Ancient Horse Harnessing

Скифский звериный стиль повсеместно распространен на обширной территории Евразии. Являясь одним из основных элементов скифской триады, он неустанно привлекает внимание
исследователей. В работе рассматриваются предметы снаряжения коня скифского времени лесостепного Дона, исполненные в типичной стилистике того времени.

Развитие снаряжения верхового коня на территории Китая в III в. до н.э.- III в. н.э. шло в русле тенденций, характерных для степной зоны Евразии, о чем свидетельствуют находки седел, их изображений и моделей династий Цинь, Хань, Вэй и Западной Цзинь. В III-I вв. до н.э в Центральной Азии и Китае продолжали использоваться мягкие седла (pad-saddle) скифского типа с полукруглыми упорами (supports). Первые седла с луками известны в памятниках хунну I в. (Царам и Ноин-Ула, к.6), но их конструкция была несовершенна – луки помещались под наружную оболочку упоров. Роль полок (panel) выполняли подушки мягких седел. Такие седла можно назвать полужесткими. Во II в. в Китае мягкие седла еще используются, но уже в III в. в широкий обиход входят полужесткие седла более удачной конструкции - с полукруглыми луками, закрепленными поверх упоров. В IV-V вв. они сосуществуют с седлами с высокими П-образными луками, которые применяются, преимущественно, в тяжелой кавалерии. По-видимому, именно седла с полукруглыми луками послужили основой для тюркских седел с деревянным ленчиком (saddle-tree), изобретенных не позднее VI в. – уже во второй половине VI в. они появляются на китайских изображениях.

""En Filipo II y el Arte de la Guerra tendremos la oportunidad de conocer en profundidad a uno de los más grandes reyes de la antigua Macedonia. Gracias a su habilidad como estratega, diplomático, político y soldado, heredó un reino pobre, débil y acosado por innumerables enemigos y lo transformó en el más poderoso de toda Grecia.

A lo largo de sus páginas podremos conocer la historia del reino Macedonio, desde sus orígenes míticos hasta la formación de un imperio, de la mano del que, a la postre, se convertiría en el padre del mítico Alejandro Magno y en el forjador de un nuevo ejército que cambiaria el devenir de la guerra en la Antigüedad. Filipo II fue el creador de la falange macedonia, formación que se demostraría como inigualable en el campo de batalla y que reportaría incontables victorias sobre poderosos enemigos, como los ilirios, los tesalios, los tracios, los beocios o los atenienses. Pero no sólo eso, logró integrar en el campo de batalla a la infantería y a la caballería para emplearlos en nuevas formaciones tácticas: armó a sus soldados con las míticas sarissas y apreció como pocos las posibilidades militares que la maquinaria de guerra podía proporcionarle, siendo el mecenas de numerosos avances en este campo. Soñó con conquistar el Imperio persa, cuando ya había logrado lo que nadie antes fue capaz: el control de Grecia.

Sólo la muerte le arrebató esa hazaña, pero sentó las bases de lo que más tarde conseguiría su propio hijo. Su figura levantó tanto odios como pasiones; se le conocía como mujeriego y bebedor, pero también por su habilidad para la oratoria, por sus astucia, determinación y valor. Siempre luchó en primera línea junto a sus soldados y nunca permitió que éstos le llamaran rey, sino solo "General".

Th is study is the third book of the author’s series dedicated to the Scythian-like cultures in China. Th e book investigates China materials from the Mohuchahan cemetery belonging to the Chawuhu culture in the period of 9th–8th centuries BC. Th is cemetery is one of the earliest sites found in the Eastern Scythian world. Th e representative data on funeral rite and goods used by the Chawuhu population that had lived a century earlier than anticipated was fi rst obtained at this site containing 235 burials. Th e relative chronology of four burial groups identified in the cemetery with the goods being gradually modifi ed in the 9th–8th centuries BC is of particular importance. The Caucasian population who left the Mohuchahan cemetery was found to maintain ties with the
Southern Siberian and Kazakhstan cultures at an early stage, which suggests a much wider distribution of such transitional sites.
The monograph is intended for archaeologists and scientists engaged in studying the history of the Eastern Scythian world as well as the features of transition from the late Bronze Age to the Early Iron Age.

"Ces Actes des Journées d’étude internationales (Strasbourg, 6-7 novembre 2009) sont l’aboutissement d’un programme de recherche (2007-2009), mené au sein de l’UMR 7044 (Étude des civilisations de l’Antiquité : de la Préhistoire à Byzance), sur la place du cheval dans l’empire byzantin. Les 14 contributions qu’ils réunissent sont consacrées au cheval de guerre et de loisir dans l’Antiquité et au Moyen Âge.

