Cephalopods

Squid are important components of many marine ecosystems from the poles to the equator, serving as both important predators and prey. Novel aspects of their growth and reproduction mean that they are likely to play an important role in the changing oceans due to climate change. Virtually every facet of squid life-history examined thus far has revealed an incredible capacity in this group for life-history plasticity. The extremely fast growth rates of individuals and rapid rates of turnover at the population level mean that squid can respond quickly to environmental or ecosystem change. Their ‘life-in-the-fast-lane’ life-style allows them to rapidly exploit ‘vacuums’ created in the ecosystem when predators or competitors are removed. In this way, they function as ‘weeds of the sea’. Elevated temperatures accelerate the life-histories of squid, increasing their growth rates and shortening their life-spans. At first glance, it would be logical to suggest that rising water temperatures associated with climate change (if food supply remains adequate) would be beneficial to inshore squid populations and fisheries—growth rates would increase, life spans would shorten and population turnover would accelerate. However, the response of inshore squid populations to climate change is likely to be extremely complex. The size of hatchlings emerging from the eggs becomes smaller as temperatures increase and hatchling size may have a critical influence on the size-at-age that may be achieved as adults and subsequently, population structure. The influence of higher temperatures on the egg and adult stages may thus be opposing forces on the life-history. The process of climate change will likely result in squids that hatch out smaller and earlier, undergo faster growth over shorter life-spans and mature younger and at a smaller size. Individual squid will require more food per unit body size, require more oxygen for faster metabolisms and have a reduced capacity to cope without food. It is therefore likely that biological, physiological and behavioural changes in squid due to climate change will have far reaching effects.

Abstract Recent studies have shown that coastal and shelf cephalopod populations have increased globally over the last six decades. Although cephalopod landings are dominated by the squid fishery, which represents nearly 80% of the worldwide cephalopod catches, octopuses and cuttlefishes represent ∼10% each. Total reported global production of octopuses over the past three decades indicates a relatively steady increase in catch, almost doubling from 179,042 t in 1980 to 355,239 t in 2014. Octopus fisheries are likely to continue to grow in importance and magnitude as many finfish stocks are either fully or over-exploited. More than twenty described octopus species are harvested from some 90 countries worldwide. The current review describes the major octopus fisheries around the globe, providing an overview of species targeted, ecological and biological features of exploited stocks, catches and the key aspects of management.

ABSTRACT. Idiosepius pygmaeus Steenstrup, 1881 is redescribed and illustrated. Mantle up to 20.5 mm. Fins terminal, small and kidney-shaped. Mantle free from head along the margin, but mid-dorsally completely fused with funnel complex. Cartilagenous locking device with simple longitudinal grooves on funnel; oval ridges on mantle. Nuchal cartilage absent, but we interpret an oval depression in the central neck region as a rudimentary nuchal cartilage. Left and right 4th arms of males hectocotylized, normally with 1-3 uniserial suckers, but up to 4 suckers in this material. Suckers in 2 rows on sessile arms and 2-4 rows on tentacular club. Membranous gladius covers the posterior 2/3 of the dorsum. Eyes with opaque, wrinkled secondary·cornea in preserved specimens; anterior pores present. Olfactory crests prominent. Oviducts developed on both sides but functional on the left side only. Penis developed on left side only. We suggest that the genus Idiosepius is more closely related to Teuthida than to Sepiina. I. pygmaeus from mangroves on Phuket, Thailand is a new record for the Andaman Sea.
[1991. J. Hylleberg & A. Nateewathana].

Five Veined Octopus Amphioctopus marginatus (Taki), collected from Vizhinjam Bay in the Thiruvananthapuram District of Kerala, India were kept in aquariums to study their behaviour in captivity. Primary and secondary defence mechanisms studied included crypsis, hiding and escape behaviour. Deimatic behaviour was used by captive animals when camouflage failed and they were threatened. Crawling behaviour to escape from the aquarium was observed in all specimens. Stilt walking and bi-pedal locomotion were also observed. As a defence behaviour, A. marginatus used aquarium rocks to protect the soft underside of their bodies. A. marginatus demonstrated tool use of coconut shells to make protective shelters, carrying the shells for future use. A female specimen also selected a coconut shell for egg laying and performed parental care by continuously cleaning and aerating her eggs with her arms and by squirting jets of water over the eggs.

