Roman cavalry

Campaigns of Germanicus, AD 13-16 describes briefly the campaigns, joint and combined ops., tactics, strategy, foreign policy, espionage, intelligence gathering, and strategy between ca. 60 BC and AD 150 with particular focus on Germanicus' campaigns.

Roman helmets with face-masks constitute a category of military equipment that is rare and at the same time spectacular. They imitate human heads, bare or helmeted; rich decorations include mythological motives and apotropaic elements. Moreover, they are often made of precious bronze and sometimes even silvered. Those qualities make them focus the attention both of specialists working on Roman military equipment and the wide public.
Several such masks were found on the territory of Roman Dacia. Two were found in the river Olt and are believed to have been washed away from military sites. Another comes from a ditch of the Roman fort Gilău and has been interpreted as having been lost by its owner. All are believed to have been used as parade equipment by Roman cavalrymen. All belong to a rare category of helmets representing female heads.
However, it seems improbable that the loss of an item of that size and value would have remained unnoticed, and that it could be easily washed away by the river - remembering also the scarcity of such finds both within the province and the whole Empire. A study of religious practices of Roman military allows us to propose a re-interpretation of these artifacts. Rather then lost pieces of parade equipment we should probably view them as offerings deposited by members of the military or whole units to ensure the success of their various undertakings. This not only matches their findspots well, but also finds several analogies in the context of finds outside of Dacia.

https://www.despertaferro-ediciones.com/revistas/numero/guerreros-de-la-antigua-iberia-cuadernos-de-historia-militar-3/
La destreza bélica de los diversos pueblos de la Península Ibérica llamó la atención de Roma desde el momento en que este territorio pasó a formar parte de su perspectiva geopolítica, en el marco de su prolongado pulso con Cartago. Enrolados inicialmente en calidad de aliados y mercenarios, los contingentes armados hispanos acabarían por conformar una parte muy destacada de las más valoradas fuerzas auxiliares del ejército romano, tanto durante la República como bajo el Principado. La provincialización de Hispania y la paulatina integración de sus moradores en los cuerpos ciudadanos romanos, finalmente, convirtieron a la Península en una importante fuente de reclutamiento para las legiones y otras fuerzas, nunca totalmente desplazada por otras regiones a lo largo del periodo imperial. La pertinaz resistencia de buena parte de las tribus y entidades peninsulares a la expansión del dominio romano en la región, al igual que sucediera primero con Cartago, enfrentó a la superpotencia itálica con panoplias, tácticas y estrategias, vinculadas a la guerra de guerrillas y al empleo de caballería, especialmente valiosas para un ejército como el romano, basado en el empleo masivo de la infantería pesada. Caracterizadas por una notable permeabilidad a la adopción de innovaciones ajenas, las fuerzas armadas romanas, como veremos, se nutrieron de contingentes hispanos de múltiples formas a lo largo de su historia, a fin no solo de aprovechar una valiosa fuente de recursos humanos o para salvar las propias carencias, sino para volver contra el enemigo sus mismas armas. Así, a su modo, los guerreros de la antigua Iberia dejarían su particular e indeleble rúbrica en el desarrollo histórico del Imperio romano y, por lo tanto, en la Historia misma del Mediterráneo y la Antigüedad en su conjunto.

Selon une idée largement répandue, l’Homme ne fut en mesure de tirer pleinement profit du cheval qu’à partir du Moyen Age en raison de l’apparition d’avancées techniques majeures à cette période de l’histoire. A en croire la liste des accessoires hippiques supposés médiévaux, l’Antiquité n’a quasiment rien produit et le rôle du cheval n’était que secondaire. Pourtant, dès l’Antiquité tardive, la place de cet animal gagne considérablement en importance dans la cavalerie et la production hippiatrique qui connaît un essor sans précédent vient confirmer ce nouveau rôle. Or, sans la mise en place de certains accessoires hippiques, tels les étriers, la force animale ne pouvait pas être utilisée au mieux.
La question de l’époque à laquelle sont apparus les étriers est donc fondamentale pour mieux comprendre et apprécier à leur juste valeur certains changements intervenus dans l’Antiquité tardive. Aussi, à la lumière de découvertes archéologiques récentes et à l’aide de l’étude des termes utilisés en grec pour désigner l’étrier, nous remettons en question la date de son apparition et, par conséquent, l’origine de son introduction dans la cavalerie protobyzantine. Le but final de cette contribution est de redéfinir la place du cheval aux IVe-VIe siècles, place prédominante liée très étroitement à l’utilisation d’accessoires hippiques majeurs tels que les étriers.