L’ouvrage est divisé en trois sections. Dans la première, les contributeurs analysent la naissance du corps de cavalerie dans l’armée romaine et ses emplois. Sont également étudiés les différences régionales du pourtour méditerranéen dans l’élevage du cheval, les prix pratiqués ou encore les connaissances hippologiques des Anciens. Les travaux qui composent la deuxième partie proposent des synthèses sur le cheval médiéval, byzantin et occidental. Ils abordent le sujet à travers les textes, les sources archéologiques, les représentations et les us et coutumes des civilisations étudiées. Enfin, la dernière partie s’intéresse aux instruments hippiques, aux armes et à l’hippiatrie. Y sont ainsi réexaminées les innovations, adoptions et adaptations, dans l’Antiquité tardive, des pièces de l’équipement équin essentielles pour le combat, telles que l’étrier et le mors. Les armes des cavaliers sont réévaluées, ainsi que les changements dans leurs techniques de combat suite à la diffusion de l’étrier. On trouvera aussi l’analyse du vocabulaire employé pour l’anatomie du cheval dans la littérature hippiatrique grecque, qui connaît à cette période un essor sans précédent, lié au développement de la cavalerie romaine et protobyzantine."

Pazyryk culture, pad-saddle of the Scythian type, reconstruction of a Scythian saddle

The article is devoted to the reconstruction of a saddle of the so-cold Scythian type, made in 2013, on the basis of the study of archaeological saddles from the Pazyryk collection of the State Hermitage. The scientific reconstruction of the Scythian time saddle has been performed for the first time. It was preceded by a long preparatory work, including measurements of all preserved saddles and their fragments of the Pazyryk collection (Bashadar, Tuekta and Pazyryk barrows). We studied the seams, peculiarities of gaskets and the padding of the saddle cushions, as well as characteristics of the fixing of the saddle belts, surcingle buckles and decorative elements.
Making a comparison of the saddles from early and late kurgans of the Pazyryk culture made it clear that the saddles differ mainly by the decor and accessories which have been changed, but kept continuity. Design of the saddle pillows themselves, sets (composition, integration) and the fixing of the truck straps, the shape of the coverings and saddle-cloths remained unchanged during the whole period of the Pazyryk culture.
One of the saddles from the 3rd Pazyryk barrow was chosen as a model for the reconstruction. The executed  saddle has been tested on riding horses to identify its performances.
Replicas of the saddle and the bridle from the 3rd Pazyryk barrow have been exhibited at the exposition "The World of nomads" made by the State Hermitage Museum, in Vyborg (November 2013 - April 2014) as visual materials.
The reconstructed saddle provides additional opportunities for interpretation of a number of artistic sourses of the Scythian and Hun-Sarmatian time.

Whether knight's charger or beast of burden, horses played a vital role in medieval life. The wealth of medieval finds excavated in London in recent years has, not surprisingly, included many objects associated with horses. This catalogue illustrates and discusses over four hundred such objects, among them harness, horseshoes, spurs and curry combs, from the utilitarian to highly decorative pieces. London served by horse traffic comes vividly in view. The introductory chapter draws on historical as well as archaeological sources to consider the role of the horse in medieval London. It looks at the price of horses and the costs of maintaining them, the hiring of 'hackneys' for riding, the use of carts in and around London, and the work of the 'marshal' or farrier. It discusses the evidence for the size of medieval horses and includes a survey of finds of medieval horse skeletons from London. It answers the key questions, how large a 'Great Horse' was, and why it took three horses to pull a cart. A new introduction to this edition provides an update on research and a supplementary bibliography. This is a basic work of reference for archaeologists and those studying medieval artefacts, and absorbing reading for everyone interested in the history of the horse and its use by humankind.

One can see silver loops on the silver phiale (second half of the 5th century BC) with a dedication in Greek, found in a Sarmatian burial of mound 1 (second half of the 1st century BC) at Zubovskij Farm in Kuban river region. For a long period, these loops have not attracted scholars’ attention. Supposedly, the loops were intended to hang the phiale on a temple’s wall. The author proposes to consider them as later adaptations introduced in the original design for using the phiale in Sarmatian horse harness as a breastgirth decoration. This kind of reconstruction seems admissible due to analogies: Late Hellenistic bowls converted by Sarmatians in the 1st century AD. This alternative point of view is supported by several factors: damage, defects, and deformations of the fiale, its topography in the grave and other subunits of the horse harness from the rich grave at the Zubovskij Farm.

This study deals with graves of Vekerzug culture, which contained weapons and horse harness. These graves reflect an evident social differentiation of Vekerzug society. Special attention in the study was paid to the most accurate geographic and cultural determination of the origin of individual weapon types and horse harness components in the context of new knowledge about Vekerzug culture and answering the question to what extent these finds reflect its interregional contacts. Important is also definition of possible armament schemes of Vekerzug culture and their comparison with armament schemes in the neighbouring cultural regions, especially with the forest-steppe Western Podolian group, Ciumbrud culture and Ferigile culture. Cultural and spatial analyses of individual types of weapons and horse harness as well as of the armament schemes of Vekerzug culture show that the problem of interregional contacts of this culture, mainly the eastern ones, must be considered more differentially than it has been previously presented in scientific literature. At the same time, they confirm the recent knowledge that the effect of eastern influences on Vekerzug culture is in scientific literature without a reason constantly overestimated.
Keywords: Eastern Hungary, Southern Slovakia, Hallstatt and Early La Tène periods, Vekerzug culture, weapons, horse harness, graves, armament schemes, interregional contacts, innovations.