Hundreds of years ago, sailors were terrified by the Kraken, a dreadful sea monster capable of sinking ships and with a taste for human flesh. Today we know the legends of this monster were based on sightings of giant squids. This animal belongs to the genus Architeuthis and was the subject of many scientific
studies. Despite its enormous size (up to 18m), the giant squid is astoundingly elusive and much of its biology remains unknown. Thus shrouded in mystery, Architeuthis is almost a mythological creature and has a place both in science and in myth: the very last of the legends to persist to this day.

According cephalopods short life cycle, population dynamics is mainly determined by between-year variability in reproductive success. Therefore, stock management may be improved after protecting the main spawning areas. The microsites where the European squid, Loligo vulgaris spawns within a Marine Protected Area have been identified by deploying an array of 30 artificial structures at diffrent depths. We belive that this species selects the spawning area searching for an optimal temperature range that maximizes egg survival. Our results sugest that adults migrate from offto in-shore at winter, i.e.,when the water temperature near the cost is appropriate. Sandy bottoms seems to be preferred, which may be related with predator avoidance.

Animal minds and animal bodies evolved together. When did consciousness emerge and what animals have it? Consciousness has a distinct structure: a predictive, temporalized stream of intentional content. I argue that this structure also solves the biocomputational problem of controlling a complex, active animal body in space. This problem has been solved three times in animal evolution: in vertebrates, in arthropods, and in cephalopod mollusks. This supports the hypothesis that consciousness itself arose near the root of each of these lineages.

This visual guide is illustrated with images captured by Anadarko Colombia Company (ACC), a subsidiary of Anadarko Petroleum
Corporation (APC), during its normal offshore hydrocarbon exploration process at depths between 375 and 3288 m in the Colombian Caribbean Sea. Images were taken by towed camera, Remote Operated Vehicle (ROV), and by samples taken in Piston Core projects. Images were classified by large taxonomic groups. National experts were contacted to identify the organisms to the most specific taxonomic level possible. International experts were also contacted to confirm organisms previously identified or to identify those for which no national expert
was available. This guide includes introductions for each major taxonomic group and other ones for more specific groups (if applicable),
provided by the experts themselves, who participated in the identification of the organisms. This is the first visual guide of
deep-sea organisms (mega fauna) for the Colombian Caribbean.

Belemnites (order Belemnitida), a very successful group of
Mesozoic cephalopods, provide an important clue for understanding Mesozoic marine ecosystems and the origin of modern cephalopods. Following current hypotheses, belemnites originated in the earliest Jurassic (Hettangian, 201.6–197 Ma) with very small forms. Accord- ing to this view their paleobiogeographic distribution was restricted to northern Europe until the Pliensbachian (190–183 Ma). The fossil record is, however, biased by the fact that all the previous studies on belemnites focused on Europe. Here we report two belemnite taxa from the Hettangian of Japan: a new species of the Sinobelemnitidae and a large taxon of the suborder Belemnitina. The Sinobelemnitidae, which may be included in the future in a new suborder, have also been recorded from the Triassic of China, specimens so far poorly under- stood. The presence of a very large rostrum attributed to the Belemni- tina suggests in addition that a diverse belemnite fauna evolved earlier than previously thought. Our new findings therefore (1) extend the origin of the belemnites back by ~33 m.y. into the Triassic, (2) suggest that this group did not necessarily originate in northern Europe, and (3) imply that belemnites survived the Triassic–Jurassic extinction, one of the five big mass extinctions in the Phanerozoic. Since belem- nites provided a considerable amount of food as prey, the origination of belemnites is probably an important event also for the evolution of their predators, such as marine reptiles and sharks.

