Evolution of sociality

The paper presents extensively, from a theoretical point of view, the concepts of leader and follower and their extensions, leadership and followership, as well as the role of leaders and followers in crowd coordination and common action. The main approach of the concepts is that of evolutionary psychology, as this theoretical framework indicate that both leadership and followership are evolutionary adaptations, their properties and characteristics being also found among other species of animals that manifest sociality. The attempt to pinpoint the evolutionary origin of both leadership and followership, and the common features that animals and humans share in terms of leaders and followers is a necessary undertaking for explaining leadership in organizations and, possibly, in improving the quality of leadership.

Reflecting on the recent book by Marina L. Butovskaya and Victoria V. Rostovtseva, the author discusses altruism and selfishness as preconditions for cooperation of humans in society for collective actions, as a result of which its sociocultural transformations take place. It is argued that the problem of sources of cooperative behavior is by no means the one of strict choice between altruism and selfishness. Cooperation in society is based on a combination of altruism and selfishness in human behavior, with reciprocity of relationships as a connecting link between them. Butovskaya and Rostovtseva’s approach to the problem of the sources of cooperation as the background of social evolution is compared with the theories for which this problem is crucially important, too but solved differently – the collective action theory and collective acceptance theory of institutions.

Introduction describes the main aim of the volume as to present a novel approach to the study of social evolution. This approach is based on a look at, and analysis of social evolution through the evolution of social institutions associated with the rise and development of social complexity. Evolution is defined as the process of structural change. Within this framework, the society, or culture, is seen as a system composed of a great number of various social institutions that are interacting and changing. As a result, the whole structure of society is changing, that is evolving. Evolution does not have any particular direction, as any significant (that is, transforming the societal structure in any direction) change is evolutionary. Introduction gives an outline of the history of the notion of social institution and its conceptualization, and describes social institutions’ main characteristics and functions. It also summarizes the volume’s theoretical chapters and case studies.

A szöveggyűjtemény Niklas Luhmann társadalomelméletének szerteágazó területeit mutatja be. A kötet részben az utóbbi 25 évben megjelent, már könyvtári forgalomban is nehezen elérhető magyar nyelvû Luhmann-fordításokból válogat, részben pedig az elmúlt években megjelent Luhmann-kötetek néhány fejezetét tartalmazza. A szöveggyűjtemény összeállításának célja, hogy az olvasó egy nem túl terjedelmes „textbook” által Luhmann-nak a szocialitás
egészét megragadni akaró elméletének legfontosabb csomópontjai mentén az egész életműről hiteles képet kapjon. A Luhmann-írások megértését bevezető tanulmányok igyekeznek segíteni.

Archaeological evidence for musical activities pre-dates even the earliest-known cave art and it remains the case that no human culture has yet been encountered that does not practise some recognisably musical activity. Yet the human abilities to make and appreciate music have been described as “amongst the most mysterious with which [we are] endowed” (Charles Darwin, 1872) and music itself as “the supreme mystery of the science of man” (Claude Levi-Strauss, 1970). Like language, music has been the subject of keen investigation across a great diversity of fields, from neuroscience and psychology, to ethnography, to studies of its structures in its own dedicated field, musicology; unlike the evolution of human language abilities, it is only recently that the origins of musical capacities have begun to receive dedicated attention.

It is increasingly clear that human musical abilities are fundamentally related to other important human abilities, yet much remains mysterious about this ubiquitous human phenomenon, not least its prehistoric origins. It is evident that no single field of investigation can address the wide range of issues relevant
to answering the question of music’s origins. This review brings together evidence from a wide range of anthropological and human sciences, including palaeoanthropology, archaeology, neuroscience, primatology and developmental psychology, in an attempt to elucidate the nature of the foundations of music, how they have evolved, and how they are related to capabilities underlying other important human behaviours.

It is proposed that at their most fundamental level musical behaviours (including both vocalisation and dance) are forms of deliberate metrically-organised gesture, and constitute a specialised use of systems dedicated to the expression and comprehension of social and emotional information between individuals. The abilities underlying these behaviours are selectively advantageous themselves; in addition, various mechanisms by which the practice of musical activities themselves could be advantageous are outlined.