The scale and intensity of cultural networking during the period between 2000 and 1200 BCE is unprecedented, the beginnings of which are deeply rooted in the previous millennium, but also with far echoing effects that lasted several centuries. A recent thesis proposes the viewing of these phenomena as a case of pre-modern globalisation of the Afro-Eurasian region, coined bronzization. This questions the directional flow between the core, semi-periphery and periphery of the Wallersteinian ‘world systems theory’ applied to the Bronze Age and suggests a more practical approach. The emergence of tin-bronzes and heightened desire for acquisition of these goods can be traced from northern Africa through Europe and Eurasian steppes to China, most likely with several foci.
Bronzization is a mixture of directional and non-directional flows, which results in a web-like pattern, rather than just a directional mobility of goods, ideas and discourses. It further argues that bronze is the transculture of the age, a medium that broke down economic boundaries of regional social groups. The democratisation of the transculture enabled not only the penetration of societies in a horizontal sense, but also in a vertical one, as bronze and other goods became increasingly desired by elites, other ‘less novel’ prestige items became increasingly accessible to lower social groups. By the phenomena of the transculture a heightened consumption of bronze is seen throughout Eurasia, which facilitated the directional trade and non-directional flows of archaeologically graspable goods (e.g. amber, Near Eastern glass, horse, chariot) and ideas as well (e.g. warriorhood, self-image of elites, mobility). The intense circulation resulted in what is termed as ‘intersecting spheres of interaction’.
The present paper seeks to analyse and evaluate the relevance of the Eastern Carpathian Basin, positioned at the crossroads of ‘intersecting spheres of interaction’. The mentioned region is placed in the context of bronzization and through the relocated vantage point an anamorphosis takes place. The results of the re-assessment emphasise the networking of the repository of knowledge, but also the space occupied by societies within the cultural crucible of southeastern Europe.

ÖZ
Araştırmalar atın kökenin yaklaşık 75 milyon yıl öncesine kadar uzandığını göstermektedir. Genel kanı atın ana vatanının Amerika olduğu kabul edilmektedir. Modern atın atası olarak kabul edilen Equus’un
Amerika’dan Avrasya’ya göçü ise 2-3 milyon yıl önce Bering Boğazı üzerinden olmuştur. Bu yol üzerinden birkaç kez olmuş ve zaman zaman da geriye Amerika’ya da göçler gerçekleşmiştir. 12-13 bin yıl önce de
Amerika’da equus kaybolmuştur. Eğer batıya doğru Amerika’dan Avrasya’ya göçler olmasa idi at nesli tükenmiş olacaktı.
Avrasya’da görülen son yabani at türünden Tarpan, XIX. Yüzyılda tükenmiş; Taki ise yok olmaya yüz
tutmuştur. 1968’den itibaren başlatılan koruma çalışmaları ile bu nesil kurtarılmıştır.
Otuz bin yıl önce bir av hayvanı olarak etinden faydalanılan atın, altı bin yıl önce evcilleştirilerek eti, sütü ve binek olarak taşıma gücünden de faydalanılmaya başlanmıştır. Taşıma gücünden faydalanılan at beş bin
yıl boyunca uygarlık tarihinde beyliklerin, devletlerin ve imparatorlukların kurulmasında ve yıkılmasında başlıca rolü oynayan aktörlerden biri olmuştur.
Binlerce yıl dünya üzerinde söz sahibi olan siyasal güçler, at ve atçılıkla ilgili teknolojileri yakından takip
etmişlerdir. Zamanla atın kontrolü ile ilgili gem, eyer, nal ve araba gibi teknolojileri keşfeden insan sonunda üzengiyi keşfederek Avrasya’ya egemen olmanın yolunu elde etmiştir.
Bu bildiri de atın kontrolünde önemli bir yer tutan bu teknolojik gelişmelerden gem, eyer, nal, araba ve üzengi üzerinde durulacaktır.
Anahtar Kelimeler: Gem, eyer, araba, üzengi, at.
Abstract
Researches show that the origin of horse goes back to ca 75 million of years. The general option is that
America is the origin homeland of the horse. The ancestor of the modern horse was Equus, which migrated
about 2-3 million years ago from America to Eurasia via the Bering Strait. This happened a few times and some times the migration to America happened as well. Equus disappeared from America for some 12-13
thousand years ago. If the migration from America to Eurasia did not have occurred, the lineage of horse would have died out.
2nd International Conference On Studies In Turkology
ICOSTURK’2017
Rome, ITALY/ August 11-13, 2017
2
The last wild horse species Tarpan, which was seen in Eurasia, died out in XIXth Century; Taki on the other side was going to die out. From 1968 this species of horse was saved.
For 30 thousand years ago horse was hunted for its meat, it became domesticated for six thousand years ago. The meat, milk of the horse were used, furthermore it was used for riding and in transportation. Horse
in transportation played a major role in the foundation and fall of city-states, states and empires for almost five thousand years in the history of civilization. In thousand of years, the political powers in the world followed the technology about horse and horse
breeding closely. Over time the human being discovered how to manage the horse through bridle, saddle,
horseshoe and chariot and with the discovery of the stirrup, the mankind attained the dominance over Eurasia.
The subject of this article is technological developments like bridle, saddle, horseshoe, chariot and stirrup, which are important factors in horse management.
Keywords: bridle, saddle, horseshoe, chariot, stirrup, horse.

