Aflatoxins

This report presents the conclusions of a Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee convened to evaluate the safety of various food additives and contaminants, with a view to recommending acceptable daily intakes for humans, and to prepare specifications for the identity and purity of food additives. The first part of the report contains a general discussion of principles governing the toxicological evaluation of food additives and contaminants, including flavouring agents, and the establishment and revision of specifications, with comments concerning limits for arsenic, lead and heavy metals. A summary follows of the Committee's evaluations of toxicological data on various specific food additives (including tert-butylhydroquinone, mineral oils, waxes and alitame) and on beta-cyclodextrin, nitrate, nitrite, potassium bromate and the contaminants ochratoxin A and patulin. Annexed to the report are a table summarizing the committee's recommendations for acceptable daily intakes of these ...

The natural mycobiota occurring in bee pollen is studied in the present report with special attention to analyze the incidence of fungal species that are potential producers of mycotoxins. A total of 90 ready-to-eat bee pollen samples were analyzed. Eighty-seven samples were collected in stores placed in different Spanish areas and three were from Buenos Aires (Argentina). The statistical results (ANOVA) showed that yeasts and Penicillium spp. were the predominant fungi. With regard to the potential mycotoxin producing species, Penicillium verrucosum, Aspergillus niger aggregate, Aspergillus carbonarius, Aspergillus ochraceus, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus parasiticus and Alternaria spp. were found. The last genus was isolated very frequently. The potential ability for producing ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxins B1, B2, G1 and G2 was studied by culturing in vitro the isolates followed by analysis of these mycotoxins in culture extracts by HPLC with fluorescent detection. It was found that 100%, 53.3%, 33.3% and 25% of the isolates of A. carbonarius, A. ochraceus, P. verrucosum and A. niger aggregate, respectively, produced OTA. Moreover, 28.6% of the isolates from the A. flavus plus A. parasiticus group were able to produce aflatoxin B1. Aflatoxin B2 was detected in only 10% of the cultures. Aflatoxins G1 and G2 were not detected in cultures under the assayed conditions. This is the first report carried out on the natural mycobiota occurring in bee pollen in general and on the toxigenic capability of these isolates in particular.

A collaborative study was conducted to evaluate the effectiveness of an immunoaffinity column cleanup liquid chromatography (LC) method for the determination of aflatoxin B1 and total aflatoxins at European regulatory limits. The test portion is extracted with methanol–water (8 + 2) for ...

Mycotoxin residues are transferred from feed to animal products, yet, less attention has been paid to it in developing countries. There is a need to find alternative alleviation material for reducing the impact of mycotoxin. This review is meat to elucidate different additives that can reduce mycotoxin residue in animal products in the world, especially in developing countries. There is evidence of relationship between mycotoxin residue in breast milk of nursing mothers and mycotoxin exposure through crop and animal product (egg and milk) intake, especially in Asia, Africa, Middle East, Latin America, and some parts of Europe. Younger livestock tends to have more toxin residues in their tissue compared to older ones. Grazing animal are also exposed to mycotoxin intake which corresponds to high level of mycotoxins in their products including meat and milk. This review shows that phytogenic, probiotic, and prebiotic additives can decrease mycotoxin residues in milk, eggs, meat liver and other tissues of livestock. Specifically, bentonites, difructose anhydride III, yeast (Trichosporon mycotoxinivorans), Bacillus spp., or their biodegradable products can reduce mycotoxin residue in animal products. In addition, Ally isothiocyanates from mustard seed were able to mitigate mycotoxins in silo-simulated system. Evidence shows that there are now low-cost, accessible, and eco-friendly additives, which could alleviate the effect of mycotoxin in feed and food. In addition, there is need for aggressive public awareness and farmers’ education on the prevalence, and danger caused by mycotoxins, as well as detoxification strategies that can reduce toxin absorption into animal products.

Background and Aim: Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a major fungal metabolite found in milk coming from aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) contaminated rations and is subsequently present in milk-based products demonstrating a serious public health hazard. This study aimed to investigate the levels of AFM1 and AFB1 in milk and some dairy products consumed widely by infants and children.

Materials and Methods: This study investigated the incidence of AFM1 in 105 samples of processed cheese, Ras cheese, and raw milk (35 of each) retailed in the Egyptian markets. The degree of sensitivity and accuracy was evaluated using the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method followed by the estimation of the positive samples using the high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with fluorescence detection. Mold count was determined in the examined samples by investigating AFB1 content using HPLC.