"Ces Actes des Journées d’étude internationales (Strasbourg, 6-7 novembre 2009) sont l’aboutissement d’un programme de recherche (2007-2009), mené au sein de l’UMR 7044 (Étude des civilisations de l’Antiquité : de la Préhistoire à Byzance), sur la place du cheval dans l’empire byzantin. Les 14 contributions qu’ils réunissent sont consacrées au cheval de guerre et de loisir dans l’Antiquité et au Moyen Âge.

L’ouvrage est divisé en trois sections. Dans la première, les contributeurs analysent la naissance du corps de cavalerie dans l’armée romaine et ses emplois. Sont également étudiés les différences régionales du pourtour méditerranéen dans l’élevage du cheval, les prix pratiqués ou encore les connaissances hippologiques des Anciens. Les travaux qui composent la deuxième partie proposent des synthèses sur le cheval médiéval, byzantin et occidental. Ils abordent le sujet à travers les textes, les sources archéologiques, les représentations et les us et coutumes des civilisations étudiées. Enfin, la dernière partie s’intéresse aux instruments hippiques, aux armes et à l’hippiatrie. Y sont ainsi réexaminées les innovations, adoptions et adaptations, dans l’Antiquité tardive, des pièces de l’équipement équin essentielles pour le combat, telles que l’étrier et le mors. Les armes des cavaliers sont réévaluées, ainsi que les changements dans leurs techniques de combat suite à la diffusion de l’étrier. On trouvera aussi l’analyse du vocabulaire employé pour l’anatomie du cheval dans la littérature hippiatrique grecque, qui connaît à cette période un essor sans précédent, lié au développement de la cavalerie romaine et protobyzantine."

The adoption by the roman army of heavy armoured shock cavalry was a fundamental change in his military tradition. The development of the early contarii, catafractii and clibanarii units, as well as their particularly expansion during the III c. AD tell us about a main transformation in the tactical mind of the roman army, and of a new example of his fascinating capacity in adapting to the circumstances that the medium offered to it. Along this article we shall discuss about the apparition of this first military units, like ala I Gallorum et Pannoniorum catafracta and ala I Vlpia contariorum, the military traditions in which could inspirate themselves, and so their work in the battlefield, without forgetting to explain the main historiographical theories about this matters.

The article describes the reign of Decius briefly in light of Roman use of large cavalry armies against equally massive Gothic cavalry forces.  In this context, the text described the rise and fall of the Roman cavalry as the dominant arm of service in the third century. The article also analyses briefly the strategies and tactics adopted by the Romans and Goths during the brief reign of Decius.

The heavy armoured cavalry of the roman army traces its origins to mid-first century AD. However, is from the third century when we can see how this arm adquires a main role in the roman military ranks. First as elite units inside of a cavalry considered as the new elite of  the army, and later as one of the cornerstones of the romano-byzantine armies of the sixth century, based in the massive empleyement of cavalry. In this article we will approach to the changes suffered by the roman heavy armoured cavalry (representated by the cataphractii and, from the fourth century, also by the clibanarii) at the organizational, tactical and equipment levels, wich was the origin of such changes, and wich its input to the changes that the roman army suffered throughout 300 years.

The cavalry formed a large part of the Odrysian army and this article describes their tactics, weapons, apparel, armour, and equipment, based on the latest archaeological discoveries.  It is fully illustrated, including (for the first time) colour reconstructions of the Kazanluk tomb paintings.  The article illustrates the transition from classical to hellenistic equipment, tactics, and appearance.

Since the work of Emil Ritterling, students of the Roman army consider that the third century and especially the reign of Gallienus witnessed a dramatic increase of the cavalry forces. This reform supposedly went hand in hand with the constitution of a mobile strategic reserve, initially stationed in Milan, which was able to intervene on the various threatened sectors of the imperial territory. Our study shows that no serious argument gives credence to these assumptions too often accepted as gospel truth. The proportion of cavalrymen in the Roman army enjoyed a much more significant increase during the end of the Republican era and the beginning of the Principate. The emergence of new model units during the second half of the third century and the tetrarchic period should not entertain any illusion: these cavalry corps were probably detachments taken from regular mounted units dating back to the Principate.