The aim of this monograph is to present an attempt to more closely define a significant component of a new phenomenon that was registered during an excavation of a site in NE Poland. This site in the Nidajno Swamp in the Masurian Lake District (Czaszkowo 1 site, Piecki commune, Mrągowo poviat, Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship) is the first place in Poland where were found, and examined using modern archaeological methods, traces of cult practices from the period of Roman influences involving the sinking of weapons and other prestigious elements of personal equipment in a swamp. The basis of the studies carried out is a series of unique, silver and gilded ornaments, which are an emblemic component of the
assemblage of finds. Their provenance, workshop and stylistic features, in combination with the placeof their deposition in antiquity, indicate a new type
of relationship linking the area of the classical culture of the Mediterranean with areas of the of the North European Barbaricum, far distant from even the Empire’s northern limes. The material was studied with the application of archaeological comparative analysis, enriched with the necessary stylistic and iconographic studies, covering most of the European barbarian zone and Roman provinces close to them (mainly Danube and Rhine provinces). This allowed the gathering of rarely-used data from the rich legacy of research on the material and spiritual culture of the barbarian communities of a large area of central and northern Europe, together with those relating to the material image of the Roman army (with particular emphasis on the component of soldiers of barbarian origin). In the analysis, research tools from the field of art history were used, allowing an orderly description of these formally and stylistically complex, richly decorated objects with multi-layered iconographic content. As a result, not only an inventory description of the objects was obtained, but also a series of data on the cultural background related to the time of their creation, and also concerning the dissemination of motifs and ornamental themes allowing an insight into the phenomenon of the cultural diffusion that was typical of late antiquity in the territory of the Empire and adjacent regions.
The sacrificial site in the former Nidajno Lake was excavated in 2010–2012 by research teams from the Faculty of Archaeology of the University of Warsaw and the Institute of Archaeology and Ethnology of the Polish Academy of Sciences. The director of the project was Tomasz Nowakiewicz. The results of this work have already been presented in the literature several times, but these publications were in the form of interim reports, related to methodological issues or presented the results of laboratory analyses of selected artefacts (Nowakiewicz, Rzeszotarska-Nowakiewicz 2012; 2013; 2019; Nowakiewicz 2015; Nowakiewicz ed. 2016). Until the commencement of field work, the site was not known in the scientific literature or conservation documentation. This situation changed in 2010, and since then this place has been protected by law. At the end of the 19th century, in the vicinity of the former Lake Nidajno, drainage works were started, which were continued with varying degrees of success in the 1960s and 1980s. As a result of these works, there was destruction of part of the site, particularly its peripheral part (the edge of the former lake). Trial trenching in 2010 allowed the scale of the damage to be estimated, and also permitted a determination of the type of site and its cognitive value. The work revealed this site to be one that has a unique place in the context of Polish archaeology. The research was continued in two subsequent excavation seasons (2011–2012) that, among other things, allowed the establishment of the nature of the sediments and produced a series of numerous artefacts. The excavations were then suspended for a while to allow the processing of the evidence obtained so far and to allow the gathering of the necessary logistic and financial resources needed to continue work at this. In 2019, large-scale non-invasive exploratory work was undertaken (magnetic geophysical surveys and ground penetrating radar surveys). In the 2019–2020 seasons, this was accompanied by the diagnosis of the local palaeoecological background, taking into account the factor of anthropopressure (through sedimentological and palynological studies). At the same time, work furthering the scientific analysis of the results to date was conducted, one of the effects of which is this publication.
In the light of the data obtained, there is no doubt that the site in Nidajno is the remains of a cult place where in antiquity ceremonies were held related to the deposition of weapons and other prestigious elements of warrior equipment in the water. So far, this phenomenon is represented by a group of over 300 finds from the site. This is evidence that the ceremonial deposition of valuable goods (previously intentionally destroyed) of a clearly military character in an aquatic environment was practiced among the communities of the Balts (in this case the people of the Bogaczewo culture) during the period of Roman influences. The behaviours documented at Nidajno clearly resemble the model known from the Northern European Barbaricum, visible in sacrificial swamps in Jutland, such as Illerup-Ådal, Nydam, Thorsberg, Vimose, Ejsbøl, Porskjær and others. The visible differences (for example, the lack of animal remains) may result from the current, still initial, state of exploration of the site in Nidajno or may be an original regional feature.
The most numerous category in the inventory of finds from Nidajno is a set of military items, most of which are iron spearheads of shafted weapons. There are also fragments of double-edged sword blades (including from pattern-welded blades), a bronze scabbard chape, 20 fragments of chain mail of various sizes, 15 fragments of knives, five fragments of shield bosses, a fragment of an axe, two fragments of iron spurs and three fragments of harness-bits. The elements of personal equipment are relatively sparse: 11 buckles, five bronze fibulae, 20 fibula fragments, two bucket-shaped pendants, a fragment of a comb, a fragment of a stone whetstone with a group of small fragments of objects that are difficult to identify.
Against this background, a group of above-standard valuable and prestigious items stands out: nine richly decorated, silver, gilded and nielloed fittings, a silver, openwork strap divider, a fragment of a silver box-shaped phalera, golden fittings of a sword handguard and the mouth of a scabbard, a silver sword bead, a gilded figurine of a bird and two fragments of a glass vessel of Syrian origin (which was confirmed by the results of laboratory tests). The basis of the presented studies is a series of silver, gilded fittings decorated with niello: a buckle with a buckle plate with the image of a lion and birds (No. 1), a fragment of an analogous buckle with a frame decorated with a bird’s head (No. 2), rectangular fittings with images of: a lion (No. 3), a lion and a bird (No. 4) and a bird (No. 5 – item preserved fragmentarily), a rectangular fitting with a geometric pattern (No. 6), a large rectangular fitting with images of a dolphin, a capricorn, two griffins and a dragon (No. 7), a large palmette fitting with two mythical
beasts and bird heads (No. 8), a rectangular metal pendant with a fish (No. 9) and a silver, openwork strap divider (No. 10). These items are characterized by a clear formal consistency, they are of comparable raw materials (homogeneous metals with
high fineness) and workshop techniques (the same technological features: casting, stamping, engraving, gilding, niello decoration). This allows us to see in them the basic reference set for further research.
This also includes other items from the group of elite finds: a silver, gilded box phalera (No. 15) is included in the analysis of the function of the entire set. Although they lack common stylistic features with the above-mentioned group, the impressive golden sword scabbard fittings (No. 11) and the sword guard (No. 12) as well as a silver, gilded bird figure (No. 14) and a silver buckle (No. 16) were treated as auxiliary material in further research.
In general terms, the assemblage of decorated metalwork from Nidajno is defined by the following features: the expensive raw materials used to make them (gold and silver of the highest quality; cf. Nowakiewicz, ed. 2016); the number of items (a multi-element set of stylistically consistent decorations); advanced manufacturing techniques (amalgams, soldering and gilding techniques, niello, number of stamps; cf.
Nowakiewicz, ed. 2016); an extensive, unconventional and sophisticated set of figural motifs, referring to threads deeply rooted in the heterogeneous tradition of the Roman Empire.

