edited by Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA New Trends in Social Sciences New Trends in Social Sciences edited by Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA We work with leading authors to develop the strongest academic materials with bringing cutting-edge thinking and best learning practice to a global world. © All rights reserved. This book is the academic studies of Strategic Researches Academy (SRA). It is printed with the academic and financial support from SRA. The papers are first reviewed by the independent reviewers, and then proof-read and edited by the editor(s). The opinions and views expressed in papers are not necessarily those of this book editor(s) and SRA. All parts of this publication are protected by copyright. Any utilization outside the strict limits of the copyright law, without the permission of the publisher, is forbidden and liable to prosecution. This applies in particular to reproductions, translations microfilming, and storage and processing in electronic retrieval systems. This publication has been peer reviewed. ii New Trends in Social Sciences edited by Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA iii New Trends in Social Sciences edited by Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA SRA Academic Publishing (Strategic Researches Academy) visit us on the World Wide Web at: www.stracademy.org All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without either the prior written permission of the publisher or a license permitting restricted copying. All trademarks used herein are the property of their respective owners. The use of any trademark in this text does not vest in the author or publisher any trademark ownership rights in such trademarks, nor does use of such trademarks imply any affiliation with or endorsement of this book by such owners. ISBN: 978-605-69047-8-3 Copyright © 2019 by HaĢim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETĠN & Hasan KARA Printed in Lithuanian Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data New Trends in Social Sciences / edited by HaĢim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETĠN & Hasan KARA p. cm. ISBN 978-605-69047-8-3 Managing Editor: Turhan ÇETĠN Printed date: 08 October 2019 SRA Academic Publishing H. Manto G. 74 Klaipeda 92292 Lithuanian +370 46 3796028 www.stracademy.org iv New Trends in Social Sciences edited by Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA Table of Contents CHAPTER 1 Forecasting Deposit Interest Rate, Crude Oil and Gold Prices Using the Arch and Box-Jenkins Models: An Application For Turkey ......................................................... 1 Cumhur ġAHĠN CHAPTER 2 Reading the Changing Meaning of Nutrition Culture through Bourdieu: Changing Nutrition Culture in Turkey ........................................................................................... 15 Ömür ALYAKUT & K. Mehmet ARSLANTEPE CHAPTER 3 Forensic Accounting: Development and Practices Around the World ....................... 47 Mehmet Emin KARABAYIR CHAPTER 4 Optimum Currency Area: An Assessment of the European Union and Turkey........ 63 Feyza ERġĠN META CHAPTER 5 New Generation Banking Systems................................................................................. 79 Sultan Gözde ÖZTÜRK & Ömer ASAL CHAPTER 6 An Analysis on the Accessibility of Family Health Centers in Kula City................... 93 Üzeyir YASAK v New Trends in Social Sciences edited by Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA CHAPTER 7 Marketing of Organic Agricultural Products in a Green Marketing Perspective ... 105 HaĢim ÖZÜDOĞRU CHAPTER 8 Understanding of Talent Management in Human Resources.................................... 115 Sinan ġEKEROĞLU & Kadir ÖZER CHAPTER 9 Influencer Marketing and Taxation of Influencer in Turkey ................................... 125 Sinan ġEKEROĞLU & Sibel BĠLGĠN CHAPTER 10 Activity Designed in Physical Geography Teaching: The Topic of Soil ................... 135 Cennet ġANLI & Selahattin AKġĠT CHAPTER 11 Population Movements in the Susuz District (1940-2018) ......................................... 149 Nilgün ZAMAN & Halil KOCA CHAPTER 12 Population Policies in Turkey ....................................................................................... 165 Ġbrahim GÖKBURUN CHAPTER 13 Non-Bank Financial Institutions .................................................................................. 181 Cemil ġENEL vi New Trends in Social Sciences edited by Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA Foreword Technology has influenced all the aspects of our lives by causing inevitable changes and improvements in every field. Naturally, the world of science has greatly benefited from this change and development. In consequence, the rapid circulation of information and technology in the scientific world has increased the cooperation among scientists. Thus, this book contains New Trends in Social Sciences in parallel with the improvements in the world of science. In this context, banking, economy, geography, demography, finance, tourism, cultural research, other social sciences belong to the disciplines studies are included. It took about one year to prepare and print the book. We would like to express our deepest gratitude to our friends who contributed to this process. We also thank SRA academic publishing staff. Finally, very special thanks go to the authors who contributed to our book with their researches. It is our greatest wish that this book will increase the cooperation among scientists to make the world a better place. Kind Regards. Editors HaĢim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETĠN & Hasan KARA 08. 10. 