One of the many interesting facts to emerge from the archive of the Twentieth Cohort of Palmyrenes at Dura-Europos concerns the detailed treatment of the cavalrymen’s horses. It is surprising to learn that the Roman army’s copious record-keeping was not confined to the personnel, but extended to cover their mounts as well. So what exactly do we know about the management of the Roman army’s horses?

Augustus, it is generally held, reshaped the auxilia of the Roman army by replacing the traditional auxiliary forces by newly established, standardised and permanent formations named alae, cohortes, and cohortes equitatae. Together with the legions he then moved these forces to the outer provinces. However, there is no direct evidence for a single measure or coherent reform of Augustus’ to establish a unitary auxiliary system. The pertinent sources rather suggests that his measures consisted of reducing (but not completely replacing) traditional military structures in favour of formations that had been developed during the Late Republic. Thus, both old-style (viz. ‘irregular’ or ‘ad hoc’) contingents, paid and supplied by their tribes and communities from within provincial territory and from beyond, and new-style (viz. ‘regular’ or ‘professional’) auxiliary units that were paid and supplied by Rome and subjected to disciplina Augusta, continued to make up the auxilia of the Roman imperial army, albeit in revised orders of magnitude. The Augustan reorganization of the auxilia necessarily entailed a review and in many cases also adjustments of the existing relations between Rome and its subjects and allies. The present paper argues that in the light of the extant evidence this is most likely to have taken place in the aftermath of the battle of Actium. Service conditions, however, were changed only in 13 B.C.

A brief analysis of the civil war between Caesar and Pompey, which takes into account political propaganda, espionage, intelligence gathering, use of double agents, religion, military operations, tactics, equipment, mil. training, etc. Dispels many of the myths surrounding late Republican warfare and Caesar's campaigns against Pompey. Establishes Julius Caesar as the pre-eminent spy master of his age.

This paper will present all preserved fragments of armour from the " Roshava Dragana " burial mound in Bulgaria. This is the first assessment of its type for this date set. Armour found in burials can be attributed to two or three types; they include the remains of chain mail, fragments of scale framework and badly preserved plate set. This armament was staffed with an excellent quality silvered Roman face-mask helmet. Apart from this helmet, the suit of armament was not Roman, having either a Sarmatian or Parthian origin. The most intriguing comes from burial 2 at " Roshava Dragana " mound where Sarmatian tamgas on the golden pommel of the sword and on the bronze belt's buckle and images of two-headed dogs on the plates of the armour were discovered. The burial-mound is one of the largest of the mounds in Bulgaria in which influential and respected nobleman may have been buried. In our opinion, the most important and respected man in the neighborhood was Titus Flavius Dinis, the son of Skeles of the tribe Quirina. He was archiereus of so called koinon Thrakon – the general assembly of the cities in the province of Thrace. It is possible that villa Chatalka and burial mound " Roshava Dragana " were connected with the Dinis family. Although there is no direct evidence for the participation of Dinis in campaigns against the Sarmatians and Dacians. But some parts of defensive armament from " Roshava Dragana " mound can be attributed as a trophy. Based on the analysis of the remaining elements of the armour, we can assume that many of them have parallels on the Sarmatian territory and in armament of neighbouring regions. Apparently, this armour could have been made in Panticapaeum, since the only parallel for a two-headed dog image, like on the armour, has been found there.

This paper investigates the decorations imbued with an apotropaic protectional quality used on the harnass of Roman horses by first examining the depictions of horses to
see which amulets appear and where they are worn, before
looking at the archaeological finds of amulets themselves. These can be grouped according to their connection with sexuality (male/female/neutral).

The article (or rather three articles) analyses the East Roman cavalry warfare from 410 until 641 and is based on a visiting lecture held at the University of Ottawa in 2010.  It provides an overview of the East Roman cavalry organization, recruitment, training, strategy, enemies and tactics.

Offers an analysis of the sources, campaign and battle of Melitene AD 576 together with analysis of the armies and tactics of the East Roman Empire and Sasanian Iran.  Offers also criticism of the methodology employed in the analysis of the sources and shows how one can interpret the sources by using the military doctrine of both sides to clarify the text.

A view on the Roman cavalry Forces, especially the equites legionis. The article describes a possible organizational chart of the legionary cavalry Formation in imperial times. By analyzing Primary sources the organization, command and Manpower of the equites legionis will be described in a new manner.