From the end of the 1990’s a set of Iron Age bronzes is conserved in the National Archaeological Museum of Lisbon. They are qualified as unknown origin although they come wide probably from the Low Guadiana region. The set consists of more than one hundred objects, highlighting the components of carriage and horse harness, but there are also some remains of vessels, a spit and ornament elements. Some of the most outstanding pieces have been presented or referred to in a preliminary way, but the bulk of the set remained still unpublished. A detailed study including its contextualisation in the Iron Age of the South Portugal waited to be done. In this paper we face this approach because we believe that is one of the Post-Orientalising bronze sets more complete and more important in the Southwestern Iberian peninsula.

Nous tenterons dans cette étude de montrer dans quelles conditions, par quels moyens les japonais ont développé lʼéquipement du cheval utilisé pour la monte, voir dans quelle mesure cet équipement du cheval est différent ou similaire aux usages à la fois sur le continent asiatique, mais aussi parfois en Europe pour les mêmes périodes.

Abstract: „Something happened in the East but more in the West and South.“ Some critical remarks on the  eastern  influences  in  Vekerzug  culture.  In  the  study  presented,  we  discuss  the  eastern  influences  in  the  Vekerzug culture based on a detailed analysis of  its material sources and some selected aspects, such as funerary customs and costumes. In the research of  the Early Iron Age the eastern influences in the Vekerzug culture tradi-tionally are not only overestimated in comparation to the influences of  the Eastern Hallstatt culture and the Cen-tral and Eastern Balkans but also incorect as scythian interpreted. The participation of  the eastern influences from the East European forest-steppe zone as well as from the North Caucasus in the formation of  the material sources of  the Vekerzug culture is indeed not negligible, but it is not so significant and strong that it is possible to indicate the Vekerzug culture as Eastern, Skythoid or even Scythian culture.Vekerzug culture as a culture of the Hallstatt Period was not part of the sphere of influence of the eastern elites, but it was itself  a driving force in the cultural and historical development of  the Iron Age in the eastern part of  Central Europe and she had been in the strong integration process with the Eastern Hallstatt culture. The foreign influences were selectively absorbed by the Vekerzug culture, selectively modified into local and selectively passed on into the neighboring cultural regions.