2019 vii New Trends in Social Sciences edited by Haşim ÖZÜDOĞRU, Turhan ÇETİN & Hasan KARA viii Population Policies in Turkey İbrahim GÖKBURUN CHAPTER 12 Population Policies in Turkey İbrahim GÖKBURUN1 1. Introduction In today‟s world, any kind of future planning made by countries are centered upon their total population number and population‟s characteristics. The rules determined and applied by the authorities in order to provide solutions to the problems encountered in the society play an important role in determining the population policies. Population policies cover all the measures taken by states to influence the size, age structure, increase, decrease status, distribution or quality of the population (Eryurt et al., 2013: 138; May, 2012: 42; Serper, 1980; 9). Although different definitions are made regarding population policy, all definitions are formed within the definition of the United Nations‟ Population Fund (UNPF). Population policies include the coordinated actions that national governments purposefully carry out to influence the three main demographic variables which are birth, death and migration. The focus of population policy is based on the approaches regarding fertility. Population policies are planned and implemented in three different ways: pronatalist policies aiming at increasing the population growth; policies aiming at stopping the population growth (antinatalist) or policies aiming at improving only the quality of the population (BaĢol, 1995: 50; Doğan, 2011: 296). Until the middle of the 20th century, countries implemented policies focusing on increasing the population growth rate. Today, the quality is as important as the quantity of the population. From the past to the present, philosophers, intellectuals, state administrators have been interested in the population matter. Aristotle and Plato took a management-oriented approach with the idea of “the ideal population for the ideal state”. Ibn Khaldun, one of the important thinkers of the Islamic world, emphasized that the more the population in a society was, the more prosperous the society would be. New approaches emerged after the Industrial Revolution concerning population which was dealt with in different times and places. In the process of industrialization, thinkers focused on the relationship between population and economic resources or between population and production. In the geographical literature, discussions about the population issue have become widespread with Thomas Robert Malthus‟s Population Theory. Malthus emphasized that population growth would proceed with geometric increase and food supply with arithmetic increase. He argued that population growth should be restricted in order to eliminate this imbalance between food and population growth rates (Malthus, 1979: 8; Tanoğlu, 1969: 39-40; Tümertekin and Özgüç, 2017: 223; Kazgan, 2008: 87). Contrary to this idea, Karl Marx stated that population growth was not a problem and that the main problem arose from the unequal distribution of resources. The Danish agricultural economist Ester Boserup, on the other hand, argued against many aspects of Malthus‟ claims. Boserup is in favor of intensification in agriculture and he argues that the needs of the growing population can be fulfilled by undertaking more work and making more intensive agriculture (Boserup, 1981: 35; Tümertekin and Özgüç, 2017: 225-226). Assist. Prof. Dr., Pamukkale University, Faculty of Arts and Sciences, Department of Geography, Denizli, Turkey, igokburun@pau.edu.tr. 1 165 Population Policies in Turkey İbrahim GÖKBURUN According to the Demographic Transformation Theory, which brings a different approach to the topic, all societies move from a stage where the fertility and mortality rates are high to a stage where both are low. The Demographic Transformation Theory put forward by American demographer Warren Simpson Thompson in 1929 emphasizes that there is an inverse relationship between industrialization and economic development and birth and death rates in general (Tümertekin and Özgüç, 2017: 220-222; HoĢgör and Tansel, 2010: 55-57; Kinsella and He, 2009: 20; YüceĢahin: 2009 2: Peters and Larkin, 2005: 85; Lee, 2003: 167). The Theory of Demographic Transformation, which was extended by many scholars over time, including the American demographer Frank W. Notestein was developed on the basis of historical observations of demographic changes in the Western European countries. This study explores the evaluation of population policies implemented in Turkey and they are presented in three parts. The first part deals with the 1923-1963 pronatalist population policies and the second part covers the period of 1964-2013, when antinatalist population policies were implemented. As the third and final part, the pronatalist population policies which had been put into practice since 2014 were examined. Regulations that shaped the population policies in Turkey constituted our basic data source. In this study, the past, present and future of population policies were interpreted in the light of legal regulations. 2. Population Policies for 1923-1963 Period In the second half of the 20th century, population was regarded as a power paradigm both in Turkey and over the globe. The magnitude of population was of great importance for countries in terms of economic development and political balance as it constituted the necessary manpower for military and production. Because of long-lasting wars, famine and diseases, population rate in Turkey fell to 20% below during the first years of the republic. The ratio of young population particularly men decreased dramatically as compared to the overall population. Thus, pronatalist polices were implemented by 1963. Thanks to these implementations, population of Turkey which was 13.648.270 in 1927 rose to 27.754.820 in 1960. During the reestablishment process with the proclamation of the republic, population issue was one of the fundamental concerns. In this era, economy mostly relied on agriculture and industrialization attempts were not sufficient. Population growth in such countries was vital for development (Demir, 2916: 46). The increase of the population went beyond the quantitative enhancement of the society, it was seen as military and