This book aims to address the deficiencies of contemporary evolution studies by evaluating Multi-Torus or Morphogenetic Torus Theory using the fossil record. The book begins with description of and discussion of one of most recently recognized members of the Ediacaran biota, a fossil that looks astonishingly like a fossilized morphogenetic torus. This is followed by evaluation a newly discovered giant trilobite with characteristics that appear to support toroidal morphogenesis theory. The book then looks at an application of the model to scleritome theory (i.e., the theory of shell evolution) and to the Cambrian origin of mollusks and brachiopods, and as a result will develop a new and powerful dual application of torus scleritome theory. Next follows focus on the early development of cephalopods and a new variant of the torus called hypertorus. Finally, the book considers a counterexample to toroidal morphogenesis in the growth of marine microbes known as foraminifera. Using a newly discovered foraminiferal microbiota (that turns out to be exactly contemporary with the new giant trilobite), the book explores the metacellular/chambering style of morphogenesis that stands in direct contrast to toroidal morphogenesis as a parallel morphogenetic system.

This short review summarizes the current status of the squid fisheries in Indian waters. It primarily considers
the historical classification and biological characteristics of squid within the context to Indian squid
varieties. Squid is an economically important cephalopod in India represented mainly by Loligo duvauceli,
Sepioteuthis lessoniana, and Doryteuthis species. Among the squids, the Indian squid (Loligo duvauceli) is
the dominant species, catching about 97% all over the country per year. The squid fish plays a major role in
balancing the marine ecosystem. Generally, the temperature changes, ocean acidification and climatic
changes are likely to affect marine ecosystems and their associated fisheries, adding to the challenges of
managing fisheries sustainably. The proposed changes responded quickly in the squids and act as ecosystem
indicators of environmental change by minimum growth rate and maximum production. Since, the increase
in ocean temperatures can cause faster growth and shorter life spans of squid. In addition, briefly reviews
the methods of exploitation of squid along with the current squid populations, fishing methods, export,
utilization and marketing. India’s squid fishing fleet accounted for 3% of the global squid production and
makes up approximately 5–7% of U.S. squid imports. The processed squid meat has been exported in global
level from the maritime states to Japan, US, EU, UAE, Italy and France through the major ports such as
Kochi, Kollam, Tuticorin, Mumbai and Visakhapatnam. A brief analysis of the current status of the Indian
squid fisheries and considers the potential for future development are provided in conclusion.

Octopus fisheries are an important resource for coastal communities throughout much the WIO region. In many coastal zones with coral reefs, octopus fishing dominates small-scale fishing effort and is a particularly important economic activity for women as well as men. This report reviews the status of octopus fisheries in the Western Indian Ocean, as part of efforts to improve regional knowledge. It examines trends in catches, imports and exports of octopus at both the global and regional level, and explores the status, extent and structure of the fisheries in eight WIO states: Madagascar, Rodrigues, Comoros, Tanzania, Zanzibar, The Seychelles, Kenya and Mozambique.

Recent studies have shown that coastal and shelf cephalopod populations have increased globally over the last six decades. Although cephalopod landings are dominated by the squid fishery, which represents nearly 80% of the worldwide cephalopod catches, octopuses and cuttlefishes represent ∼10% each. Total reported global production of octopuses over the past three decades indicates a relatively steady increase in catch, almost doubling from 179,042 t in 1980 to 355,239 t in 2014. Octopus fisheries are likely to continue to grow in importance and magnitude as many finfish stocks are either fully or over-exploited. More than twenty described octopus species are harvested from some 90 countries worldwide. The current review describes the major octopus fisheries around the globe, providing an overview of species targeted, ecological and biological features of exploited stocks, catches and the key aspects of management.