Keywords: Vekerzug culture, Eastern influences, Hallstatt and Early La Tène Periods, analysis of finds, funerary cu-stoms, costumes, innovations, interregional contacts

In diesem Beitrag werden bislang unpublizierte Funde vorgestellt, die zu unserer Kenntnis des Ost-West-Kulturaustausches während der Stufe Latène A beitragen. Im Jahr 2015 fanden Sondengänger ein Depot mit vier Metallobjekten auf einem bewaldeten Hang in Südböhmen, nahe dem Dorf Hosty (okr. České Budějovice). Eine erste Untersuchung zeigt, dass es sich wohl um Zierelemente aus Bronze und Eisen für Pferdegeschirr oder Wagen handelt. Stilistisch lassen sich diese Artefakte eher mit dem westlichen als dem östlichen Latène A-Gebiet verbinden; sie zeigen eine ganze Reihe unterschiedlicher feiner Metallbearbeitungstechniken. Am Schluss dieses Beitrags wird der Fund von Hosty in den Kontext weiterer frühlatènezeitlicher Feinschmiedearbeiten aus der Region gestellt.

S 'il est un document reproduit, cité, discuté en matière de voitures et attelages romains, c'est bien le « char » de Vaison. Relief imposant récupéré d'un assemblage hétéroclite de blocs initialement intégrés dans un bâtiment appelé château de Maraudi (ou Maraudy), il est aujourd'hui conservé au Musée Calvet (musée lapidaire) à Avignon. À de rares réticences près, la scène de l'attelage figure dans d'innombrables publications comme l'exemple de la grande voiture d'apparat pour les magistrats et les élites dans un contexte de voyage, de messagerie, de cérémonies ou de célébrations officielles. Certains évoquent la carruca du Cursus Publicus. Constamment mentionnés et reproduits aujourd'hui, le relief à l'attelage et les autres blocs épigraphiques ou historiés du château Maraudi font l'objet de commentaires, dessins et estampes sans discontinuité depuis le XVIII e siècle. À vrai dire même, depuis le XVI e siècle où un érudit local amoureux de vieilles pierres place le « coche » bien en évidence sur une façade du bâtiment qu'il fait construire et qui rassemble des spolia de toutes sortes. Même si, actuellement, le document est généralement utilisé sorti de tout contexte, souvent même sans se rendre compte qu'il en existe un, on ne peut aborder le sujet vidé de son histoire. Peut-être même cette histoire longue contient-elle une part de la solution aux problèmes que suscite ce curieux attelage. Deux étapes bien distinctes : l'épisode du château, du XVI e siècle à 1835 ; les collections du Musée Calvet. ◤ Résumé : Le « char de Vaison » fait l'objet d'une historiographie abondante et longue de deux siècles. Il s'agit peut-être de l'attelage romain le plus représenté dans la littérature. Il est généralement considéré comme l'image de la voiture d'apparat de magistrats ou de militaires de haut rang, voire de l'attelage typique du Cursus Publicus. Toutefois, dès le début du XIX e siècle, des doutes sont émis quant à l'authenticité des blocs et ornements sculptés provenant du château Maraudi et, si le relief funéraire à l'attelage échappe généralement à la suspicion, il présente des anomalies siffisamment nombreuses pour mériter un examen critique approfondi. Si certains éléments isolés au niveau de la voiture et des personnages peuvent trouver des parallèles dans le monde romain, l'attelage proprement dit n'est ni cohérent ni mécaniquement satisfaisant. Le relief, d'un bloc, semble plutôt une contrefaçon « à la romaine » commanditée par un gentilhomme du XVI e siècle pour orner sa maison de campagne vaisonnaise, en la truffant de spolia et copies. ◤ Mots-clés : Art romain, attelage, char, transport, cursus publicus, Renaissance. ◤ Abstract: The coach of Vaison is well-knowed in the long historiography of the Roman carriage. He is traditionnally described as a traveling carriage for the elites, miltary officers or magistrates, perhaps a typical vehicle for the cursus publicus. However some doubts appear since the beginning of the 19th century about the authenticity of the monument discovered in an old building, the château Maraudi near Vaison, with a lot of other sculpture fragments, some really roman, other restaured, and some surely carved in the 16th century. The analytical obervation of the monument incite to many doubts. Carriage, harnessing, iconography presents a lot of problems. Finally we think this monument was made in the 16th century in a roman way by a local elite fascinated by Antiquity to promote his own social statute and honorabilty.