political power. In fact, the population problem in Turkey was voiced for the first time as a national policy on March 1, in 1923 by Gazi Mustafa Kemal Ataturk in the Grand National Assembly during an opening speech: “The population issue is a country‟s most essential commitment.” (Güriz, 1975: 4). Moreover, Gazi Mustafa Kemal‟s statement in his book Söylev ve Demeçler (1997): “Our aim is to protect and enhance our population. I present this aim to the attention of the Supreme Assembly and our people” shaped the state‟s population policies in the early years of the republic. The authorities, scientists, writers and thinkers of that time bolstered the pronatalist policies (Banguoglu, 1945: 2; Aydemir, 1932: 35; Nabi, 1939: 35). Yüceuluğ, 1944:154) in his work SavaĢ Sonu Nufüs Meseleleri pointed out that the amount and quality of the population should be increased. As of 1926, rhetoric fostering the enhancement of the population started to be implemented tangibly. Firstly, the Central Statistical Office was established in 1926. Subsequently, the first census was carried out in 1927 in order to determine the existing population and the populationenhancing policies. In order to increase fertility, the first legal regulations were introduced. 166 Population Policies in Turkey İbrahim GÖKBURUN In the Turkish Penal Code No. 765 dated 1926, abortion by means of medicine and devices is prohibited on the grounds of one‟s right to life and body integrity. Articles 468, 469, 470 and 471 and 472 of the Turkish Penal Code linked abortion to severe penal sanctions. “Abusive miscarriage and intentional miscarriage” or abortion and other practices that would prevent childbearing are considered within the scope of “crimes against persons”. The relevant articles issued in 1926 in order to prevent abortion and protect the generation were revised in 1936. The law of 1936 with No. 3038 was renamed as “Offenses Against the Integrity and Health of Race”. The punishment of all kinds of activities and actions that would prevent obstetric policies was aggravated. Giving all kinds of information to reduce fertility and deliberate abortion was considered as a criminal offense. (Dogan, 2011: 298; Eryurt et al., 2013: 132). Another legal regulation made in this process was to lower the age of marriage. Article 88 of the Turkish Civil Code of 1926 with No. 4721 prohibited men from marrying unless they completed 18 years of age. However, with the regulation within the scope of the Law of 1938 with No. 3453, it was reduced to 17 for men and 15 for women (TÜGĠAD, 1993: 11; Eryurt et al., 2013: 132). Besides, incentive and rewarding practices were introduced in order to implement legal regulations. With the Chassis and Bridges Law of 1929 with No. 1525, families with more than 5 children were exempted from road tax (Resmi Gazete; Date: 12.06.1929 Issue: 1214). The first independent official document of the pronatalist population policies is the General Hygiene Law of 1930 with No. 1593. Article 152 of this law prohibits the importation, distribution and sale of all kinds of instruments and devices that would prevent pregnancy or cause miscarriage (Resmi Gazete; Date: 06.05.1930 Issue: 1489). Law on Public Hygiene regarded family and population as a public structure. This law has an important place in terms of population policies as it encompasses prohibitions on abortion. Increase in the importance given to health services, especially the interest in issues such as mother and child health, encouraging having many children indicate the significance given to the population policies in the early years of the republic (Arı, 1992: 410). In 1930, families with 6 or more children were awarded with medals and money prizes (Resmi Gazete; Date: 06.05.1930 Issue: 1489). Within the scope of the Law of 1931 on the Adequate Disposal of Exchange and Distribution Affairs, families with a high number of children were given priority in the distribution of the lands belonging to the treasury. Similarly, in the preparation of Economic Depression Tax in 1931 and the Equilibrium Tax of 1932, families with large number of children were exempted from tax (Murat et al., 1997: 29). In 1944, a regulation was made to provide child benefit to public employees. In 1949, income tax exemption was introduced in proportion to the number of children. In 1949, the 90th article of the Income Tax Law stipulated that those who did not marry until a certain age would pay excess tax. The bachelor‟s tax was indirectly imposed under the name of “Singledom Tax” (Oktay, 2013, p. 39; Kaya and Yalçınkaya, 2014: 176; Semiz 2010: 423-424). In addition, in order to protect maternal and child health in 1930s, municipalities, especially local authorities were charged with the establishment of hospitals, providing free health services and medicines to the poor. A work called “What to do to avoid getting pregnant?”, which aims to raise awareness contrary to the fertility was collected by the authorities (Basbakanlık Cumhuriyet ArĢivi, Number: 4879 File: 86-83 cited in Çakmak, 2007: 40). Numerous legal regulations were made during the 1923-1963 period encouraging population growth directly or indirectly. In the course of 40 years, advertising, importation and sale of contraceptive methods were prevented. All kinds of attitudes and behaviors that reduced the population and decrease the birth rates such as family planning and abortion were prohibited. 167 Population Policies in Turkey İbrahim GÖKBURUN Population and family policies implemented in Turkey have accelerated population growth. Policies to increase the total population in this epoch also sought for enhancing the quality of the population. The Republican People‟s Party and the Democratic Party, especially the Progressive Republican Party, the National Development Party and the Nation Party, which were active between 1923 and 1960, included policies to boost population in their party programs (Murat, 2006; 73). Discussions within the scope of population policy and population growth in 1955 were heated in the 1960s. With 1960 the military intervention, government was seized. With the establishment of the State Planning Organization (SPO) in 1960, antinatalist policies were brought to the agenda. The SPO officials and the Ministry of Health and Social Assistance officials took decisions to change the population policy and reduce fertility. Indeed, as of 1964 a different process began for population policies in Turkey (BaĢol, 1995: 50; Doğan, 2011: 300). 