Although the theory of evolution was scientifically formulated only in the second part of the 19th century, the tradition of explaining and understanding humans as a (special, different) kind of animals dates back to the beginning of civilization. One of the oldest and most common definitions is the one describing a ‘man as a social animal’. While most notions of humans as animals have been effected by anthropocentrism (e.g. social cognition as specific to humans), some definitions have been, contradictory, emphasizing anthropodenial. Mathematically speaking, the “insert attribute” type of defining humans as animals is in its core- a function. While the nature of the relation changed, horizontally- over time and vertically- in different social settings, the idea of the function remained the same: underlining the differences. In this comparative study, we collected, extracted, analyzed and categorized definitions and depictions of humans through some form of correlation with animals from a variety of fields: natural sciences, social sciences, literature, philosophy, arts and culture. Results of the study include various classifications of definitions of humans as (social) animals, development and evolution in science as reflected in other fields as well as future tendencies. One of the conclusions of the research is the recognition of shifts in the society regarding understanding animals and humans. Some of the shifts were massive and quick, such as the theory of evolution, and as such reflected deeply in the understanding humans, animals and their social dimensions. However, recent advances in behavioral biology and animal cognition continue to show that there is increasingly less space for defining by differences.
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In this paper we analyse the possibility that the early hominin Ardipithecus ramidus had vocal capabilities far exceeding those of any extant non-human primate. We argue that erect posture combined with changes in craniofacial morphology, such as reduced facial and jaw length, not only provide evidence for increased levels of pro-sociality, but also increased vocal ability. Reduced length of the face and jaw, combined with a flexed cranial base, suggests the larynx in this species was situated deeper in the neck than in chimpanzees, a trait which may have facilitated increased vocal ability. We also provide evidence that Ar. ramidus, by virtue of its erect posture, possessed a degree of cervical lordosis significantly greater than chimpanzees. This is indicative of increased mobility of the larynx within the neck and hence increased capacity to modulate vocalisations. In the paleoanthropological literature, these changes in early hominin skull morphology have to date been analysed in terms of a shift in mating and social behaviour, with little consideration given to vocally mediated sociality. Similarly, in the literature on language evolution there is a distinct lacuna regarding links between craniofacial correlates of social and mating systems and vocal ability. These are surprising oversights given that pro-sociality and vocal capability require identical alterations to the common ancestral skull and skeletal configuration. We therefore propose a model which integrates data on whole organism morphogenesis with evidence for a potential early emergence of hominin socio-vocal adaptations. Consequently, we suggest vocal capability may have evolved much earlier than has been traditionally proposed. Instead of emerging in the Homo genus, we suggest the palaeoecological context of late Miocene and early Pliocene forests and woodlands facilitated the evolution of hominin socio-vocal capability. We also propose that paedomorphic morphogenesis of the skull via the process of self-domestication enabled increased levels of pro-social behaviour, as well as increased capacity for socially synchronous vocalisation to evolve at the base of the hominin clade.

"CONTENTS
Carole L. Crumley. CONTEXTUAL CONSTRAINTS ON STATE STRUCTURE
Olga Yu.Artemova. ON SOME FORMS OFHIERARCHICAL SYSTEMS
David Christian. HIERARCHY AND HETERARCHYIN WORLD HISTORY
Herbert Barry. SOCIAL BEHAVIORS ASSOCIATEDWITH HEREDITARY COMMUNITY LEADERSHIP
Garrett Cook. HETERARCHY AND HOMOARCHYIN MAYA VILLAGE POLITICS
Toon van Meijl. METAPHOR AND HIERARCHY IN MAORISOCIO-POLITICAL ORGANISATION
Timothy R. Pauketat, Thomas E. Emerson. ALTERNATIVE CIVILIZATIONS:HETERARCHIES, CORPORATEPOLITIES, AND ORTHODOXIES
Jan Bouzek. EXERTION OF POWER IN CLASSICALAND HELLENISTIC THRACE
Dmitri M. Bondarenko. BENIN KINGDOM (13TH – 19TH CENTURIES): A SUPERCOMPLEX NON-STATE SOCIETY
Leonid E. Grinin. ALTERNATIVITY OF STATE FORMATION PROCESS: THE EARLY STATE VS. STATE ANАLOGUES
Robert Zaller. DISCOURSES OF LEGITIMACY:HONOR AND AUTHORITYIN THE ENGLISH PARLIAMENT OF 1626"