Abstract: „Courageous as an eagle, fast as a horse.” The graves with weapons and horse harnesses in Vekerzug culture: case study. In this paper, we discuss graves of the Vekerzug culture, which contained weapons and horse harnesses. Providing a more complex overview of these graves was at the centre of our interest, focused mainly on a culural-spatial analysis of the various types of weapons and horse harnesses, the possibility of identification the social status of the warriors and horsemen within their community, the possible relation of weapons and horse harnesses to the specific gender or age category of the buried individuals and identifying the factor, which affected the composition of these graves and the mutual combination of different types of weapons and horse harnesses. The graves with weapons and horse harnesses are key to assessing the question of the nature and intensity of the eastern influences in the formation of the Vekerzug culture. The results of their analysis confirm the previous conclusions, that in the research of the Early Iron Age the share of the eastern influences in the Vekerzug culture is still overestimated, while the western and southern influences as well as the local traditions of the Late Bronze and Early Iron Age are underestimated.

Keywords: East Hungary, Southwest Slovakia, Hallstatt and Early La Tène Periods, Vekerzug culture, graves with weapons and horse harnesses, grave accesories, funerary customs, schemata of weaponry, male costumes, social aspect, innovations

Der umfangreichste Beigabenkomplex des Prunkgrabes von Hochdorf umfaßt den Wagen mit dem Pferdegeschirr. Inhalt der Arbeit ist die archäologische Auswertung dieser Beigaben, die in ihrer Detailfülle einmalige Informationen zur hallstattzeitlichen Wagen- und Fahrtechnik bieten, aber ebenso für die Interpretation des Grabes von Bedeutung sind. Die Rekonstruktion des Wagens und des Pferdegeschirrs kann weitgehend anhand der vorliegenden Befunde und Funde geschehen. Fehlende Details können mittels vergleichbarer Fundkomplexe ergänzt werden. Somit gelingt eine erste vollständige Rekonstruktion einer späthallstattzeitlichen Anschirrung. Weitere Aspekte der Arbeit sind die Datierung des Wagens und des Geschirrs und die Einordnung in die technische Entwicklung während der Hallstattzeit. Die bei dem Wagenkomplex beobachteten Details zur Niederlegung ergänzen das bisher bekannte Bild des Bestattungsrituals in Hochdorf um weitere Aspekte.

Contents
10TH AND 11TH CENTURY BURIAL SITES, STRAY FINDS AND TREASURES IN THE TRANSYLVANIAN BASIN, THE PARTIUM AND THE BANAT
IX.1. The geography of the Transylvanian Basin, the Partium and the Banat
IX.2. List of the 10th–11th century cemeteries, stray fi nds and treasures in the Transylvanian Basin, the Partium
and the Banat
IX.3. A historical review of the research of the cemeteries, stray finds and treasures of the 10th–11th centuries in the regions of the Transylvanian Basin, the Partium and the Banat
IX.4. The evaluation of the archaeological research of the 10th–11th centuries in archaeology IX.4.1. The evaluation of the Hungarian Conquest and its directions in Transylvania in the archaeological publications. The Hungarian Conquest and the concept of Hungarians in the archaeological publications
IX.4.2. Cemeteries: the remains of the Hungarian Conquest, opinions on the burial places in literature
IX.5. Analysis of the burial customs
IX.5.1. On the general characteristics of burial customs
IX.5.2. On the sizes of cemeteries
IX.5.3. The topographical location of the cemeteries
IX.5.4. Graves
IX.5.5. The problem of the continuation of 10th century burial rites into the 11th century
IX.5.6. Conclusions
IX.6. The analysis of the material culture of the 10th–11th century cemeteries, stray finds and treasures. The relative chronological system of the 10th–11th century cemeteries
IX.6.1. Elements of dress and/or of fashion
IX.6.2. Weapons
IX.6.3. Articles of personal use
IX.6.4. Horse equipment
IX.6.5. Pottery
IX.6.6. Coins
IX.7. The material culture of the 10th–11th century and the issues connected to continuity and discontinuity .
IX.8. The chronological system of the cemeteries, stray fi nds and treasures of the 10th–11th centuries. The issues connected to the relationship of the 9th–10th century horizons of the finds
IX.9. On the gender characteristics of inventories of the 10th‒11th century burials in short
IX.9.1. On child burials in short
IX.10. Conclusions
IX.10.1. The occupation of the territory. Populations in the 10th century Transylvania, Partium and Banat
IX.10.2. A social model as it is supposed: the 10th century „Hungarian” social model
IX.10.3. Possible military and political centers in the Transylvanian Basin, the Partium and the Banat.
Landscape, topography and hierarchy: the conquerors and the conquered
IX.10.4. ‘Border zones’ and crossroads
IX.10.5. The 10th–11th century cemetery types
IX.10.6. The quantities of (precious) metal in the cemeteries
IX.10.7. The issue of 10th–11th century graves and the spread of Christianity
IX.10.8. Conclusions

X.1. Rövidítés- és irodalomjegyzék
X.2. List of the fi gures and the plates
X.3. Képek és táblák forrásjegyzéke/Bibliography of the sources of the fi gures and the plates

The goal of the present study is to present a general catalogue followed by a discussion of metal horse bits found in Transcaucasia, mostly from the Iron Age. Starting from the earliest evidence dating to the last stage of the Late Bronze Age, all types of metal bits attributable to indigenous cultures are considered. Urartian and Scythian metal bits are not included , since they have already been widely studied, thus keeping the range of this analysis from the Late Bronze Age to the Achaemenid period.