3. Population Policies for 1964-2013 Period Towards 1960s a transformation took place in terms of economic, social and political sense. Due to the import-substitution industrialization policy of the era, more labor force was needed in the industrial sector. Mechanization in agriculture created a mass of unemployed population in the countryside. This situation caused people to migrate from rural to urban areas. These irregular internal migrations were not managed properly. In cities, education, health, employment and security problems accumulated (Oktay, 2013: 40; Eryurt et al., 2013: 134). With the military coup of May 27, 1960, an extraordinary administrative process started in the country. A series of economic and administrative regulations were introduced. In the 1961 Constitution, which constituted the basis of these regulations, it was decided to prepare development plans under the title of „Social and Economic Provisions‟. Planning for the execution of public services became a constitutional obligation. Thus, the State Planning Organization (SPO) affiliated to the Prime Ministry was established on 30 September in 1960 (Eryılmaz and Tuncer, 2013: 172; Resmi Gazete: Date: 05.10.1960 Issue: 1062). The foundation of SPO is linked to Turkey‟s EU membership process. Turkey which started application process with the European Economic Community in 1959 with the Ankara Treaty signed in 1963, took the first step towards EU (Uysal, 2001: 141). However, one of the main conditions of the European Community was the initiation of the planned development process. Among those who wanted to switch to a systematic and periodic planning were also international organizations providing credit to Turkey (Kepenek, 2012: 139). In 1964, the First Five-Year Development Plan was prepared. The plan states that Turkey‟s rate of growth remained well behind the European countries. Furthermore, it was articulated that development process in Turkey could not be kept independent of Europe (DPT, 1963: 28). Since 1964 onwards which was regarded as “Planned Era” 11 Five-Year Development Plans were prepared and implemented. With the establishment of the Ministry of Development in 2011, the function of the State Planning Organization was changed in administrative terms. Nonetheless, the implementation of the Five-Year Development Plans continued. Finally, XI. Five-Year Development Plan was prepared and issued by the Presidential Strategy and Budget Department of the Republic of Turkey (XI. BeĢ Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, 2019). 4. Transition to Antinatalist Policies (1964-1982) Population was among the priority issues in the development plans implemented by the SPO. The size and structure of the population was one of the basic elements shaping development plans. In 168 Population Policies in Turkey İbrahim GÖKBURUN this era, legal regulations were made for the first time in order to reduce fertility. Population planning and family planning concepts entered Turkey‟s agenda. I. Five-Year Development Plan (1963-1967) In the First Five-Year Development Plan, where the concepts of development and population planning were integrated; population growth rate was considered as a problem for the first time (DPT, 1963: 35; Eryurt et al., 2013: 134). In the “population issue” section of the plan, measures in the implementation process of the new population policy were articulated. The relationship between economic development and the population was highlighted. It was emphasized that the population growth rate in Turkey would impede economic development. It was aimed to reduce the population growth rate which was defined as a problem (DPT, 1963: 35). In this context, legal regulation were prepared. The law of 1956 with No. 557 on Population Planning was a turning point in Turkey‟s population policy. This law abolished the relevant provisions of the 1936 Law on Public Hygiene, which prohibited the importation, sale and use of contraceptive methods. The dissemination of contraceptive information and the importation and sale of contraceptive devices and drugs were no longer a criminal offense (Resmi Gazete, Date: 10.4.1965, Issue: 11976; Eryurt et al., 2013: 134). In this period, abortion and tube connection operations were not legal yet. An institutional infrastructure was established in order to bring the antinatalist population policies to life. Firstly, General Directorate of Population Planning was established in 1965 within the Ministry of Health. In this period, the age of marriage was raised to a minimum of 18 for both men and women. Family planning policies were carried out under the auspices of the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare. In 1967, the Population Planning Implementation Cooperation Committee was established (DPT: 1983: 333). In order to reduce fertility, institutional activities were intensified. II. Five-Year Development Plan (1968-1972) In this era, instead of the concept of “population planning”, “family planning” discourse was introduced. Population policies were brought up more clearly (DPT, 1968: 226; Güriz, 1975: 116). It was asserted that family planning would continue in order to safeguard mother-child health, improve the structure of the population and reduce the pressure of population growth rate on economic and development. It was decided to provide information and drug assistance for those who did not want to have more children due to the financial