Results: AFM1 was found in all investigated Ras cheese, raw milk, and 82.86% of the processed cheese samples with mean values of 51.05±6.19, 40.27±3.996, and 10.77±1.39 ng/kg, respectively. Moreover, there was statistically no significant difference between AFM1 levels in the core and crust parts of the tested Ras cheese. AFM1 contaminated Ras cheese and raw milk samples were 48.57% and 25.71%, which exceeded the European and Egyptian tolerance levels. Results showed an acceptable correlation between ELISA and HPLC methods with no significant difference (p>0.05). Alternatively, none of the examined samples proved to be contaminated with AFB1 despite the presence of mold with mean counts of 3.79±3.29, 4.39±4.34, and 4.84±4.29 log CFU/g in the examined processed cheese, Ras cheese, and raw milk samples, respectively.

Conclusion: Therefore, it is urgent to regularly inspect the contamination of animal feeds with AFB1 and apply special measures and novel techniques to protect the feed and food from public health hazards.

Aflatoxins (AFTs) are toxic products of fungal metabolism, associated with serious health consequences and substantial economic losses to agriculture, livestock and poultry sectors, particularly in the developing countries. This review outlines the current information on AFTs in terms of historical background, classification, relative occurrence and coexistence with other mycotoxins in various food commodities. The phenomenon of aflatoxin (AFT) biosynthesis has been elucidated with reference to molecular basis, genetic regulation and factors affecting the AFT production. Moreover, the in vivo disposition kinetics, toxicological action and toxico-pathological consequences of AFTs have also been highlighted. Currently employed strategies for the detection and detoxification of AFTs, biomarkers of exposure assessment, potential economic impact and regulatory considerations regarding the AFTs have been emphasized.

Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a hydroxylated metabolite formed after aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) is consumed by humans and animals; it can be detected in urine, milk and blood. It is well recognized that AFB1 is toxic to humans and other animals. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) classifies aflatoxins as group 1 carcinogens and AFM1 as group 2B carcinogen. The main objective of this study was to evaluate the exposure of pigs to aflatoxins as well as to assess the public awareness of aflatoxins among people in five provinces in Vietnam. A total of 1920 urine samples were collected from slaughterhouses located in five provinces. Overall, the positive rate of AFM1 was 53.90% (95% confidence interval 51.64-56.15) using a cut-off of 0.15 μg/kg (range: limit of detection to 13.66 μg/kg, median: 0.2 μg/kg and mean: 0.63 μg/kg). A total of 252 people from the general population were interviewed from 5 provinces, and overall 67.86% reported being aware of aflatoxins. We also found that...

ABSTRAK Mutu biji kakao kering dapat dipengaruhi oleh beberapa hal di antaranya kerusakan yang disebabkan oleh jamur kontaminan penghasil toksin (mikotoksin). Keberadaan jamur tersebut dapat dideteksi sejak kegiatan panen dan pasca panen, seperti sortasi, fermentasi, pencucian, pengeringan, dan penyimpanan. Jenis jamur kontaminan yang sering ditemukan selama tahapan ini berlangsung antara lain marga Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Rhizopus, dan Mucor. Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi perkembangan jamur antara lain: suhu dan kelembaban, kadar air, aktivitas serangga, dan penanganan pascapanen. Mikotoksin dihasilkan dari metabolit jamur-jamur kontaminan, dan jenis yang mendominasi pada biji kakao adalah aflatoksin dan okratoksin. Kedua jenis mikotoksin tersebut selain dapat menurunkan mutu maupun kuantitas biji dan produk olahannya, juga bersifat toksik/racun yang berbahaya bagi manusia karena dapat menyebabkan gangguan kesehatan seperti kanker hati dan ginjal. Oleh karena itu, perlu dilakukan pencegahan dan pengendalian terhadap jamur kontaminan penghasil mikotoksin pada semua tahapan kegiatan untuk memperoleh biji kakao kering dengan mutu terbaik. ABSTRACT Quality of dried cocoa beans can be affected by several things, one of them is the damage caused by fungal contaminants that produce toxin (mycotoxin). The existence of these fungi can be detected from the harvest and post-harvest activities, including sorting, fermentation, washing, drying, and storage. These types of fungal contaminants that often found during those processes are genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Rhizopus, and Mucor. Factors that influence the development of fungi are temperature and humidity, moisture, insect activity, and postharvest handling. Mycotoxins are generated from metabolites of fungal contaminants, in which the most dominant types on cocoa beans are aflatoxin and ochratoxin. These two types of fungal contaminants can reduce the quality and quantity of cocoa beans and its processed products. Besides, this toxin is also toxic/poison to humans because it can cause health problems such as liver and cancer. Therefore, it is necessary to prevent and control these fungal contaminants at all stages of activities in order to obtain dry beans with the best quality.