There is also given a view on auxiliary cavalry organization and command to demonstrate differences between auxiliary cavalry, legionary horsemen and equites singuläres Augusti.

As Primary sources often times contradict each other and epigraphy or papyrology only can give snapshots of situations, it is not an easy work to take a look on the legionary cavalry in Roman imperial times. But combining all sources given a proper view on the subject and so this article will give a new examination. Because of the discrepanscies, which already are given by Primary sources the article only can be a try to open more discussions in this Special subject.

Estudio sobre los equites y los symmachiarii cántabros del ejército romano, y su relación
con la maniobra de caballería denominada Cantabricus densus/Cantabricus circulus y el estandarte llamado Cantabrum.
Study on the Cantabrian equites and symmachiarii of the Roman army and its relationship with the cavalry manoeuver called Cantabricus densus/Cantabricus circulus and the standard Cantabrum.

The article analyses the nature of the relation of the Late Roman cavalry formation, equites Dalmatae, to the inhabitants of Dalmatia mentioned in its name. The answer is reached through a critical review of the circumstances of the creation of the corps, and an onomastic analysis of the names of the members of the corps, which reveals later patterns of recruitment. The equites Dalmatae were created during the reign of Gallienus, similarly to other cavalry formations raised at this time, through combining the mounted parts detached from cohortes equitatae. The name Dalmatae is connected with the fact that the re-organisation took place in Dalmatia and a number of soldiers were formerly a part of its garrison. In the later period, the border units of equites Dalmatae were recruiting locally, in the regions where they were based. On the other hand, the field army units, like all Late Roman high-status formations, were assigned recruits from different parts of the Empire. The conclusion is that the equites Dalmatae were never meant to be an ethnic unit and the name under analysis was a kind of a “nickname” related to the whereabouts of the formation’s creation.

This paper examines a species of Latin technical terms formulated and employed in the late Roman army, some directly attested in Late Latin sources, others witnessed only as transliterations or loanwords in Greek. The cognates sculca (σκοῦλκα), sculcatorius, σκουλκεύειν and σκουλκάτωρ first emerge in the early sixth century, but clearly have a longer pedigree. They relate to a variety of military operations concerned with intelligence gathering, reconnaissance and defensive surveillance. For the most part these terms occur in non-literary Greek texts, which afford a clearer understanding of their usage, development and currency than do the scantier and generally later Latin sources, which have hitherto been the primary or exclusive focus of interest. Scholarship has long acknowledged an etymological connection with Late Latin exculcator, documented in the late fourth and early fifth centuries, while largely overlooking the significance of analogous proculcator, formerly a hapax but now corroborated by epigraphic discoveries. Since the seventeenth century, conflicting opinions on the etymology of sculca, often marred by erroneous statements and invalid deductions based on incomplete and/or defective evidence, have generated widespread confusion in lexical literature. One school of thought, popularised in the 1930s, endorses a Germanic or specifically Gothic derivation from posited *skulkan, *skulka. This influential thesis, frequently rehearsed uncritically, has sustained preconceptions about the ‘Germanization’ of the late Roman army and contributed to studies of the philological influence of the Goths, particularly on the language and toponymy of early medieval Italy. The following re-evaluation of the evidence and literature exposes the intrinsic tenuity of the Germanic derivation, while demonstrating the cogency of a Latin etymology, which finds direct parallels in phonological and orthographic developments in Late and Vulgar Latin (e.g. excubitor > scubitor/σκουβίτωρ). This case study enhances our understanding of the modality of loans from Late Latin into Greek, specifically in the sphere of technical jargon, and has historical implications for the perceived linguistic and cultural impact of Germanic peoples in Late Antiquity.

The present paper discusses two funerary monuments from Alba county
(Romania) depicting riders. These had been published before, but only summarily, without taking note of the details of military equipment illustrated on them. This is surprising because depictions of soldiers in full battle equipment are very rare in Dacia, not to mention that both monuments were dated to the 3rd century, a period in which such representations are scarce throughout the Empire. Therefore, the traditional art-historical approach to the study of Roman stone monuments will be by-passed and, instead of focusing on the type of monument, elements of style, workshops etc., the study will attempt to discuss at length the riders’ attire and the implications for the study of Roman military equipment.

