Cocoa and chocolate

This Book sets out the procedure for the production and processing of cocoa as well as a recommended technical schedule for the production of cocoa plants. It stresses the importance of phytosanitary protection and post-harvest operations.
It also provides useful advices for cocoa farm profitability improvment

1. The nutritional value of chocolate bars should be based on the nutritional value of the low energy dense late Paleolithic human diet to help reduce mental ill health, obesity, and other postprandial insults.
2. Current chocolate bars have a high energy density (>2 kcal/g).
3. Cocoa can be sweetened by the addition of calorie-free Purefruit™ (Tate & Lyle) monk fruit (Siraitia grosvenorii) extract. PUREFRUIT™ is approximately 200 times sweeter than sugar and has exceptional stability.
4. The energetic cost of the assimilation of chocolate can be increased by increasing its protein and fibre content.
5. Self-assembled, water-filled, edible nanotubes that self-organise into a more complex structure, possibly a 3D network of nanocellulose, could be incorporated into chocolate bars to lower their energy density to <1.6 kcal/g.
6. Durethan® KU 2-2601 packaging film enables the water content of chocolate bars to be increased without reducing product shelf life.
7. Aquatic biotechnology can provide all the nutrients needed to make chocolate really nutritious.

This contribution argues that chocolate is a racial signifier, and as such has been used in self-reference by African Americans; it can relate to mixed race identities as well as constructions of Blackness. In the early twentieth century, chocolate founds its way in scholarly and popular treatments of colorism in an attempt to describe various skin shades. Writers of the Harlem renaissance used it in order to envision an aesthetically appealing and affirmative Blackness. In the postwar period, chocolate regained significance in the expression ‘Chocolate City’, originally a reference to Washington, D.C. with its majority of African American residents. With the help of Ernesto Laclaus theory of collective identity formation applied to various examples, the article discusses the usage of the food metaphor chocolate as a racial category in texts about and by African Americans.

Why is chocolate such a popular metaphor in the construction of blackness in various spheres of (popular) culture? Why are metaphors for edibility that also work as sexual allusions used in reference to blackness? This book looks at chocolate and blackness from different angles: it provides a material analysis that takes the colonial production process of cocoa into account; it explores the semantics of chocolate and its visual representations in European and US advertisements and offers a discursive analysis of the connections between cocoa and race in various (African) American spheres of cultural production.

O Sistema Agroflorestal Cabruca (SAC) é um caso sui generis de lavoura compatível com o Pagamento por Serviços Ambientais (PSA). O presente trabalho analisa circunstâncias que envolvem a aplicação do PSA no SAC. O objetivo geral é esquematizar uma metodologia de valoração do PSA para o SAC, a fim de difundir a aplicação desses instrumentos na região produtora de cacau da Bahia. Especificamente objetiva-se identificar os serviços ambientais prestados pelo SAC que se adequam à lei de PSA do Estado da Bahia, qual seja, a Lei Estadual nº 13.223/2015; quantificar o custo de oportunidade de adoção da lavoura cacaueira pelo SAC para servir de base à metodologia de valoração do PSA; e identificar uma metodologia de valoração do PSA relativo ao SAC. A questão ambiental contemporânea é contextualizada a partir do histórico da região produtora de cacau na Bahia juntamente com a atual conjuntura. Detalha o PSA, verificando as bases teóricas e o marco legal aplicado à realidade baiana, inserindo-o no contexto de produção do cacau no SAC. Para tanto, é desenvolvida uma metodologia de valoração econômica dos serviços ambientais prestados pelo SAC que atenda à legislação pertinente e seja razoável, sob o ponto de vista econômico. A metodologia delineada refere-se ao custo de oportunidade entre a lavoura de cacau cultivada na forma do SAC e a lavoura de cacau cultivada a pleno sol. Considera como custo de oportunidade a perda de produção provocada pelo sombreamento no SAC. De acordo com a realidade aqui analisada, os serviços ambientais prestados pelo SAC se enquadram na Lei Estadual nº 13.223/2015 e podem fazer com que o SAC figure como área beneficiada por programa de PSA. Assim, foram elaborados cenários buscando-se estimar os custos e benefícios (receitas) para o agricultor que mantém serviços ambientais, com vistas a informar eventual programa de PSA. Foram estimados o valor dos serviços prestados, a transferência de renda máxima e os impactos no orçamento do Estado da Bahia, no orçamento da Secretaria de Meio Ambiente do Estado da Bahia, no PIB baiano e no PIB dos municípios produtores de cacau. Os diferentes cenários e simulações foram estruturados de forma que se possa ter uma configuração mais próxima da realidade estudada. Conclui que os valores estimados para a política de PSA são razoáveis, inclusive quanto ao preço do serviço. Os valores máximos indicaram que eventual política de PSA deve considerar a captação de recursos privados; sem olvidar a participação do orçamento público, possibilitando um fundo misto. A transferência de renda apontada melhora a competitividade do produtor, remunerando-o pelo serviço ambiental prestado, e ainda reintroduz a externalidade negativa na contabilidade da atividade degradadora. O SAC responde positivamente aos anseios locais e globais em matéria ambiental, contribui para a conservação do bioma Mata Atlântica e assume a característica de um sistema de produção sustentável.