The Iberian horse sculpture from La Covatilla (Marchena, Seville), currently in the Archaeological Museum of Seville, has been published when it was embedded into the wall of a building sited in that town. When it was removed, in the 80's, new features could be rediscovered and observed in the previously hidden part. These elements can be related with an equestrian harness corresponding to the team of a chariot. This way, the horse of La Covatilla seems to be the first real size Iberian sculpture including a vehicle so far known. The sculpture is attached to a memorial related to the military ideology of the Iberian aristocracies.

In the spring of 1972 as a result of construction work in the Pîrjolteni village (Călărași district, Republic of Moldova) was occasionally discovered a cremation with a various grave goods represented by the ceramic items, elements of horse harness and weapons. This burial, as well as a number of other burials that form the eponymous (Pîrjolteni-Dănceni) horizon is differently interpretated, both in ethnocultural and chronological way. Some researchers consider it a link between the Thracian Hallstatt and the classical Getian culture, i.e. a burial of early Getian culture. Others scholars see in that complex the reflection of Scythian-Thracian syncretism without a pronounced dominant and note that ethnocultural attribution is impossible in this case. This largely characterizes not the burial itself, but the problem situation where the value judgments of the researchers collide. For example, it is described from the perspective of “continuity” or “cultural diversity”, how often the space between the Dniester and Prut is presented. Nevertheless, the Pîrjolteni burial is a unique funeral complex, which obviously belonged to a warrior and, judging by the inventory, mounted warrior. Besides that, the deceased was focused on nomadic traditions in his equipment. And the analogies to weapons and horse harness lie far to the east and reflect evolutionary processes covering almost all steppe regions of Eurasia. While there are no special premises for clarifying the chronological position of the burial within the framework of the late Middle Scythian period, however, the date can be limited to the 1st quarter of the 5th century BC basing on the design of the sword. And the border between the initial stage of the Middle Scythian period and its final, apparently, lies at the turn of the 6th-5th centuries BC. Despite the over-originality of the complex, the presence of a Scythian sword and animal style objects allows us to link Pîrjolteni burial with the general processes associated with the evolution of military equipment of Carpathian-Danube region.

Let the bones speak! Bone, antler and tooth artifacts of the Vekerzug culture.
In the present study, we deal with relatively numerous bone, antler and tooth artifacts of the Vekerzug culture, which come mainly from graves. Their settlement findings are yet less frequent because of limited state of publishing. Providing a more complex overview of these finds was at the centre of our interest, focused mainly on their cultural-spatial analysis, identifying the possible function of some types of artifacts and the analysis of decorative motifs on some bone/antler objects. In the Vekerzug culture, bone and antler artifacts are typological though less varied, but some of them like decorated hollow cylindrical objects, iron knives with a zoomorphic and/or geometric ornaments on the bone/antler grip and two-piece razors are its typical feature. Some types of weapons and their parts, horse harnesses, tools and toilet instruments were made of bone and antler. Pieces of bone and animal teeth were sometimes used for personal adornments. In the Vekerzug culture, the occurrence of some types of bone/antler artifacts we can associate with the influences from the eastern Hallstatt cultural milieu, while the eastern relations are rarely observed here.

Keywords: Vekerzug culture, Hallstatt and Early La Tène periods, East Hungary, South Slovakia, antler, animal bones and teeth, analysis of finds, cemeteries and settlements

Jerzy Okulicz pinxit– a snaffle bit found in the Przeworsk culture grave from Malkowice, Staszów district
The article describes a bit which constitutes a part of inventory of the Przeworsk culture grave dating back to the Early Roman Period. The grave was discovered by accident in 1895 in Malkowice, south Poland. The discussions in the article are based on a drawing by J. Okulicz as the only preserved piece of the object is a shank. Originally, it was a snaffle bit with one-piece bent mouthpiece. Analogies with it can be found among numerous bits from South Europe, especially in the graves from the Padea-Panagjurski Kolonii group. However, it has also been encountered in the west Celtic region.
It is possible that another object found in the grave in Malkowice constitutes a part of the second bit. The object is an arched bronze bar. The analogies from the Celtic world suggest that it might be a piece of circular bit which sometimes appears in the graves together with the bits of complex structure.

Trad. Anita Drużkowska