conditions, or for those who could not afford it due to illiteracy or inaccessibility. While the first Five-Year Development Plan focused only on the quantitative aspect, this plan drew attention to enhance the quality of the population (DPT, 1968: 47). Despite the increase in national income, it was stated that per capita income did not reach the desired level. The reason for this situation was shown as a result of over-births, and the development of consumer population against the economically active population. The reason for saving in order to make living for economic development was attributed to the fact that the family had more children than they could afford. In particular, family planning, which reduced the rate of population growth and made it possible for families to have children at any time and in number, became hot topic (DPT, 1963: 226). During this period, the population growth rate began to decline. III. Five-Year Development Plan (1973-1977) In the III. Five-year Development Plan, the importance of family planning and health services were emphasized as a whole. The plan stated that family planning was integrated with health services. Mother-child health and family planning services were combined to ensure the concrete implementation of antinatalist policies. 169 Population Policies in Turkey İbrahim GÖKBURUN IV. Five Year Development Plan (1978-1983) Emerging political and social turmoil during this period pushed the population issue to the background. The plan was designed to enhance the quality of the population. In the population planning, the responsibilities of the state were reduced and it was declared that population policies should be implemented in line with social and economic indicators (Kaya and Yalçınkaya, 2014: 177). However, due to the 12 September 1980 military coup, implementation of the IV. Five-Year Development Plan was interrupted. “Two Children Enough” discourse supported by Kenan Evren, who was the head of the coup d‟état in 1982, expanded the antinatalist policies (DanıĢma Meclisi Tutanak Dergisi, Issue 572; 21.12.1982: Issue 572). Likewise, the Ministry of Health started to mention the number of children and highlighted that the ideal number of children would be two (Doğan, 2011: 302). Legal regulation were made for tangible implementation of the rhetoric of the authorities on population planning. The population growth rate started to decrease in 1964-1982 period. However, the targeted result could not be achieved. Men and women who are under a certain level of culture cannot be expected to benefit from the laws enacted due to planning (Doğanay, 1997: 209). Following the 1980 coup, new regulations were made on the grounds that it did not reach the target level in population planning. As of 1983, the target and scope of population policies were reshaped. 5. Dissemination Process of Antinatalist Policies (1983-2013) Many important events took place in 1980s in the social and economic sense. The concept of antinatalist policies and family planning was included in the Constitution for the first time. In the 1982 Constitution, it was emphasized that the education and implementation of family planning were among the duties of the state. The second paragraph of Article 41 of the 1982 Constitution, which includes measures to reduce fertility, states that: “The State shall take the necessary measures to ensure the peace and welfare of the family, especially the protection of the mother and children and the education and implementation of family planning, and establishes the organization (1982 Anayasası: 2018). Shortly after the adoption of the Constitution, the Law of 1983 with No. 2827 on Population Planning was enacted. With this law, the “Population Planning Law of 1965 with No. 557 was revised on the grounds that it could not meet the needs of antinatalist policies (Koç et al., 2010: 55; ErbaĢ, 2015: 103). With the 510 numbered Regulation on the Execution and Supervision of Uterine and Sterilization Services and Regulation on the Execution of Population Planning Services, abortion was no longer a crime. Thus, the import, sale, advertisement and use of all contraceptive methods were made legal. Article 5 of the law stipulates that if there is no medical problem for the health of the mother until the tenth week of pregnancy, the uterus is released upon request”. Thus, it paved the way for legal termination of pregnancy (Resmi Gazete, Date: 18/12/1983, Number: 18 255; Çokar 2008: 215). Nevertheless, termination of pregnancy is subject to certain conditions. Although the state aims to reduce fertility in general, there are no legal restrictions on the number of children as in China. The right of those who desire to have as many children as they wish is protected. During the implementation of population planning in Turkey, some of the non-governmental organizations‟ activities were noteworthy. Population Planning known as Neo-Malthusian in the geographical literature was implemented including in Turkey and in other developing countries and least developed countries through national bourgeoisie. Founded in 1985, Family Planning and Health Foundation (TAPV) pioneered efforts to reduce fertility. Furthermore, the Turkish Society of Gynecology, Family Planning Association of Turkey, the Human Resource Development Fund 170 Population Policies in Turkey İbrahim GÖKBURUN (HRDF), some non-governmental organizations such as the Turkish Women‟s Empowerment Foundation were among the forerunners. Union of Chambers and Commodity Exchanges of Turkey (TOBB), Turkish Industrialists and Businessmen‟s Association (TUSIAD), Turkish Engineers and Architects Association (TMMOB) and the Turkish Medical Association (TTB), some professional organizations such as the Turkish Pharmacists‟ Association were involved in the population policy. Many individuals took action for the reduction of fertility with guidance and support from some organizations by means of advertisements in newspapers and on