST. 4.2 Findings of the Study To answer RQ1, the data collected during research and analysing them, showed that, the end-users view about machinegenerated translation of diverse text-types are as following: The translation of computer science text is more intelligible than translation of other text-types under investigation in this study, by MT systems. Translation of webpage is the second more intelligible, compared to other text-types. The third rating of intelligibility is kid’s story and then translation of political text. The translation of legal text and after that, poem has the lowest intelligibility. The fidelity of translation of computer science text is the highest, and then with little difference the translation of webpage, the third and forth rating of fidelity belongs to political text and translation of poem, and the last rating of translation fidelity is translation of legal text. The ranking of coherence rating, are respectively from higher to lower, is: translation of computer science text, poem, kid’s story, political text, webpage and legal text. The translation of kid’s story, computer science text and webpage is acceptable for end-users in certain circumstances, and they are willing to use MT, for translation of these text-types, sometimes. The translation of kid’s story, computer science text, poem and webpage, by MT systems, is useful in certain circumstances for the end-users. The reading time for reading the translations produced by MT systems is high for end-users, because of lack of coherence and mistranslations. ALLS 6(4):226-237, 2015 237 In response to RQ2 we examined both MT systems under investigation, and the results obtained from their comparison are as following: The total average of intelligibility of translations produced by Padideh and Google Translate, respectively, are: 23.33% and 47.77%. The total average of fidelity of translations produced by Padideh and Google Translate, respectively are: 29.22% and 49%. The total average of coherence of translations produced by Padideh and Google Translate, respectively are: 36.66% and 55%. The acceptability and usability of the translations produced by Google Translate for all the six text-types are higher than translations produced by Padideh, for the same six text-types. The reading time for reading translation of the six text-types produced by Padideh software is higher than reading time for reading the translations produced by Google Translate for the same text-types. In summary, considering the obtained results of evaluation parameters, reveals that, the translations produced by Google Translate is more useful and acceptable from the end-users point of view, for all the six text-types. References Arnold, D. (1994). Machine translation: an introductory guide. Blackwell Pub. Van Slype, G. (1979). Critical study of methods for evaluating the quality of machine translation. Prepared for the Commission of European Communities Directorate General Scientific and Technical Information and Information Management. Report BR, 19142. Volk, M. (1997, July). Probing the lexicon in evaluating commercial MT systems. In Proceedings of the eighth conference on European chapter of the Association for Computational Linguistics (pp. 112-119). Association for Computational Linguistics.