Prior interpretations of the tattoos of nonhuman animals etched upon the preserved human bodies from the Pazyryk archaeological culture of Inner Asia have focused on solely human-generated meanings. This article utilizes an ethnoarchaeological approach to reassess these tattoos,
by analogizing the nature and possibilities of human-ridden horse intersubjectivities in the present with those of the past. As enlightened by people who live with horses, including the author, the process of learning to ride can be seen as an interspecies apprenticeship process, where both humans and horses pass along social knowledge as thoughtful actors with defined roles. From this perspective, the horse tattoos are presented as polysemic materializations of the
bonds between particular Pazyryk horses and people, of blended identities, and of cosmological values related to time, memory, and belonging. The article concludes that exploring smaller-scale
human-nonhuman animal interactions in the present allows for fresh interpretations of similar interactions in the past and provides a means for archaeology to move beyond the objectification of animals as sets of resources or symbols.

Автор исходит из постулата, что принцип организации общества — преимущественно родственный или территориальный — как критерий различения государственных и негосударственных социумов весьма значим, но изучив современное состояние проблемы, пришел к заключению, что проблема родства и территории — это вопрос меры, соотношения между ними, а не наличия или отсутствия, хотя общей социоисторической тенденцией действительно является постепенное вытеснение родственных институтов территориальными на надлокальных уровнях социокультурной и политической сложности. В то же время нет никаких оснований искать в истории того или иного общества момент некого скачка — от полного доминирования родства к абсолютному господству территориальных связей. Напротив, история представляет собой континуум социально-политических форм, в типологической последовательности которых, можно обнаружить общую динамику от большей к меньшей значимости родственных связей по сравнению с территориальными. Немаловажным уточнением является то, что, с одной стороны, в основе государства не могут не лежать преимущественно территориальные связи, но, с другой стороны, это вовсе не значит, что никогда не существовало основанных на них же сложных негосударственных обществ.

Sorti sulle tracce delle coffeehouses inglesi, i Caffè italiani hanno rappresentato un’autentica rivoluzione sociale. A differenza dei salotti aristocratico-elitari, vi si poteva infatti accedere senza essere invitati, disponendo di libertà di parola e senza distinzione di genere. Spazi incubatori della nuova società borghese e della nascente nazione, luoghi di germinazione per avanguardie artistiche e cenacoli letterari, tra i loro tavoli sono maturati anche i più importanti movimenti politici che segneranno la storia d’Italia. Attraverso un'analisi sociologica sulle forme di socialità presenti al loro interno, l'’itinerario considera quei Caffè storici che sono rimasti ancora tali, negli indirizzi e negli arredi: tra questi, il più antico, il veneziano Florian, il padovano Pedrocchi, il torinese Al Bicerin, il triestino Tommaseo, il fiorentino Gilli, il romano Antico Caffè Greco, il napoletano Gambrinus.

The paper intends to track the naming criteria for dogs among the chané. Links between onomastics and diverse cultural contexts are thus analysed - such as the daily treatment and attitudes towards dogs, mythic symbolism, etymology, human names, names of domestic pets and taxonomic classification. In a comparative perspective, meaningful relationships are also verified with the dynamics of ethnic relationships and mythologies of Chaco ethnic groups.