television programs. Since the 1960s, some international organizations and developed countries have been active in establishing global population policies and importing them into other countries. United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), the World Bank, some international organizations such as the European Union financed antinatalist policies carried out in Turkey. In addition, the Willows Foundation, the US Agency for International Development (USAID), the International Planned Parenthood Federation, and the Population Council carried out activities to reduce fertility. These organizations have pioneered in establishing global population policies and importing them to less developed countries (Tomruk, 2009; Eryurt et al., 2013; AteĢ and BeĢtaĢ, 2013;). V. Five-Year Development Plan (1985-1989) The V. Five-Year Development Plan covering the period 1985-1989 was prepared with a new insight and approach. A new development plan was prepared by a government that came to power with democratic elections and ended the September 12 coup period. Regarding population policy, the idea of family health, measures to increase and strengthen the idea continued. In particular, enhancing the quality of the population was emphasized. VI. Five-Year Development Plan (1990-1994) VI. In the Five-Year Development Plan, the issue of population has become hot topic again. It is asserted in the plan that population growth adversely affects social development. The policies and programs aimed at reducing the population growth rate are aimed to be more effectively implemented. It was decided to support the studies on population policies. Reducing infant mortality became a priority. Births started to be registered throughout the country in order to follow the changes in the population structure (Doğan, 2011: 302). VII. Five-Year Development Plan (1996-2000) Five of the 20 structural reform projects in the VII. Five-Year Development Plan are directly related to the population issue. These include human resources, education, health reform, family planning and employment. In the plan, it was affirmed that population growth constituted a problem and therefore, expansion of family planning services and increasing the efficiency in service provision were to be strengthened (DPT, 1995: 34). In addition, the target of sustainable development with qualified population was prioritized. With the regulations prepared in this era, the concept of “reproductive health‟ came into prominence instead of „family planning„. In order to slow down the population growth rate, many regulations supporting the targets in the plan have been issued. In this context, Maternal and Child Health and Family Planning (MCHFP) Center was established in 1997 (Resmi Gazete, Date: 06.02.1997, issue: 22900). The framework of “reproductive health” was extended. It was aimed to expand family planning services, diversify methods to reduce fertility and improve service quality. Family planning clinics were opened in hospitals. It was planned to terminate pregnancy voluntarily in maternity hospitals and general hospitals providing birth services and to increase birth control practices after births (DPT, 1997: 29). In 1998, Women‟s Health and Family Planning National Activity Plan was prepared and put into practice (DPT, 1998: 33). 171 Population Policies in Turkey İbrahim GÖKBURUN Education level of women directly affects the fertility rate in a society. The duration of compulsory basic education varies between 9-12 years in European Union countries. The plan mentioned the duration of compulsory education to be extended to eight years in Turkey (DPT, 1995: 25). In 1997, eight years of compulsory education was introduced. VIII. Five-Year Development Plan (2001-2005) Population growth rate was revealed among the basic problems of Turkey. It was emphasized that the implementations targeted in the Five-Year Development Plan should be continued in the same line. For balanced and sustainable development, attention was paid to the quality of the population rather than the quantity. Efforts were made to reduce fertility within the scope of the National Strategic Action Plan for Women‟s Health and Family Planning which was prepared in 1998. In the VIII. Five-Year Development Plan covering the 2001-2005 period, decisions were taken to reduce fertility. However, the political thought that came to power in 2002 showed a different attitude towards population planning. The first step was taken in 2005 with this regard. Neutering was regulated as another crime act in the Turkish Penal Code with the Law of 2005 with No. 5237. This offense was legislated as crimes against persons in Article 101 of the Second Part of the Law on “Abortion or Neutering” (ErbaĢ, 2015: 105). Thus, a regulation was made for the first time against antinatalist policies after 1963 in Turkey. IX. Five-Year Development Plan (2007-2013) In 2002, discussions on abortion were deepened in Turkey. However, in the IX. Five-Year Development Plan, policies to decrease the rate of population growth continued. As in the previous plan, improvement of the quality of life was determined as the main objective in the Five-Year Development Plan. The understanding that “population growth creates a negative situation, especially for the economy” was sustained. Indeed, as expressed in the article 219 of the IX. FiveYear Development Plan, “despite the negative effects caused by rapid population growth throughout the country” ... that the idea of reducing fertility is maintained (DPT, 2007: 37). Antinatalist population policies were implemented in 1965-2013 period. Fertility namely the number of children per woman fell to 2.1. As of 2008, the sharp decline in fertility rate and the increasing problem of the elderly population and the family structure have been revived. A number of regulations were made regarding the issue. For example, the Ministry of State for Women and Family was closed in 2011 and Ministry of Family and Social Policies was established instead (Resmi Gazete, Date: 06.04.2011, issue: 6223). The concept of family was highlighted. This change in the demographic structure of the country began to be questioned and antinatalist policies began to be criticized (Demir, 2016: 48). Discourses criticizing antinatalist policies were expressed by the competent authorities. However, antinatalist policies ended and the legal implementation of pronatalist policies started in 2014. 