Abstract:  Numerous plectronocerid nautiloids appear in the Upper Cambrian of China. We have restudied their siphuncular structure, first described some 20 years ago. The siphuncle is characterized by: (1) long and holochoanitic septal necks dorsally but short and recurved necks laterally and ventrally; (2) strongly expanded connecting rings laterally; (3) two calcified layers in each connecting ring, outer spherulitic-prismatic and inner compact, the latter perforated by numerous pore canals; and (4) highly oblique siphuncular segments. The strongly expanded lateral sides of the connecting rings, together with the highly oblique course of the siphuncular segments, considerably enlarged the surface area of the connecting rings in each chamber, thereby increasing the transport capacity of cameral liquid. Thus, from their first appearance, plectronocerid nautiloids had developed a siphuncle for the replacement of cameral liquid with gases, and this system had a better and a more sophisticated design than that seen in stratigraphically younger nautiloids. However, their small orthoconic or slightly cyrtoconic shells were not well adapted for jet-powered swimming.

This work encompasses three years of nocturnal zooplankton samplings in the Ría de Vigo (2008-2009), as well as two oceanographic surveys over the shelf and continental slope off NW Iberian Peninsula (CAIBEX-I) and NW Africa (CAIBEX-III). Its aim was to understand basic aspects of the the planktonic paralarvae of Octopus vulgaris like their diet in the wild, their vertical and horizontal distributions in upwelling areas, its interactions with the zooplankton and their mortality. Secondary aims were: to study the ecology of other cephalopod species found together with O. vulgaris in the Ría de Vigo, as well as to compare the assemblage of cephalopod paralarvae and macrozooplankton found in two contrasting coastal areas, one with a seasonal upwelling like Cape Silleiro (CAIBEX-I) and the other with a quasi-permanent upwelling like Cape Ghir (CAIBEX-III). Finally, we aimed to identify the potential predators of cephalopod paralarvae among the macrozooplankton of the pelagic realm. Octo...

Cephalopods of 49 species and 25 families were collected in two surveys with midwater and bottom trawls in May-July, 1999
and June-July 2000 off Brazilian slope, aboard of the french research vessel Thalassa. The ship was at the service for the Bahia State, in collaboration with the REVIZEE (living resources of the Brazilian economic zone) program. Overall 51 mid-water and 67 bottom fishing hauls, 24 and 61 of which had cephalopods in the catch. Yields were low and no fishing potential for cephalopods was detected but the study area showed a considerable richness of species. The catch of the midwater hauls included 4230 cephalopods of 12 species and a mean weight of 2.5 g among which Abralia veranyi, A. redfeldi, juveniles of Loligo plei and of Illex sp were dominant. In the bottom trawls hauls 1123 specimens of 42 species weighting in mean 163.5 g were caught. The most abundant species were Pholidoteuthis adami, Illex coindetti, Ornithoteuthis antillarum and Histioteuthis corona corona. Higher densities occurred between 500 a 1500 m depth and diversity (number of species) increased with depth ranges. Multivariate analysis showed some changes in the species composition with increasing latitudes. Several species recorded formerly in the northern hemisphere up to the Caribbean Sea were found in the central Brazilian slope, as Rossia tortugaensis, Rossia (bullisi), Nectoteuthis pourtalesi, Benthoctopus oregonae e Illex coindetti. Species as Moroteuthis robsoni and Moroteuthis ingens, formerly known for higher latitudes, were shown to attain low latitudes in deep waters. Vampyroteuthis infernalis, Cirroteuthis muellei and Cirroteuthis magna were first recorded for the southwestern Atlantic.

Nectocaridids are soft-bodied early to middle Cambrian organisms known from Burgess Shale-type deposits in Canada, China, and Australia. Originally described as unrelated species, they have recently been interpreted as a clade; their flexible tentacles, camera-type eyes, lateral fins, internal gills, axial cavity, and funnel point to a relationship with the cephalopods. However, aspects of this reinterpretation, including the relevance of the group to cephalopod evolution, have been called into question.

Here, I examine new and existing nectocaridid material, including a large new form that may represent a sexual dimorph of Nectocaris pteryx. Differences between existing taxa largely represent taphonomic variation between sites and specimens—which provides further constraint on the organisms' anatomy. I revise the morphology of the tentacles and fins, and describe mouthparts and phosphatized gills for the first time. A mathematical analysis supports the presence of the earliest known camera-type eyes, and fluid mechanical considerations suggest that the funnel is optimized for efficient jet propulsion in a low Reynolds number flow regime.