The author studies variables that are usually regarded as the main
causes of the decline of unilineal descent organization (statehood,
class stratification and commercialization), along with a variable
that has never been regarded as such a cause—deep Christianization.
He finds that the traditionally accepted causes of the decline
of unilineal descent organization are less significant (Rho = –.26
for the statehood; Rho = –.18 for class stratification, andRho = –.23 for
commercialization) than deep Christianization (Phi = Rho = –.7). He also
shows that the presence of unilineal descent groups correlates negatively with communal democracy and is especially strong for complex traditional societies (Phi = –.49; Gamma = –.84). Because the communal democracy correlates positively with the supracommunal one, the Christianization of Europe might have contributed to the development of modern democracy by helping to destroy unilineal descent organization in this region.

"[This work] is one of the most remarkable and important studies in recent years in cross-cultural analysis. Following the general thrust of Max Weber's
argument for the significance of religion for social and economic development, Korotayev shows that the divergence between Islam and Christianity is deep
and long-standing....Korotayev shows that Islamic societies are at the extreme poles of unilateral descent and patricentric kinship structures, whereas Christian societies are at the opposite poles of bilateral descent and matrilateral kinship.....Basing his findings on a wide-ranging and well executed technical analysis of cross-cultural data sets, Korotayev makes a strong case. This work will be of great importance for everyone interested in long-term structural patterns of human societies; in the comparison of Christian and Islamic regions of the world; and in the deep historical evolution of democracy." - Randall Collins, University of Pennsylvania

"Andrey Korotayev has written an original and penetrating analysis of the
influence of world religions on social evolution.....Korotayev persuasively
argues that the communicative networks associated with world religions, such
as Christianity and Islam, molded the social structure of the Afroeurasian
societies. Good ideas and rigorous statistical insights abound. Of particular
interest to many readers will be the new results on the influence of religions
on intrasocietal aggression and on communal democracy. This is an important
and timely book by one of the foremost scholars in the field of social
evolution." - Professor Peter Turchin (University of Connecticut, Storrs),
author of Historical Dynamics: Why States Rise and Fall
"This new study by Professor Korotayev is a particularly valuable
contribution....effectively showing that religion does indeed have an active
role in shaping other elements of social organization.....This is an important
study not just because it addresses these crucial yet strangely neglected
questions, but even more so because of its unusually empirical and
hypothesis-based approach. The correlational studies relating elements of the
different religions to sociostructural characteristics of cultures is certainly the
heart of the book.....Professor Korotayev persuasively argues that progress
remains a valuable concept if we wish to fully explore social evolution and it is
one that can be approached much more objectively than most of us would
have guessed." - Paul K. Wason, Director of Science and Religion Programs,
John Templeton Foundation and author of Archaeology of Rank (Cambridge,
1994).

Yet again, the perennial question: What is ‘the social?’ if there is one commonplace that seems to traverse the multiplicity of practices we have come to associate with the so-called ‘social’ sciences, it is the implicit sense that the nature of ‘the social’ constitutes a problem. Indeed, far from serving as an agreed first principle capable of articulating a scientific commu- nity, the definition of the social has become a problem which persists in the many attempted solutions that have been proposed as a response to it over and beyond the history of the social sciences. In this sense, as intellectual historians have attested, struggles with the problematic nature of the social by far predate their emergence. Keith Baker (1994: 95), for example, notes that already in 1775 the Comte de Mirabeu characterised the social as ‘a dangerous word’ whose senses were multiple, while some early attempts at solving the problem – in the sense at least of providing an authoritative definition for the term – can already be found in the Encyclopédie of Diderot and D’Alambert (1779).

The tight association of the human body with trillions of colonizing microbes that we observe today is the result of a long evolutionary history. Only very recently have we started to understand how this symbiosis also affects brain function and behavior. In this hypothesis and theory article, we propose how host-microbe associations potentially influenced mammalian brain evolution and development. In particular, we explore the integration of human brain development with evolution, symbiosis, and RNA biology, which together represent a “social triangle” that drives human social behavior and cognition. We argue that, in order to understand how inter-kingdom communication can affect brain adaptation and plasticity, it is inevitable to consider epigenetic mechanisms as important mediators of genome-microbiome interactions on an individual as well as a transgenerational time scale. Finally, we unite these interpretations with the hologenome theory of evolution. Taken together, we propose a tighter integration of neuroscience fields with host-associated microbiology by taking an evolutionary perspective.