Cocoa Samoa Ltd (‘CSL’) is a Samoan registered company that utilizes climate-smart and sustainable practices to rescue the Samoan cocoa industry, exploit the looming shortage of cocoa globally, and produce cocoa and chocolate products for Pacific Rim markets. CSL has formed a consortium of cocoa industry stakeholders including: cocoa growers; cocoa bean roasters; end-users (customers); chocolate makers; branding, marketing and sales forces; bio-energy and civil engineering; project management staff; sustainable landscape managers; as well as strategic planners. CSL uses ‘sustainable entrepreneurship’1 to recapture Samoan national food security in a renowned industry trying to come back from natural and economic disasters. Our initiative will significantly increase export earnings for Samoa and create downstream socio-economic returns, including an increase in Samoan GST revenues. Our aim is to create a new brand of Samoan cocoa and chocolate brand for markets in Australia-New Zealand and the Pacific Coast of the United States of America (USA), and eventually in Northern Germany.

The Sustainable Practices in Agriculture for Critical Environments (SPACE) project applied a decentralized, participatory approach of community-level learning on the edge of the forest as a practical base for developing the common understanding, agreement, and action necessary to conserve some of the largest intact lowland tropical rain forest remnants in West Africa, which are home to numerous primate species, including the most endangered gorilla subspecies on Earth. 
The project took a first step toward ensuring protection of a globally important natural heritage through strengthening local governance and developing sound economic incentives for conservation.  The SPACE project developed and applied a decentralized, participatory approach of community-level learning and action that linked governance, economic development, and conservation to help stakeholders strengthen governance and market relationships, and institutional and individual capacities and practices. `
While the accomplishments and numbers demonstrate the results of changes in attitudes, skills, and relationships, the duration of the project was too short to ensure that the nascent habits and partnerships will continue to grow and spread. Developing the conditions that enable truly sustainable management will require considerably more time and will benefit from more consistent donor and government investment.
In Nigeria (as elsewhere), holding to principles of participation, transparency, and equitable access to resources often threatens some powerful interests. By enhancing trust and commitment, the SPACE projected helped diverse stakeholders strengthen relationships and limit instability during periods of turbulence. The project provided lessons relevant to key issues facing all of Nigeria: peaceful governance, learning amidst diversity and change, and sustainable economic growth—while fully addressing its conservation objectives.

A computational model is developed to predict the temperature in chocolate as a function of space and time during a new tempering process where pellets of seed crystals of form V are added to the melted chocolate. The model, a refined version of a previous one (Debaste et al., J Food Eng. 2008, 88, 568–575) including a new expression for the heat sink, is based on the energy equation, simplified by the use of an effective thermal conductivity. A shrinking core model is used to express the heat sink term associated with the melting of pellets. The width of the limit layer around the pellets is the fitting parameter. The model is validated on experimental temperature profiles in bowls and compared to a previous kinetic model. The quality of tempering is then assessed by differential scanning calorimetry. Combining this information with the model, the quality of tempering based on the initial experimental conditions is predicted.

