Cross Cultural Research

Skin color of respondents is increasingly being collected by interviewers in face to face surveys and used in social science research. Nevertheless, skin color has the potential to be significantly influenced by interviewer effects. We use the AmericasBarometer (LAPOP) study to investigate interviewer variation in skin color ratings, the variation of this by country and interviewer characteristics as well as the impact of correcting for interviewer effects. We find that interviewers explain about 20% of the variation in skin color assessments and this variesgreatly by country. We also find that the darker the skin color of the interviewer the darker their rating of the respondents and that correcting for interviewer effects leads to small differences in regression coefficients.

Cross-cultural research is dominated by the use of values despite their mixed empirical support and their limited theoretical scope. This article expands the dominant paradigm in crosscultural research by developing a theory of cultural tightness-looseness, the strength of social norms and degree of sanctioning within societies, and advancing a multilevel research agenda for future research. Through an exploration of the

Data were collected by the members of the Russian character and personality survey from 39 samples in 33 administrative areas of the Russian Federation. Respondents (N = 7065) identified an ethnically Russian adult or college‐aged man or woman whom they knew well and rated the target using the Russian observer rating version of the Revised NEO Personality Inventory, which measures neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness. Factor analyses within samples showed that the factor structure of an international sample combining data from 50 different cultures was well replicated in all 39 Russian samples. Sex differences replicated the known pattern in all samples, demonstrating that women scored higher than men on most of the neuroticism, openness, agreeableness and conscientiousness facet scales. Cross‐sectional analyses demonstrated consistent age differences for four factors: Older individuals compared to younger ones were less extraverted ...

This article describes cross-cultural research on the relation between how people conceptualize nature and how they act in it. Mental models of nature differ dramatically among populations living in the same area and engaged in similar activities. This has novel implications for ...

Our focus on Cross-Cultural Research is not a substantive focus in itself, but rather a methodological one. In this paper we focus on "the how but not the what " in cross-national development research. We seek to answer the question: How can research be carried out ethically when stakeholders of the research are from diverse cultures? Here we seek to find a basis with Indonesian colleagues where we can use comparative methods in an ethical and rigorous way to examine empirical relationships among two or more variables in the cross-cultural context. We examine the literature of cross-cultural methodology looking at how value differences between cultures affect cross-cultural research. As we prepare for major research projects between Australian and Indonesian researchers, we analyse how comparative research typically superimposes a cross-level design derived from the needs for 'Western' empiricism without a proper understanding of higher order levels of culture. The causative element that is sought and measured may actually be part of a much larger phenomenon. Because researchers are normally so based in their own culture, they must come to grips with the criticism of treating developing nations as 'passive subjects' of research projects undertaken by 'others' who have arrived in-country with 'ethical consents' given by various overseas institutions. While those consents may have a particular and specific merit within those institutions, they play but a part of the overall ethical considerations in international research. The paper postulates how to overcome these problematic, difficult and demanding methodological issues or circumstances where participants may have considered themselves exploited and muted research subjects. The paper draws on the experience of undertaking cross-cultural research in three diverse countries, with both settled and Indigenous populations, with relevance to Indonesian researchers. It provides methods on which to base appropriate approaches to cross-cultural research. We discuss the major areas of methodological design and make recommendations for optimal cross-cultural research projects that aid economic, cultural and social development of all Indonesian peoples. The authors conclude that, despite the difficulties in carrying out cross-cultural research, it is possible to make a significant contribution to the literature and expand knowledge, making the experience rewarding for all parties.

Mindfulness is a burgeoning field of study and practice within mental health care and medicine. Yet ethical codes, and the philosophy of the therapist-client relationship, differ greatly between disciplines, and even more between those disciplines and mindfulness-based approaches. The potential for ethical dilemmas is therefore significant.

The book breaks new ground by taking a focused look at an ethics derived from contemporary clinical mindfulness practice itself. What does a secular ethics of mindfulness look like? Who is competent to work therapeutically with mindfulness, and how does one delimit areas and levels of competence? How do clinicians ethically understand the therapist-client relationship from the therapeutic position of mindfulness? And how do clinicians respond when the necessary restraints of their professional role and ethics code come into conflict with the mindfulness-based relationship and therapeutic position?

This book makes a vital contribution to the understanding of ethics as the cornerstone of mindfulness-based practice, and will be of interest to all those involved in delivering mindfulness-based interventions, including psychologists, counselors, spiritual directors, occupational therapists, physicians, nurses, and educators.

... him, or to be in his company without a male relative also being present. ... The work that our participants described could similarly be said to have reinforced their ... unpack in greater detail how our participants' communication practices reflected specific Arabic cultural expectations ...