Nectocaridids closely resemble coleoid cephalopods, but a position deeper within Cephalopoda raises fewer stratigraphic challenges. Whether its coleoid-like construction reflects common ancestry or profound convergence, the Nectocaris body plan adds substantially to Cambrian disparity, demonstrating the rapid colonization of nektobenthic niches after the Cambrian explosion.

The Lech
owka section comprises the most complete CretaceousePaleogene (K-Pg) boundary succession
in Poland and is among 29 sites worldwide with the youngest ammonite record. Here, cephalopods
(ammonites and nautilids), organic-walled dinoflagellates (dinocysts) and foraminifera from the uppermost
Maastrichtian interval are studied. In terms of ammonite biostratigraphy, the upper Maastrichtian
Hoploscaphites constrictus crassus Zone is documented up to a level 120 cm below the K-Pg
boundary. There is no direct, ammonite-based evidence of the highest Maastrichtian H. constrictus
johnjagti Zone. However, the predominance of the dinocyst marker taxon Palynodinium grallator suggests
the presence of the equivalent of the uppermost Maastrichtian Thalassiphora pelagica Subzone, which is
correlatable with the H. c. johnjagti ammonite Zone. The planktonic foraminiferal assemblage is coeval
with that from the H. c. johnjagti Zone as well. These data indicate that the top of the Maastrichtian at
Lech
owka is complete within the limits of biostratigraphic resolution, albeit slightly condensed. The
dinocyst and foraminiferal assemblages are dominated by taxa that are characteristic of high-energy,
marginal marine environments. A reduction in test size among the calcareous epifaunal benthic foraminifera
is observed at a level 50 cm below the K-Pg boundary, which is possibly related to environmental
stress associated with Deccan volcanism.

Cuttlefish are among the most fascinating molluscs in the ocean. This paper provides background information about cuttlefish, their scientific designations, and anatomy. It then proceeds to explore numerous special qualities related to cuttlefish including camouflage, exceptional intelligence, acute vision, an enhanced hearing system, and unique movement abilities. In addition, this paper outlines best practices for maintaining cuttlefish as domestic pets and considers future evolutionary adaptations of this remarkable species.

It is only in recent decades that subjective experience-or consciousness-has become a legitimate object of scientific inquiry. As such, it represents perhaps the greatest challenge facing neuroscience today. Subsumed within this challenge is the study of subjective experience in non-human animals: a particularly difficult endeavor that becomes even more so, as one crosses the great evolutionary divide between vertebrate and invertebrate phyla. Here, we explore the possibility of consciousness in one group of invertebrates: cephalopod molluscs. We believe such a review is timely, particularly considering cephalopods' impressive learning and memory abilities, rich behavioral repertoire, and the relative complexity of their nervous systems and sensory capabilities. Indeed, in some cephalopods, these abilities are so sophisticated that they are comparable to those of some higher vertebrates. Following the criteria and framework outlined for the identification of hallmarks of consciousness in non-mammalian species, here we propose that cephalopods-particularly the octopus-provide a unique test case among invertebrates for examining the properties and conditions that, at the very least, afford a basal faculty of consciousness. These include, among others: (i) discriminatory and anticipatory behaviors indicating a strong link between perception and memory recall; (ii) the presence of neural substrates representing functional analogs of thalamus and cortex; (iii) the neurophysiological dynamics resembling the functional signatures of conscious states in mammals. We highlight the current lack of evidence as well as potentially informative areas that warrant further investigation to support the view expressed here. Finally, we identify future research directions for the study of consciousness in these tantalizing animals.

The genera of 114 Middle Eocene (Lutetian) nautiloid specimens from the Dukhan Alveolina Limestone Member and four (4) from the Umm Bab Dolomite and Limestone Member of the Dammam Formation of Qatar are recorded and well illustrated.  The localities/coordinates of these specimens are also detailed when possible. An attempt to determine whether these fossils died in-situ or were transported over long distances on the Eocene Tethys Sea is made by correlating the geology and comparing the nautiloid specimens of the same time period in neighboring countries such as Egypt, India and Somalia. In addition, the current knowledge of the modern Nautilus is briefly summarized in order to help understanding the likely relation between the extinct nautiloids and the similarities and differences with the extinct ammonites.