ABSTRACT: Following a preliminary survey of what is known (or believed) about equites stablesiani, a class of late Roman cavalry unit, this paper introduces two previously unexamined sources: first, a letter of Theodoret, Bishop of Cyrrhus, dated 432-3, of which the historical context, textual transmission and editorial history require clarification; second, a letter written by Emperor Justin I to Hypatius, magister militum per Orientem, in 520, as preserved in the Acta of the Fifth Ecumenical Council (553). Despite problems of transmission and/or translation, these two texts contain valuable information about the late Roman army in Oriens. In particular, they both locate personnel of the same unit, equites tertii stablesiani, at Cyrrhus in Euphratensia. The implication that Cyrrhus was the regular station of this regiment during the fifth and early sixth centuries is consistent with other evidence for the dispersal and localisation of “mobile” units of comitatenses in urban garrisons during this period, in contrast to the conventional view that comitatenses lacked permanent stations and led a peripatetic existence of temporary billets and encampments.

KEYWORDS: Late Roman army, Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Oriens, Justin I, military chaplains

This paper analyses how the ‘Celtic’ cavalry practice known as trimarkisia gives us insight into the evolution from chariotry to cavalry in Iron Age temperate Europe. A close look at the etymology and symbolism of the word trimarkisia reveals both the importance of the triad in the ‘Celtic’ mindset and the later development of cavalry in regard to chariotry. Chariot warfare is then examined, taking into account literary sources and iconography to show how three men probably made up the chariot fighting team. Finally, a model which explains the transition from the chariot to the trimarkisia is advanced, tackling its tactical and symbolical dimensions in regard to knowledge networks in the ‘Celtic’ world.

Durante las excavaciones de apoyo a la conservación-restauración acometidas en el año 2008 en Tamuda se localizó una pieza cerámica excepcional. Una jarra u olpe con un amplio programa iconográfico relacionado con el ciclo de la naturaleza y de la vida, y con motivos alusivos a la navegación y a los caballos tingitanos. Se presenta el estudio arqueométrico de la pieza, la pro- blemática del contexto bajoimperial de hallazgo y su interpretación como un elemento de carácter mágico o ritual. Este trabajo se complementa con la datación absoluta por termolumi- niscencia, con el estudio de su inscripción y con la determinación del análisis de residuos del vaso (aceite de ricino), resultados que se presentan en varios capítulos de este mismo volumen.

This essay offers reflections on the functions of Roman helmets with masks. They were one of the most effective
elements of Roman soldiers’ equipment, arousing scholars’ interest and controversy since the 19th century. Despite
abundant literature, their function is still the subject of numerous discussions. Scholars’ views revolve around a few
possibilities. Two most popular of such theses supposedly exclude one another. They claim that the helmets were used
during parades and festivities or during battles. The author, taking into consideration archaeological sources, historical
records, metallographic analyses and the outcome of various experiments seeks to show that these helmets proved to
be a perfect solution in both cases.

The Celtic cavalry practice known as trimarkisia is only known by a quote in Pausanias (Guide for Greece 10.19.9-11). Although always mentioned when tackling Celtic warfare, little effort has been made to try to explain how it functioned and its implications, with just a passing mention to Pausanias’ quote, without further dwelling into the matter. In this paper we will outline a model to explain the trimarkisia in the wider frame of Celtic warfare, from its probable origin in the charioteer-warrior-shield bearer triad to its late reflection in Roman cavalrymen tombstones.
We will take a closer look at the sources, to show that there are some more brief mentions about the trimarkisia or similar practices. The archaeological record will be brought forward as the changes in Celtic panoply can be linked to the development and growing importance of cavalry. Horsemen and infantry often fought together, as seen in Celtiberia, Gaul and Germania, and this coordination is probably related to the trimarkisia. Moreover, a late iconographic reflection can perhaps be glimpsed in some Roman auxiliary cavalrymen tombstones, where calones are depicted carrying the master’s lanceae. Last, a look at Medieval Europe can provide a mirror to explain trimarkisia, as we find a similar practice with squires that keep the reserve destriers of the knights in the rearguard or even get into the fray.
The growing importance of cavalry in Celtic warfare had to do with the development of a class of aristocratic horsemen, the equites of Latin sources, which became the ruling class in the Celtic oppida of 2nd and 1st centuries BC. In this way the trimarkisia should be viewed not only as a military practice but also as an indicator of social developments in Western Europe late Iron Age.