Introduction. The prevalence rates of bullying vary significantly across countries and continents. Specifically, UNESCO estimates that the prevalence rates vary from 22.8% (Central America) to 48.2% (Sub-Saharan Africa). Recently these differences among countries and regions have been attributed to culture-and country-level variables. Thus, the first purpose of this study is to examine the comparability of bullying in schools across countries. Secondly, a cross-cultural comparison of the latent mean scores of bullying is implemented. Method. The data of 286,481 adolescent students (M=15.78, SD=0.29) from 32 countries were analyzed using multilevel confirmatory factor analyses (MLCFA) and multigroup factor alignment. Results. Results indicated that the meaning of bullying is equivalent within and between cultures. However, cross-cultural differences in bullying are apparent. East Asian countries have the lowest latent means of bullying, while Southeast Asian countries have the highest means. Anglo-Saxon, Eastern European, Mediterranean, South American, and Middle East countries displayed rather higher scores. Discussion and Conclusion. These findings underscore the existence of cross-cultural differential responding in bullying measures. Further, the implicit role of culture as an important variable that determines the rates of bullying is underscored.

Stigma is an important barrier to seeking psychological services worldwide. Two types of stigma exist: public stigma and self-stigma. Scholars have argued that public stigma leads to self-stigma, and then self-stigma is the primary predictor of attitudes toward seeking psychological services. However, this assertion is largely limited to U.S. samples. The goal of this research was to provide a first step in understanding the relationship between public stigma, self-stigma, and attitudes toward seeking psychological services in international contexts (N = 3,276; Australia, Brazil, Canada, Hong Kong, Portugal, Romania, Taiwan, Turkey, United Arab Emirates, and United States). Using structural equation modeling, we found that self-stigma mediated the relationship between public stigma and attitudes toward seeking services among college students in each country and region. However, differences in path strengths emphasize the need to pay attention to the role of public and self-stigma on...

Abstract. Background and aim of the work: The Activities Scale for Kids performance (ASKp) is one of the
few self-assessment questionnaires in pediatric rehabilitation that measures child perception in performance
of daily routine activities. ASKp is composed of 30 questions designed to explore activities and participation
in children and teenagers with musculoskeletal disorders. Scores assess level of physical ability, identify
appropriate treatment and monitor changes over time. We undertook this cross-cultural validation study to
achieve a culturally adapted Italian version of ASKp, to be tested on Italian children. Methods: ASKp was
converted into Italian by two independent certified translators, supported by two Italian research physiotherapists.
Twelve children with musculoskeletal disorders, their parents and eleven expert pediatric physiotherapists
independently assessed clarity of language and semantics of each item. Physiotherapists also evaluated
content validity of each item. Results: One item out of 30 did not reach inter-rater agreement ≥80% for clarity
and was modified according to suggestions given. A panel of three research physiotherapists improved clarity
of some other items based on suggestions from study participants. Regarding content validity of ASKp, ICVI
was ≥0.59 for all items and overall ASKp was deemed valid (S-CVI/Ave 0.93). Conclusions: The Italian
version of ASKp is linguistically clear and culturally coherent with a high content validity. It can be extremely
useful in assessing activity limitation perspectives in Italian children and adolescent ranging from five to 15
affected by musculoskeletal disorders

Purpose
The purpose of this paper is to comprehensively explore marketing issues for foreign industrial companies of large, small and medium size entering emerging markets (EMs), particularly transition economies in Eastern Europe. The vast majority of current studies about emerging markets focus only on defining suitable strategies related to large consumer goods corporations.

Design/methodology/approach
The research adopted a multiple case study approach. Five Italian companies belonging to different business-to-business industries that have entered emerging countries in Eastern Europe were selected for investigation.

Findings
Empirical analysis uncovered recurring issues related to: institutional factors causing market uncertainty and instability; difficulties in building a sales network; a need for product adaptation to guarantee satisfactory performance; choices related to communication, branding and trade fairs; and considerations about competition and first mover advantage. Results can be interpreted as an extension of the analysis of institutional voids by Khanna and Palepu (1997).

Research limitations/implications
The study is based on the analysis of five case studies of companies operating in specific emerging markets, namely in Eastern Europe Countries (EEc) Further research based on different samples and different emerging countries is needed before generalizing results.

Practical implications
The study shows that the main institutional void affecting business-to-business companies entering emerging markets (EEc) is the lack of locally developed sales and after-sales networks. This institutional void slows the entry process of business-to-business companies in EMs. Given these constraints, from the perspective of business-to-business SMEs, it may be fruitful to pursue niche positioning in EMs.

Originality/value
The study analyzes emerging markets opportunities and entry strategies from the business-to-business marketing perspective, uncovering the most critical issues.

Connectedness between children and their family is a major factor that distinguishes between collective and individualistic cultures. The Multigenerational Interconnectedness Scale, measuring adolescents-family connectedness was administered to adolescents in nine western and eastern countries. The findings show that connectedness in eastern countries was higher than that in western ones. Female adolescents were more connected to their families than males. Connectedness was higher among families with a higher economic level and where the parents had more education. Financial and functional connectedness was associated with adolescents’ better mental health, whereas emotional connectedness (or dependency) was associated with psychological disorders. The association between connectedness and psychological disorders was not the same across countries.