In addition to the main text and appendices:
1) All the original pictures seen in the appendices can be viewed and downloaded from two separate Google Photos albums
2) A GoogleEarth file (.kmz) and a .gpx file of all nautiloid coordinates available in appendix “A” are attached to the pdf.
3) Four (4) videos are also available from links within the document (two from the author and two from external sources). Just search for “video” and enjoy.

The Collective Article ‘New Mediterranean Biodiversity Records’ of the Mediterranean Marine Science journal offers the means to publish biodiversity records in the Mediterranean Sea. The current article is divided in two parts, for records of native and alien species respectively. The new records of native species include: the neon flying squid Ommastrephes bartramii in the waters surrounding the island of Capri, Thyrrenian Sea; the bigeye thresher shark Alopias superciliosus in the Adriatic Sea; a juvenile basking shark Cetorhinus maximus caught off Piran (northern Adriatic); the deep-sea Messina rockfish Scorpaenodes arenai in the National Marine Park of Zakynthos (East Ionian Sea, Greece); and the oceanic puffer Lagocephalus lagocephalus in the Adriatic Sea.
The new records of alien species include: the red algae Antithamnionella elegans and Palisada maris-rubri, found for the first time in Israel and Greece respectively; the green alga Codium parvulum reported from Turkey (Aegean Sea); the first record of the alien sea urchin Diadema setosum in Greece; the nudibranch Goniobranchus annulatus reported from the South-Eastern Aegean Sea (Greece); the opisthobranch Melibe viridis found in Lebanon; the new records of the blue spotted cornetfish Fistularia commersonii along the Alicante coast (Eastern Spain); the alien fish Siganus luridus and Siganus rivulatus in Lipsi Island, Dodecanese (Greece); the first record of Stephanolepis diaspros from the Egadi Islands Marine Protected Area (western Sicily); a northward expansion of the alien pufferfish Torquigener flavimaculosus along the southeastern Aegean coasts of Turkey; and data on the occurrence of the Lessepsian immigrants Alepes djedaba, Lagocephalus sceleratus and Fistularia commersonii in the waters surrounding the island of Zakynthos (SE Ionian Sea, Greece).

Von Juli bis November 2012 boten das Ausbaggern eines Regenwasserrückhaltebeckens an der Petristraße / Ecke  Feldstraße und das Anlegen eines an das Becken anschließenden Regenwasserkanals an der Straße Am Finkenbach, etwa 2 Kilometer nordöstlich des Stadtzentrums von Bielefeld, die seltene Möglichkeit einen Einblick in die Schichten der Semicostatum-Zone des Unteren Sinemuriums (Unterer Jura) von Bielefeld zu erhalten. Nach Abschluss der Baumaßnahme konnten mittlerweile die meisten besonders aussagekräftigen und optisch ansprechend erhaltenen Funde präpariert werden, In diesem Artikel wird zusammenfassend über den temporären Aufschluss berichtet - ein seltener Einblick in den Unterjura Bielefelds.

Bei Herford-Diebrock wird seit 1975 in unterschiedlichen Tongruben durch die Firma Stork Tongruben GmbH Ton abgebaut. Hierfür werden bevorzugt Tonsteine des Sinemuriums genutzt, die über einige Jahre hinweg u. a. eine Invertebratenfauna der Zone des Ammoniten Asteroceras obtusum (Sinemurium, Unterer Jura) lieferten. Der Autor besuchte die Tongrube im Zeitraum von 2000-2009 regelmäßig und bildet typische Funde ab, die er dort auflesen konnte, u. a. Xipheroceras dudressieri, Xipheroceras ziphus, Promicroceras planicosta und Asteroceras obtusum.