Cereals and legumes, being the major staples of many African communities, frequently used for complementary foods for infants and young children. However, aflatoxin contamination is a threatening issue in these staples and its negative effects on human health, most especially infants and young children, are very alarming. Thus, this review sought to highlight the risk of aflatoxin contamination in cereals and legumes so as to reconsider their usage in complementary feeding. Factors such as temperature, relative humidity/moisture, soil properties, type and length of storage as well as nutrient composition of the food produce greatly influence fungal growth and aflatoxin production in cereals and legumes. Consumption of such contaminated food ingredients could expose many infants and young children to poor growth and development. Nonetheless, the toxin, though seemingly inevitable, can be minimized if not curbed completely through awareness creation/education, good agricultural practices and proper storage practices. Moreover, consumption of root and tuber crops such as sweetpotato, especially the orange-fleshed sweetpotato, can be a sustainable approach to reduce aflatoxin ingestion in children. Thus, to control the adverse effects of aflatoxin in infants and young children, cereal-legume blends could be substituted with root and tuber-based blends in complementary feeding.

Amaranth is a highly nutritious grain whose consumption has increased over the last twenty years, mainly in North America and Europe, which is why in several Central and South American countries were conducted soil studies and production performance for evaluation these parameters. There are currently Bolivian companies engaged in the export of grain amaranth to different countries, though sometimes the burden is rejected due to violation of rules establishing the allowed amount of mold and aflatoxin in the grain, why aflatoxins become important subject of study.

Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus are fungi that are present in the environment and usually are associated with amaranth grain during storage. These fungi are producers of different types of aflatoxin, and the conditions of grain storage are factors that directly affect their production. For verification of the presence of these molds was performed by an analysis of the sample plate count with a mean result of 496.8 CFU / g of amaranth.

Grain moisture is one factor that can be controlled by the producer during drying, as the temperature during the storage time, which is why the study of the effect of these factors in the production of aflatoxin. For this purpose, stored grain amaranth to 7.5%, 12% and 20% humidity and 18°C, 35°C and 45°C, according to the factorial design carried out, the incubation period was three days.

The results showed that at a temperature of 18°C and a grain moisture of 7.5% and 12% have no aflatoxin production and similarly at 35°C and 7.5% moisture. In conducting the logistic regression results demonstrated that both factors are crucial in the production of the toxin, proving the hypothesis.