Every chocolate lover should know that Trinidad and Tobago is the birthplace of Trinitario cacao trees that produce Trinitario cocoa beans. For those who enjoy dark chocolate, and indeed all others, being the 'cradle' of Trinitario cacao and cocoa is a very laudable distinction for the twin-island republic of Trinidad & Tobago (also the birthplace of steel pan). Criollo and Trinitario cocoa beans are among the select cocoa beans collectively known as "fine or flavour" cocoa (http://www.innovactplatform.eu/value-chains/fine-flavour-cocoa) that is used to manufacture fine (dark or gourmet) chocolates and covertures throughout the world, and commands premium prices on the world market. Trinitario cacao is not known in the wild state; it is not found at the reputed centre of genetic diversity of cacao (in the vicinity of the headwaters of the Amazon River, South America). It only exists in cultivated areas. The term "Trinitario" was coined by the Spaniards, most likely in Venezuela, and means "from Trinidad". Trinitario cacao is the product of crossing, which first occurred in Trinidad, between the Criollo ("native") cacao, originally introduced by the Spanish colonists into the island in the 16th or early 17th century, and Forastero ("exotic") cacao that was later brought in from Venezuela after a "blast" , in 1727, destroyed the original Criollo plantings. This crossing or hybridisation occurred between these imported "Forasteros" and the surviving Criollo plants. The "Forasteros" were most likely "Amelonados" ('Calabacillos') from the Orinoco estuary (for more on the classification of cacao see Wood and Lass 1985). This hybridisation did not occur previously, in the wild, since the Criollo and Forastero cacao there were separated by physical barriers: mountains. Trinitarios were later transferred from Trinidad to Venezuela, and then to other countries in the region such as Jamaica, Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines, St. Lucia, Martinique, Guadeloupe, Guyana, Haiti, Jamaica, Martinique, St. Lucia, St. Vincent & the Grenadines and Suriname, and further afield to Central and South America (including Costa Rica and Mexico and Ecuador, respectively), and to Fiji, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea, Madagascar and Samoa in S.E. Asia, and the African countries of Cameroun, Ghana and Nigeria.  In fact, Trinitario cacao is currently found wherever there has been or exists a mixture of Criollo and Amazon Forastero cacao planting material in close proximity.

Bayona es un puerto que se ubica en el sudoeste de Francia, a unos treinta kilómetros de la frontera con España. Su población actual es de cuarenta mil habitantes, la de su aglomeración urbana de más de cien miles. En la época moderna, era una ciudad de dimensión media, con una población de unos diez miles habitantes en el siglo XVIII. Es un sitio notable en geografía gastronómica de Francia, gracias a su jamón curado y a su chocolate. En este breve ensayo, son las grandes líneas de la historia de este último producto que les contaré. Producto mestizo por excelencia, el chocolate llegó un día en Bayona. Fue los principios de una relación particular entre una sociedad urbana y una comida. En relación con el gusto local para el chocolate se desarrolló una artesanía cuyas técnicas evolucionaron con el tiempo. Aromas y de sabores forman también parte de la historia del chocolate de Bayona, los consideraremos en una última parte.

Según Euromonitor, la confitería de chocolate tuvo un valor de más de $ 100 mil millones en ventas minoristas a nivel mundial en 2020 y continúa creciendo. Durante los próximos 5 años, se prevé que el mercado global aumente las ventas en promedio un 4,4% cada año. Europa Occidental, América del Norte y Asia Pacífico son las 3 principales regiones y representan más del 70% de las ventas en todo el mundo. Cabe señalar que cada vez mayor numero de consumidores está siguiendo estilos de vida alimenticios que tienen necesidades especializadas o buscan la bondad adicional infundida en su chocolate. 