Cross cultural studies of homosexuality have focused either on homosexual behavior or on a specific characteristic such as transvestism that has been associated with homosexuality in some societies.  It is argued that future research must distinguish between various types of statuses with which homosexual behavior can be associated.  The existing cross cultural studies of homosexuality are reevaluated, dividing societies in the Standard Cross Cultural Sample into three groups, those with berdache like or intragenerational homosexual statuses, those with male mentorships or intergenerational homosexual statuses, and all other societies in the Standard Cross-Cultural Sample.  It is demonstrated that intragenerational and intergenerational homosexuality are cross culturally valid distinctions and that the past failure to distinguish between the two forms has been a serious flaw in previous research.  Finally, the social characteristics that differentiate these two types of homosexuality are summarized, and it is suggested that these contrasts are related to socioeconomic factors that may be seen as integrating homosexual behavior into the broader matrix of each society's gender roles.

A previous quantitative and qualitative study carried out by the author demonstrated that many of the personality traits that facilitate cultural adaptation or adjustment (the ability to function at a high level in cross-cultural environments) also facilitate gaining fluency in foreign languages (Keeley, 2014; Keeley, 2013; Keeley, 2012). The study employed Kozai Group’s Global Competencies Inventory (GCI), a validated instrument for expatriate selection focusing on the psychological factors demonstrated to facilitate functioning in cross-cultural environments. Optimism is one of the GCI competencies that demonstrated a strong relationship with the development of oral fluency in foreign languages. The objective of this paper is to explore optimism in detail and how it facilitates cross-cultural adjustment and foreign language fluency.

Individual and situational risk factors associated with negative postabortion psychological sequelae have been identified, but the degree of posttraumatic stress reactions and the effects of culture are largely unknown. Retrospective data were collected using the Institute for Pregnancy Loss Questionnaire (IPLQ) and the Traumatic Stress Institute's (TSI) Belief Scale administered at health care facilities to 548 women (331 Russian and 217 American) who had experienced one or more abortions, but no other pregnancy losses. Overall, the findings here indicated that American women were more negatively influenced by their abortion experiences than Russian women. While 65% of American women and 13.1% of Russian women experienced multiple symptoms of increased arousal, re-experiencing and avoidance associated with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), 14.3% of American and 0.9% of Russian women met the full diagnostic criteria for PTSD. Russian women had significantly higher scores on ...

TO CITE: Köseoğlu, Emine; Önder, Deniz Erinsel & Bilen Ömer (2012). “A Cross-Cultural Comparison of Tourists’ Perceptions of Hotel Lobbies”, International Journal of Architectural Research, 6(3), 109-123.

ABSTRACT
This study examines cultural differences in the perception of hotel lobbies. It aims to determine the differences/similarities within spatial preferences in hotel lobbies by focusing on three aspects of space: physical appearance, configuration, and usage and privacy arrangements. To measure the differences, a survey is conducted in Sultanahmet, Istanbul with tourists within two focus groups from Asian and European countries (n= 30 each). They are asked to rate their agreement with each statement about the spatial features on a 5-point Likert scale. As a result, both differences and similarities in the perception of the tourists from different cultures are found. It can be noted that there are statistically significant differences between the two groups in terms of configurational features and usage and privacy arrangement of lobbies. The results provide designers some data to create a space for similar user profiles.

This article presents some results of cross-cultural research on perception of the term "culture" by university students
in the United States and the Russian Federation. It includes the comparison of the summarized responses between the
two national groups and the exploration of gender and age influence on the responses. The specific focus is made on
differences between responses on different items within national groups. The field of research involves the study (with
the technique of cross-national research) of cognitive processes, some aspects of cultural identity, cross-national
differences, gender attitudes and semantic studies as proposed by early Cultural Studies researchers. On the basis of
factor analysis of the data "Cognitive World Maps" of American and Russian students are constructed. American
students of our sample tend to perceive themselves as living in a sort of a "cave" of unsafe low spirituality of their
student community in a large "island" of "safe low spirituality" of their own country, which is in its turn situated in an
"ocean" of "unsafe high spirituality" of the large world of human culture. In contrast with them Russian students of
our sample tend to perceive themselves as living in a sort of a "cave" of safe low spirituality of their student
community in a large "island" of "unsafe high spirituality" of their own country, which is in its turn situated in an
"ocean" of "safe medium spirituality" of the large world of human culture.

Phonological awareness is critical for learning to read in alphabetic languages like English. This report summarizes normal development of phonological awareness as it has been revealed through recent multidisciplinary and cross-cultural research. We argue that a consensus on the definition of phonological awareness has emerged, that research has identified a general sequence of phonological awareness development that is universal across