6. Population Policies in the Post-2014 Period The United Nations, which provides comprehensive definitions of population policies, emphasized that the discourse of the officials who dominates the political power aiming to guide the demographic structure should be considered as population policy as well. Kenan Evren‟s “Two Children Enough” discourse in the 1980s is regarded as antinatalist population policy. Similarly, as of 2008, Prime Minister Recep Tayyip Erdoğan‟s “At least 3 Children” discourse can be considered as a pronatalist population policy (Eryurt et al., 2013: 139; Çetik, Gültekin, and KuĢdemir, 2008). Yet, in the 1980s, the discourse of “Two Children Enough” discourse was put into practice by law. In the Five-Year Development Plan covering the period 2007-2013, the policy to reduce fertility and 172 Population Policies in Turkey İbrahim GÖKBURUN population rate remained. Legal regulations, incentives and tangible practices regarding population policies for the discourse of “At least Three Children were put into practice in 2014-2008 period in the X. Five-Year Plan (Kalkınma Bakanlıgı , 2013: 50). For this reason, 2014 is accepted as the beginning of return to the pronatalist policies. X. Five-Year Development Plan (2014-2018) As of 2014, the “At least 3 Children” discourse, which was put forward as of 2008, was put into practice on the legal grounds. In the X. Development Plan covering the years 2014-2018, it was aimed to gradually increase the total fertility rate with policies to be implemented in the population area (X. BeĢ Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, 2013: 50). Thus, the antinatalist policies covering the period of 1964-2013 were officially ended. The decisive factor in the demographic cycle is the level of development of countries. All societies will experience a transition from a stage where fertility and mortality rates are high to a stage where both elements are low (Cilov, 1974: 8; Sertkaya Doğan, 2018: 51). In this period, it was planned to increase the characteristics of the population along with the fertility rate. It was aimed to make maximum use of the demographic opportunity window created by the young population and to improve the quality of life of the population by preserving the productive and dynamic population structure. It was emphasized that increasing the fertility rate was one of the basic needs of the country (Kalkınma Bakanlıgı, 2013: 50). As a matter of fact, Action Plan for the Protection of the Family and Dynamic Population Structure Program was announced on 8 January 2015 (Kalkınma Bakanlıgı, 2015). This program aimed at increasing fertility contrary to the “National Action Plan for Women‟s Health and Family Planning prepared in 1998. The downward trend in fertility continued. New regulations were made to keep the fertility rate at the level of revival of the population. In this context, The X. Five-Year Development Plan aimed to implement and disseminate practices that would increase fertility. A series of measures were taken for employees with practices that harmonize work and family life for women. In order to encourage births, temporary incapacity allowance, breastfeeding allowance, maternity insurance, family allowance, child allowance were provided and implementations such as expanding child care centers were realized (X. BeĢ Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, 2013: 41). The “Birth Aid Regulation which aimed to increase fertility was put into effect (Resmi Gazete, Date: 23.05.2015, issue: 29364). One-off benefits were initiated for each child to increase depending on the number of children. The family with children was provided with 200 TL for the first child, 400 TL for the second child, 600 TL for 3 children and more. Following the 16 weeks maternity leave, the right to part-time work was granted with increasing time depending on the number of children. Part-time work was initiated for working mothers for 2 months for the first child, 4 months for the second child and 6 months for the third and more child. Within the scope of the program, it was aimed to increase fertility on a family basis by increasing the maternity leave for fathers from 3 days to 5 days. A dowry account was initiated to support marriages before the age of 27 (Kalkınma Bakanlıgı, 2015). Thus, it was attempted to reduce the age of marriage to earlier ages. Increasing the total fertility rate above the regeneration level was one of the four main objectives of the program. XI. Five-Year Development (2019-2023) Population issue are directly addressed under five different headings in XI. the Five-Year Development Plan, as „empowerment of the family‟, „women‟,„ children‟ and „youth‟, „population and aging ‟. The total fertility rate, which was 1.99 in 2018, that is, the number of children per woman was targeted to be increased to 2.15 by 2023 (XI. Bes Yıllık Kalkınma Planı, 2019; 167173 Population Policies in Turkey İbrahim GÖKBURUN 168). Increasing the fertility rate above the regeneration rate of the population was one of the main objectives of the XI. Five-Year Development Plan. Young and dynamic population structure was planned to be protected for the utmost benefit from Turkey‟s demographic window of opportunity. Policies to harmonize work and family life were revised to keep the fertility rate above the level of population renewal. It was decided to make necessary changes or take additional measures in this regard. In addition, the needs of an aging population in