A raíz del incremento en enfermedades metabólicas, se ha generado en la industria chocolatera un interés por sustituir el azúcar y agregar otros compuestos benéficos llamados nutracéuticos para incrementar el valor nutricional al chocolate, disminuyendo el riesgo del consumo de azúcar, con el fin de que todas las personas puedan consumirlo, obteniendo nuevas y mejores experiencias sensoriales, mucho más nutritivas y saludables. 

Los sustitutos del azúcar pueden ser útiles para las personas que están tratando de adelgazar. Le suministran el dulzor a los alimentos y las bebidas sin aportarles calorías extras. La mayoría de estos casi no contienen calorías. Usar sustitutos de azúcar en lugar de azúcar también puede ayudar a prevenir las caries dentales. También pueden ayudar a controlar el nivel de azúcar en la sangre en personas con diabetes.

Las buenas prácticas de poscosecha del cacao son un conjunto de principios, normas y recomendaciones técnicas orientadas a obtener productos inocuos, así como asegurar la protección de los empleados y el medio ambiente. En esta guía se presentan algunas recomendaciones y sugerencias de buenas prácticas que deben ser aplicadas por las empresas que acopian y benefician el cacao, para obtener un producto final de alta calidad. Actualmente estas prácticas son de aplicación voluntaria, pero el consumidor cada día las exige más a través de su cadena de suministro, por lo que todo centro de acopio y beneficiado tendrá que implementar su sistema de buenas prácticas de poscosecha de cacao, cuyo valor adicional le permitirá a la empresa
ganar la confianza y buena reputación en el mercado como proveedor de granos secos de cacao de alta calidad.

TECNOLOGÍA DE TOSTADO DEL GRANO DE CACAO
Todos sabemos que el aroma característico del chocolate es profundo y rico, el cual genera momentos especiales y de placer; sin embargo si olemos un grano de cacao fresco, no presenta aroma a chocolate. Solo cuando tostamos estos granos de cacao, se desarrolla esta complejidad de aromas característicos.
No existe un nivel de tueste correcto o incorrecto ni una forma correcta o incorrecta de obtener el nivel de tueste objetivo. La forma correcta de tostar y el nivel de tueste adecuado es el proceso que proporciona nibs de una manera eficiente y rentable con el perfil de sabor elegido y genera productos que satisfacen las necesidades del consumidor en un mercado específico. 

En su gran mayoría los chocolateros de pequeña y mediana escala hablan de curvas de tueste sin embargo no se describe el proceso o criterios mínimos para la selección de la tecnología así como los rangos de temperaturas adecuados asociadas al desarrollo de aromas y sabores del cacao. Por lo cual es necesario homologar criterios y principios básicos del tostado del cacao con el objetivo de estandarizar y optimizar los procesos.

Según la Norma CODEX STAN 87-1981, el chocolate (en algunas regiones también descrito como chocolate amargo, chocolate semidulce, chocolate oscuro o “chocolat fondant”) deberá contener, referido al extracto seco, no menos del 35% de extracto seco total de cacao, del cual el 18%, por lo menos, será manteca de cacao y el 14%, por lo menos, extracto seco magro de cacao. El chocolate es un producto del procesamiento de los granos de cacao tostados con azúcar.

Dependiendo de la formulación y el método de procesamiento del chocolate se divide en chocolate de barra, cobertura, relleno, etc. Para diferentes categorías de consumidores se producen diferentes variedades de chocolate. Entonces, para los niños producen chocolate con una proporción reducida de masa de cacao, pero con una introducción significativa de leche y otros productos lácteos. Las recetas proporcionan la liberación del chocolate completamente sin el licor de cacao con la introducción de más de 20% de leche en polvo. 

El chocolate es prácticamente un alimento único ya que se encuentra en estado sólido a temperatura ambiente, pero se funde rápidamente dentro de la boca. Esto se debe a que la grasa que contiene la manteca de cacao, se encuentra en su mayor parte en estado sólido a temperaturas inferiores a 25 °C lo que mantiene unidas al azúcar y las partículas de cacao, ambos en estado sólido. Sin embargo, la grasa se encuentra casi al completo en estado líquido a la temperatura del cuerpo humano lo que permite que las partículas fluyan de modo que el chocolate pasa a ser un líquido suave cuando se calienta en la boca. 