Background
Aflatoxins are carcinogenic mycotoxins that contaminate many food crops. Maize and groundnuts are prone to aflatoxin contamination,
and are the major sources of human exposure to aflatoxins, due to their high intake as staple foods, particularly in low- and middleincome
countries (LMICs). Observational studies suggest an association between dietary exposure to aflatoxins during pregnancy and early
childhood and linear growth in infants and young children.
Objectives
To assess the effects on pre- and postnatal growth outcomes when agricultural and nutritional education interventions during the postharvest period that aim to reduce aflatoxin exposure are compared to usual support or no intervention. We assessed this in infants,
children, and pregnant and lactating women at the household or community level in LMICs.
Search methods
In July and August 2019, we searched: CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, Web of Science Core Collection, Africa-Wide, LILACS, CAB
Abstracts, Agricola, and two trials registers. We also checked the bibliographies of the included studies and contacted relevant mycotoxin
organisations and researchers for additional studies.
Selection criteria
We included randomised controlled trials (RCTs) and cluster-RCTs of agricultural education and nutritional education interventions of any
duration, at the household or community level, aimed at reducing aflatoxin intake by infants, children, and pregnant and lactating women,
in LMICs during the post-harvest period, compared to no intervention or usual support. We excluded studies that followed participants
for less than four weeks. We assessed prespecified prenatal (at birth) and postnatal growth outcomes (during infancy, childhood, and
adolescence), with linear growth (as the primary outcome), infectious disease morbidity, and unintended consequences.
Data collection and analysis
Two authors independently assessed study eligibility using prespecified criteria, extracted data, and assessed risk of bias of included RCTs.
We evaluated the certainty of the evidence using GRADE, and presented the main results in a 'Summary of findings' table.
Main results
We included three recent cluster-RCTs reporting the eIects of agricultural education plus post-harvest technologies, compared to usual
agricultural support or no intervention. The participants were pregnant women and their children, lactating women and their infants (<
6 months), women of childbearing age, and young children (< 59 months), from rural, subsistence maize-farming communities in Kenya,
Zimbabwe, and Tanzania.
Two trials randomised villages to the intervention and control groups, including a total of at least 979 mother-child pairs from 60
villages. The third trial randomised 420 households, including 189 mother-child pairs and 231 women of childbearing age. Duration of the
intervention and follow-up ranged between five and nine months. Due to risk of attrition bias, the overall risk of bias was unclear in one
trial, and high in the other two trials.
None of the included studies addressed the eIects of nutritional education on pre- and postnatal growth.
One trial reported outcomes not prespecified in our review, and we were unable to obtain unpublished growth data from the second trial,
even aMer contacting the authors. The third trial, in lactating women and their infants in Tanzania, reported on the infants' weight-for-age
z-score (WAZ) aMer six months. This trial found that providing agricultural education aimed at changing farmers' post-harvest practices to reduce aflatoxin exposure, by using demonstrations (e.g. handsorting, de-hulling of maize, drying sheets, and insecticides), may improve
WAZ in infants from these farmers' households, on average, by 0.57 (95% confidence interval (CI) 0.16 to 0.98; 1 study; 249 participants;
very low-certainty evidence), compared to infants from households where the farmers received routine agricultural extension services.
Another way of reporting the eIect on WAZ is to compare the proportion of underweight infants (WAZ > 2 SD below the reference median
value) per group. This trial found that the intervention may reduce the proportion of underweight infants in the intervention households
by 6.7% (95% CI -12.6 to -1.4; 249 participants; very low-certainty evidence) compared to control households.
No studies reported on unintended effects of agricultural and nutritional education.
Authors' conclusions
Evidence on the effects on child growth in LMICs of agricultural or nutritional education interventions that reduce aflatoxin exposure was
very limited; no included study reported on linear growth. Very low-certainty evidence suggested that agricultural education aimed at
changing farmers' post-harvest practices to reduce aflatoxin exposure by using demonstrations, may result in an increase in WAZ, when
compared to usual or no education.

Filamentous fungi that produce mycotoxins also
demonstrate the ability to degrade a wide variety of naturally
occurring and anthropogenically generated hazardous wastes.
Hence, these are emerging as excellent candidates for bioremediation.
Their mycelia exhibit the robustness of adapting to
highly restrictive environmental conditions often experienced
in the presence of persistent pollutants, which makes them
more useful compared to other microbes. However, it now
appears that several regulatory factors that govern mycotoxin
synthesis in these toxigenic strains also regulate their bioremediation
abilities. To this end, mycoremediation and mycotoxin
synthesis have been thoroughly but independently investigated;
hence, much less is understood about the overlaps
between the two processes. This review aims to shed light on
this critical knowledge gap and provide some useful insights
into the future research that might overcome the challenges
associated with these shared regulatory modules. This will
enable the harnessing of the full potential of mycoremediation
by minimizing mycotoxin contamination.

It is known that aflatoxin is produced by some Aspergillus fungal strains; incidence of this toxin in food and feeds is as a result of contaminations by these fungal strains. Aspergillus strains are common in human environment, and their effects on foods are issues of global concern. First, we need an adequate knowledge of aflatoxin; then, we can design proper control and regulatory strategies for its control. In this chapter, we present importance of street-vended foods and their possible health risk on the populace due to possible aflatoxin contamination; we took insights into types and incidences of reported aflatoxin contaminations in street-vended foods and reviewed the chemical nature, structures, and metabolism of aflatoxins and their actions as chemical poisons to human (mycotoxicosis) with deep insight into their toxicology. In addition, we considered different environmen�tal factors that may affect aflatoxin production in foods and also considered economic impact of aflatoxin contaminations of foodstuffs. In this chapter, we discussed the afla�toxin detection methods in foods and examined available or possible regulations to best control its incidence in street-vended food. Adequate understanding of these important information about aflatoxin will be a bedrock of its control in street-vended food.