Cephalopods (nautiluses, cuttlefishes, squids and octopuses) exhibit direct development and display two major developmental modes: planktonic and benthic. Planktonic hatchlings are small and go through some degree of morphological changes during the planktonic phase, which can last from days to months, with ocean currents enhancing their dispersal capacity. Benthic hatchlings are usually large, miniature-like adults and have comparatively reduced dispersal potential. We examined the relationship between early developmental mode, hatchling size and species latitudinal distribution range of 110 species hatched in the laboratory, which represent 13% of the total number of live cephalopod species described to date. Results showed that species with planktonic hatchlings reach broader distributional ranges in comparison with species with benthic hatchlings. In addition, squids and octopods follow an inverse relationship between hatchling size and species latitudinal distribution. In both groups, species with smaller hatchlings have broader latitudinal distribution ranges. Thus, squid and octopod species with larger hatchlings have latitudinal distributions of comparatively minor extension. This pattern also emerges when all species are grouped by genus (n = 41), but was not detected for cuttlefishes, a group composed mainly of species with large and benthic hatchlings. However, when hatchling size was compared to adult size, it was observed that the smaller the hatchlings, the broader the lati-tudinal distributional range of the species for cuttlefishes, squids and octopuses. This was also valid for all cephalopod species with benthic hatchlings pooled together. Hatchling size and associated developmental mode and dispersal potential seem to be main influential factors in determining the distributional range of cephalopods.

It is of scientific and practical interest to consider the levels of cognitive ability in animals,
which animals are sentient, which animals have feelings such as pain and which animals
should be protected. A sentient being is one that has some ability to evaluate the actions of others in
relation to itself and third parties, to remember some of its own actions and their consequences, to
assess risk, to have some feelings and to have some degree of awareness. These abilities can be taken
into account when evaluating welfare. There is evidence from some species of fish, cephalopods and
decapod crustaceans of substantial perceptual ability, pain and adrenal systems, emotional
responses, long- and short-term memory, complex cognition, individual differences, deception, tool
use, and social learning. The case for protecting these animals would appear to be substantial. A
range of causes of poor welfare in farmed aquatic animals is summarised.reverence than an inanimate object because living organisms are qualitatively different from inanimate objects in complexity, potential and aesthetic quality. This can affect decisions about whether to kill the organism and whether to conserve such organisms. As a consequence of their ability to respond and behave, we consider that we have more obligations to an animal than to a microorganism or plant. We feel concerned about their welfare, especially in the case of the more complex animals (Broom 2003). Which kinds of animal deserve such consideration? Concern for animal welfare is increasing rapidly and is a significant factor affecting whether or not animal products are bought. If a product is perceived to have adverse effects on human health, animal welfare or the environment, sales can slump dramatically (Bennett 1994). The more valuable the product, the richer the consumers and the more likely they are to decide not to buy a product on grounds such as the poor welfare of fish (Broom 1994). The fish-farming industry cannot afford to ignore fish welfare when bad publicity about it could affect sales greatly (Broom 1999). Our knowledge of the functioning of the brain and nervous system and of animal welfare has advanced rapidly in recent years (Broom & Johnson 2000, Broom & Zanella 2004). New knowledge has tended to show that the abilities and functioning of non-human animals are more complex than had previously been assumed, so it is my opinion that some re-appraisal of the threshold levels for protection is needed. Proposals for change have been made by the EFSA Scientific Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (2005). ABSTRACT: It is of scientific and practical interest to consider the levels of cognitive ability in animals , which animals are sentient, which animals have feelings such as pain and which animals should be protected. A sentient being is one that has some ability to evaluate the actions of others in relation to itself and third parties, to remember some of its own actions and their consequences, to assess risk, to have some feelings and to have some degree of awareness. These abilities can be taken into account when evaluating welfare. There is evidence from some species of fish, cephalopods and decapod crustaceans of substantial perceptual ability, pain and adrenal systems, emotional responses, long-and short-term memory, complex cognition, individual differences, deception, tool use, and social learning. The case for protecting these animals would appear to be substantial. A range of causes of poor welfare in farmed aquatic animals is summarised.