Detrás de una barra de chocolate implica el balance adecuado de ingredientes así como la optimización de procesos, para el desarrollo del color, sabor y aroma del chocolate, por lo cual como toda ciencia está en continua innovación para asegurar la consistencia de calidad.

In cocoa farming forestland is a production factor. Cocoa planting is easiest and production costs are lowest in tropical forest. Historically, therefore, once forestland has been exhausted in a given geographical area planters tend to diversify into other production systems to avoid the poverty (induced by increasing factor cost) of post-forest cultivation. In modern times however cocoa planters exist in a value chain and post-forest diversification could threaten multinational companies relying on rural planters for their raw material. In 2014 ten of the world’s largest chocolate
multinationals combined, with more than $500 million in funding, to introduce a cocoa sustainability scheme called CocoaAction. In principle, CocoaAction and
similar sustainability schemes sponsored by western multinational chocolate companies are interventions to empower cocoa planters and planting communities
in West African countries. But in practice, as this article will show, these schemes are a response to diminishing returns in cocoa-producing communities and the
prospect of diversification, and the resulting projection of a shortage in raw material. There are signs that diversification away from cocoa will be beneficial to
cocoa planters and their communities. Cocoa sustainability schemes are therefore designed for the benefit of multinational chocolate companies and at the expense of diversification in West African countries.

Nigeria is a country located in the Gulf of Guinea that is comprised of thirty-six states and it is the fourth largest cocoa exporter in the world. Reduced rainfall and rising humidity in Nigeria are negatively affecting the production of agriculture.

Ir ao Pará e não comer Pato no Tucupí, ir a Lisboa e não saborear os tradicionais pastéis de Belém, ir ao Rio de Janeiro e não beber uma caipirinha ou ir ao sul do Brasil e não tomar um chimarrão é como não ir de fato a esses lugares. Na atmosfera de experiências sinestésicas turísticas, o mercado turístico tem buscado na gastronomia se reinventar, concebendo novos produtos e serviços. Nesse sentido, Belém do Pará, conformada por um mosaico de biodiversidade e de culturalidades, que materializam a sua rica e exótica culinária, possui representantes da culinária paraense que se tornaram os atuais símbolos no imaginário turístico-cultural do turismo gastronômico nacional, fenômeno merecedor de investigação por parte dos autores.

Una vez que el agricultor ha logrado obtener una cosecha rentable como resultado de un apropiado manejo de su plantación, también se torna importante darle un tratamiento adecuado a los granos recolectados a fin de que éstos sirvan de  base para la elaboración de un chocolate de muy alta calidad.

El proceso de fermentación del cacao es crucial para garantizar la calidad del producto y es el dispositivo clave para una fermentación exitosa. En las poblaciones rurales, el proceso de fermentación se  realiza con simples dispositivos de madera, lo cual da como resultado un gran consumo de mano de obra con bajas tasas de producción. En este proyecto, recogemos las experiencias de los procedimientos tradicionales utilizados por los artesanos del cacao para diseñar un prototipo que se ajuste a sus necesidades.

El diseño del contenedor comienza con la selección adecuada de la madera para que no impregne el producto con aroma o sabor. Además, debemos ser capaces de controlar los parámetros importantes del proceso, como la temperatura y el pH del fermento. Para llevar a cabo un procedimiento de mezcla en el mismo contenedor por medio de varios patrones de movimiento a fin de lograr una reorganización uniforme de
las semillas, se evita eliminar manualmente las semillas que generalmente terminan golpeadas y maltratadas, lo que reduce la calidad del producto final. El movimiento también permite mantener las semillas aireadas durante la fermentación. Este se basa en la  información de los sensores y la actuación de un motor eléctrico para controlar dicho movimiento.