In April 2004, one of the largest aflatoxicosis outbreaks occurred in rural Kenya, resulting in 317 cases and 125 deaths. Aflatoxin-contaminated homegrown maize was the source of the outbreak, but the extent of regional contamination and status of maize in commercial markets (market maize) were unknown. We conducted a cross-sectional survey to assess the extent of market maize contamination and evaluate the relationship between market maize aflatoxin and the aflatoxicosis outbreak. We surveyed 65 markets and 243 maize vendors and collected 350 maize products in the most affected districts. Fifty-five percent of maize products had aflatoxin levels greater than the Kenyan regulatory limit of 20 ppb, 35% had levels > 100 ppb, and 7% had levels > 1,000 ppb. Makueni, the district with the most aflatoxicosis case-patients, had significantly higher market maize aflatoxin than did Thika, the study district with fewest case-patients (geometric mean aflatoxin = 52.91 ppb vs. 7.52 ppb, p = 0.0004). Maize obtained from local farms in the affected area was significantly more likely to have aflatoxin levels > 20 ppb compared with maize bought from other regions of Kenya or other countries (odds ratio = 2.71; 95% confidence interval, 1.12–6.59). Contaminated homegrown maize bought from local farms in the affected area entered the distribution system, resulting in widespread aflatoxin contamination of market maize. Contaminated market maize, purchased by farmers after their homegrown supplies are exhausted, may represent a source of continued exposure to aflatoxin. Efforts to successfully interrupt exposure to aflatoxin during an outbreak must consider the potential role of the market system in sustaining exposure.

Fungal (NAC) and probiotic in amelioration the toxic effects of aflatoxins were investigated. One hundred samples, including (25 each of feed, water, litter an Giza Governorate. from all examined samples(68%), followed by Rhizopus sp. (21%),Cladosporium sp. (6%) and Scopulariopsis sp. (4%) predominantly recovered from the present samples. A.niger detected as the most prevalence aflatoxigenic strains (100%)which produced aflatoxin B levels of (27.0±3.2 samples (50 ± 3.5) with a lower relatively rate of incidence (87.5%). This makes the selection of proper decontamination methods that will effectively decompose divided into 5 groups, each including 7 rabbits. The rabbits of group 1 were kept as the negative control group. While, rabbits in the groups 2, 3, 4 and 5 were orally given AFB animal daily, for 4 weeks. On first day following the administration of AF, NAC was orally administered a dose of250 mg/kg ofb.w. for group 3 (low dose group 4 (high dose). While, the group 5 given probiotic in drinking water (0.5 gram dissolved in 25 liters of water). significant increase in malondialdehyde (MDA) levels of lysated RBCs serum AST, ALT, ALP, urea and creatinine levels. The activity of pancreatic enzymes showed significant increase in serum amyl rabbit's exposure to aflatoxin BI .However, aflatoxin BI gamma globulin together with A/G ratio. The administration of N in GSH, CAT, SOD and GPx compared to aflatoxicated group. In addition, the levels of ALT, AST, plasma amylase and lipase levels w due to the protective effects given by N-acetylcysteine and probiotic. The histopathological necrotic dam as liver and kidney included hepatotoxic effects and inhibition of DNA, RNA and protein synthesis. These changes improved by acetyl cystein to aflatoxicated animal resulted in reduction of the aflatoxintoxic changes through the immune strengthening effect and protection of lipid and protein from oxidative damage.

Aflatoxins are toxic carcinogenic secondary metabolites produced predominantly by two fungal species: Aspergillus flavus and
Aspergillus parasiticus. These fungal species are contaminants of foodstuff as well as feeds and are responsible for aflatoxin
contamination of these agro products. The toxicity and potency of aflatoxins make them the primary health hazard as well as
responsible for losses associated with contaminations of processed foods and feeds. Determination of aflatoxins concentration in
food stuff and feeds is thus very important. However, due to their low concentration in foods and feedstuff, analytical methods for
detection and quantification of aflatoxins have to be specific, sensitive, and simple to carry out. Several methods including thin-layer
chromatography (TLC), high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC), mass spectroscopy, enzyme-linked immune-sorbent
assay (ELISA), and electrochemical immunosensor, among others, have been described for detecting and quantifying aflatoxins
in foods. Each of these methods has advantages and limitations in aflatoxins analysis.This review critically examines each of the
methods used for detection of aflatoxins in foodstuff, highlighting the advantages and limitations of each method. Finally, a way
forward for overcoming such obstacles is suggested.