Turkey were taken into account. In order to improve the quality of life of the elderly, it was emphasized that they would be able to participate in economic and social life effectively, to live active and independent lives, to benefit from high quality long-term care, health and other services and to create active aging environments. Turkey has a young and dynamic population at the moment. The proportion of the elderly population is still low and the increase in the working age population offers an opportunity. However, the proportion of the young population in the total population is gradually decreasing. The population over 65 is constantly increasing. Demographic change is obliged to change the basic assumptions of economic and social planning in Turkey (Arslan, 2017: 8) The falling fertility rate, aging population creates pressure. Aging of the population causes social and economic problems in the society, especially in social security systems (Çavlin and Others, 2015: 15). Population is the fundamental factor determining the labor supply of countries. Assuming that other factors of production are equal, the labor supply will be higher and the country‟s production capacity, national income and economic power will be superior in countries which have high population number (Zaim, 1997: 107-108). In the XI. Five-Year Development Plan, the needs of the elderly population were discussed for the first time in a comprehensive manner. This situation shows the aging of the population in Turkey. Therefore, it is necessary to take further measures to increase fertility in Turkey. 7. Result Population policies are one of the main factors that determine the future of countries. Turkey‟s population is divided into three different periods in terms of policy implementation principles. The first is the process of pronatalist population policies covering the period 1923-1963. The second phase covers the period of 1964-2014, when antinatalist population policies were implemented. The third phase is the pronatalist population policies process which was put into practice as of 2014. When the laws are analyzed in 1923-1963 period, it can be seen that there is an understanding aiming at population growth. However, there is no specific population policy in this process. Because the laws put forward only aim to prevent activities that will reduce fertility. In particular, no assessment was made of the outcomes and possible impacts of population-enhancing policies. In the 1964-2013 period, antinatalist population policies were adopted. Population problem in this process stated as “Planned Period” is commonly referred to as among the priority issues. The population growth rate started to decrease in 1964-1982 period. However, the targeted result could not be achieved. Therefore, new regulations were made in the process following the 1980 coup. As of 1983, antinatalist policies became widespread. The concepts used in the implementation process of antinatalist population policies were constantly updated. With the beginning of the planned period, the concept of “population planning” was used for the first time. Later, “population planning” which was not welcome in the society was replaced with “family planning”. After a while, instead of “family planning, the concept of “reproductive health” was introduced. Population Planning, known as Neo-Malthusianism was enforced in Turkey by the national bourgeoisie. The activities of some non-governmental organizations, professional chambers and international organizations are worth mentioning. These organizations operate under 174 Population Policies in Turkey İbrahim GÖKBURUN different names in line with Neo-Malthusianism and carry out activities such as „safe motherhood project‟, „women‟s health education program‟, „reproductive rights awareness and advocacy project‟. Population policy implemented after 1964 and changing lifestyle, reduced the fertility rate in Turkey. Social status, educational level and expectations of women, income level, marriage age, customs, beliefs, medical developments are the factors that affect fertility rate. However, the main factor that determines the level of fertility in a country is the population policy. The data related to birth began to be recorded as of 1975 nationwide. While the population was 40.347.00 in 1975, the number of children born was 1,251,000. In 2018, when our population reached 82,003,882, the number of children born reached 1,248,847. Although the general population reached 82 million from 40 million, the number of children born remained approximately the same. The decline in the birth rate is a strong predictor of possible future dangers about Turkish population. While the number of children per woman was 5 in the 1920s, it increased to 6.6 in the 1930-1940 period. During the 1940-1950, it rose to 7. The number of children per woman decreased to 6.6 in the 1950-1960 period. During the 1965-1975, it fell to 5.7 children. The number of children per woman fell to 4.1 in 1980-1990 at a time when the studies on birth control and fertility reduction became widespread. While the number of children per woman decreased to 3 in 1980-1990, it decreased to 2.5 during 1990-2000 period. This decrease in fertility rate is well above the expectations. The number of children per woman decreased to 2.1 in the 2000-2010, it dropped to 2 in the period of 2010-2018, which is below the critical threshold. Turkey has now fallen below the population regeneration level. As of 2008, rhetoric criticizing antinatalist policies has been expressed by the authorities. As a matter of fact, antinatalist policies were terminated in 2014 and pronatalist policies were legally initiated. In Turkey, the total fertility rate in 2018 fell below the regeneration rate of the population. Population growth slowed at a rate beyond expectations. Turkey is heading into the category of countries with rapidly aging populations. 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