Autores: Roberto Delgado, Tecsup (Perú) / José Lazarte, Tecsup (Perú)

Mattia è un giovane geometra molto bravo e sicuro di sé che si ritrova nei guai. Kamal, un operaio egiziano che lavora in uno dei cantieri gestiti da Mattia, cade dal tetto a causa delle mancanti condizioni di sicurezza e per questo Mattia rischia una denuncia. In cambio del silenzio, Kamal propone a Mattia di prendere il suo posto al corso di pasticceria che avrebbe dovuto frequentare la settimana successiva all'incidente. Kamal era un pasticciere ad Addis Abeba, ma per farlo anche in Italia deve frequentare un corso per imparare a fare la cioccolata e ottenere un attestato. Mattia accetta e ben presto, da geometra italiano, giovane ed elegante, si ritrova ad essere un apprendista pasticciere, egiziano, più anziano e dai vestiti semplici.

Multistrata agroforests comprise a wide range of agroforestry practices that includes assemblage of woody and nonwoody plant components, with the wide range of practices on the continuum from using shade trees in perennial plantation to very diversified agroforests that mimic the original forest-like structure. In the humid tropical lowlands, such systems often consist of cocoa (Theobroma cacao) grown under the shade of trees. In this review, we explore the reliability of research on and the feasibility of achieving the environmental and economic benefits of cocoa agro-forests, highlighting future opportunities and challenges of cocoa growing. Unsustainable intensification in a form of monocultures with high agricultural inputs reduces ecological resilience of a land-use system, whereas paradoxically, environmental and climate changes require more than ever a higher capacity of land-use systems to cope with increasing global environmental pressure. Over the past decade, a number of new studies focusing on cocoa agroforests have been published. We review current cultivation of cocoa in the world and outline the establishment and management of cocoa agroforests. Further on, we explored the idea that cocoa agro-B. Lojka (*) · L. Pawera · V. Verner 588 forests could be a solution to prevent phenomenon of boom-and-bust cycle of cocoa cultivation and highlighted the possibilities for improvement of cocoa cultivation using its vast genetic base. Then the benefits of cocoa agroforests for (agro)biodiver-sity and soil conservation are summarized and economic perspectives of multistrata systems assessed. In final discussion, we performed a SWOT analysis, highlighting future opportunities and challenges and proposing recommendation to improve the extension, adoption and sustainability of cocoa agroforests. Keywords Agrobiodiversity · Cocoa farming · Genetic diversity · Soil management · SWOT analysis · Theobroma cacao

ABSTRAK Mutu biji kakao kering dapat dipengaruhi oleh beberapa hal di antaranya kerusakan yang disebabkan oleh jamur kontaminan penghasil toksin (mikotoksin). Keberadaan jamur tersebut dapat dideteksi sejak kegiatan panen dan pasca panen, seperti sortasi, fermentasi, pencucian, pengeringan, dan penyimpanan. Jenis jamur kontaminan yang sering ditemukan selama tahapan ini berlangsung antara lain marga Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Rhizopus, dan Mucor. Faktor-faktor yang mempengaruhi perkembangan jamur antara lain: suhu dan kelembaban, kadar air, aktivitas serangga, dan penanganan pascapanen. Mikotoksin dihasilkan dari metabolit jamur-jamur kontaminan, dan jenis yang mendominasi pada biji kakao adalah aflatoksin dan okratoksin. Kedua jenis mikotoksin tersebut selain dapat menurunkan mutu maupun kuantitas biji dan produk olahannya, juga bersifat toksik/racun yang berbahaya bagi manusia karena dapat menyebabkan gangguan kesehatan seperti kanker hati dan ginjal. Oleh karena itu, perlu dilakukan pencegahan dan pengendalian terhadap jamur kontaminan penghasil mikotoksin pada semua tahapan kegiatan untuk memperoleh biji kakao kering dengan mutu terbaik. ABSTRACT Quality of dried cocoa beans can be affected by several things, one of them is the damage caused by fungal contaminants that produce toxin (mycotoxin). The existence of these fungi can be detected from the harvest and post-harvest activities, including sorting, fermentation, washing, drying, and storage. These types of fungal contaminants that often found during those processes are genera Aspergillus, Penicillium, Fusarium, Rhizopus, and Mucor. Factors that influence the development of fungi are temperature and humidity, moisture, insect activity, and postharvest handling. Mycotoxins are generated from metabolites of fungal contaminants, in which the most dominant types on cocoa beans are aflatoxin and ochratoxin. These two types of fungal contaminants can reduce the quality and quantity of cocoa beans and its processed products. Besides, this toxin is also toxic/poison to humans because it can cause health problems such as liver and cancer. Therefore, it is necessary to prevent and control these fungal contaminants at all stages of activities in order to obtain dry beans with the best quality.

This thesis addresses the burgeoning practice of Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) programmes and policies that aim to promote gender equality in global value chains. It first presents a conceptual framework for studying gender change within CSR, conceptualising gender as an institution alongside the theory of institutional work. An embedded case study provides rich empirical data from 3 partnered organisations: a UK chocolate company, a UK NGO, and a Ghanaian cocoa supplier as well as 48 cocoa farmers. Drawing on data spanning 20 years, the study interrogates how gender is translated into ‘engendered’ CSR, and how understandings and experiences of gender may be altered by such practices.

Actors across the three organisations engage in institutional work in an attempt to disrupt the institution of gender. Work includes ‘valorising’ the role of women in the value chain, and ‘legitimising’ this value through a business case. The case illustrates that whilst engendered CSR programmes are successful in securing some women positions of power, they do little to challenge pervasive inequality. Concurrently, actors engage in resistance to institutional work, effectively hindering change. Yet resistance is also productive through ‘questioning work’, leading into another cycle of change.

These findings contribute to our knowledge on how organisational actors may disrupt or maintain institutions by describing the processes of institutional work, its unintended consequences and by highlighting the subjective nature of institutional success and failure. Furthermore, by drawing on Feminist Foucauldian notions of productive power, it is posited that the institutional work required for such ‘big-tent’ institutional change, such as gender, necessitates a closer look at the level of individuals’ sense of self, power and knowledge. Thus we are reminded that CSR, and the actors performing it, are bound up in much larger systems of power relations that are observable right down to individual thought.

This study was carried out to determine the functional and antioxidative properties of blends of sorghum ogi flour and cocoa powder. The blends were produced by adding cocoa powder in proportional gradients of 0, 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50% to sorghum ogi. The pH, total titratable acidity, bulk density, oil absorption capacity and least gelation concentration of the resulting samples as determined were 4.13 to 6.69, 0.109 to 0.198%, 0.515 to 0.646 g/mL, 133.50 to 144.24% and 6 to 12%, respectively. The swelling power and solubility of the blends decreased with the inclusion of cocoa powder but increased with increase in temperature upon evaluation. The water absorption capacity increased with addition of cocoa powder and increase in temperature. The extent of relationship of the swelling power, solubility and water absorption capacity of all the samples, control sample (100% ogi sample) inclusive, to temperature was found to be polynomial in nature. The antioxidative activities (DPPH radical scavenging ability, ferric reducing ability, metal chelating ability and total phenolic content) of the blends also increased proportionately with increase in the inclusion of cocoa powder. The study established that the inclusion of cocoa powder enhanced the functional and antioxidative properties of the enriched sorghum ogi samples.

Las principales actividades económicas en la isla de Bioko (Fernando Poo) durante el primer tercio del s. XX fueron el cultivo y comercio del cacao. Este producto empezó a tener importancia al finales del s. XX coincidiendo con la rápida industrialización de la fabricación del sector chocolatero en toda Europa. El auge del cacao permitió que entre 1890 y 1910 llegaran a Bioko los primeros capitales metropolitanos, la mayoría de los cuales procedentes de Cataluña. Rápidamente Barcelona se erigió en el centro neurálgico de los negocios guineanos y el lugar desde el cual se crearon la mayoría de las organizaciones empresariales que intentaban incidir en las políticas coloniales.
La Unión de Agricultores de la Guinea Española (1923-41) fue una de las organizaciones que tuvieron un mayor protagonismo, principalmente por su capacidad de controlar desde Barcelona el mercado colonial de cacao. Así mismo, esta entidad constituye un espacio privilegiado para observar las múltiples luchas y juegos de intereses entre los principales empresarios coloniales.