The article provides an anthropological analysis of the socio-political system of the Benin Kingdom from coming to power of the Oba dynasty presumably in the 13th century till the British conquest in 1897. The course of this system formation and its basic characteristic features are outlined. It is argued that the Benin Kingdom of the 13th – 19th centuries was a supercomplex society which yet was not a state, as it was lack of the latter’s fundamental parameters. Particularly, the Benin society was not based on suprakin (territorial) social ties and there was no professional (bureaucratic) administration in it. The kin-based extended family community always remained this society’s focus, and the supracommunal institu-tions were built up by its matrix, what is impossible in a state. So, notwithstanding its over-all socio-cultural supercomplexity, Benin was not a state but rather a specific alternative to it, labeled “megacommunity”. Its structure can be depicted as four concentric circles form-ing an upset cone: the extended family, the community, the chiefdom, and finally the king-dom. A number of other African and non-African examples of this underconceptualized and understudied by now type of socio-political organization are offered.

The chapter provides an anthropological analysis of the sociopolitical system of the Benin Kingdom (in contemporary Southwestern Nigeria) from coming to power of the Second (Oba) Dynasty presumably in the mid-13th century till the British conquest in 1897. The course of formation of this system of institutions and its basic characteristic features are outlined. It is argued that the Benin Kingdom of the 13th–19th centuries was a supercomplex system of institutions (society) but not a state, as it was not based on suprakin (territorial) social ties and there was no professional (bureaucratic) administration in it. The kin-based extended family community always remained this society’s focus, and supracommunal institutions were built up by its template, what is impossible in a state. So, being no less complex and developed than many so-called early states (Claessen and Skalník 1978) or archaic states (Feinman and Marcus 1998), Benin was not a state but rather a specific alternative to the state. This form of sociopolitical organization can be called “megacommunity” and depicted as four concentric circles of institutions forming an upset cone: the extended family, the community, the chiefdom and finally the kingdom.

H.G. Wells was one of the first literary authors to depict human beings from an explicitly Darwinian perspective. The enduring appeal of his fiction testifies to his artistic intuition and imaginative understanding of evolution. However, Wells drew a sharp line between nature and culture, trusting culture to work against nature toward his ideal social state. From a modern evolutionary perspective, that split gave him an inadequate view of two important parts of human nature: imaginative culture and dispositions toward cooperative group behavior. In this article, I put Wells back on the Darwinian ground from which literary scholars have detached him. Taking The Time Machine and The Island of Dr. Moreau as examples, I use historical, biographical sources and modern evolutionary science to explain the psychological functions, imaginative effect and ambiguous canonical status of Wells’s early fiction.

How sociality evolves and is maintained remains a key question in evolutionary biology. Most studies to date have focused on insects, birds, and mammals but data from a wider range of taxonomic groups are essential to identify general patterns and processes. The extent of social behaviour among squamate reptiles is under-appreciated, yet they are a promising group for further studies. Living in aggregations is posited as an important step in the evolution of more complex sociality. We review data on aggregations among squamates and find evidence for some form of aggregations in 94 species across 22 families. Of these, 18 species across 7 families exhibited 'stable' aggregations that entail overlapping home ranges and stable membership in long-term (years) or seasonal aggregations. Phylogenetic analysis suggests that stable aggregations have evolved multiple times in squamates. We: (i) identify significant gaps in our understanding; (ii) outline key traits which should be the...

Human sensitivity to social reputation is a psychological mechanism, unrelated to religion, that evolved to facilitate reciprocal co-operative bonds in groups. Selfish people could be accused, punished or excluded from the group. The threat of punishment, particularly exclusion, motivated group members to conform to group behavioral norms. In early human groups, anonymity was impossible, and reducing anonymity in experimental economic games enforces social behavior, as does the presence of images of human eyes. Religions help sociality in large groups, but efficient secular social organization, such as universal education countering superstition, and practical institutions to enforce the law have reduced the need for and conviction behind the upholding of morals by religion. Now, nonreligious people are as likely to report donating to charity as religious ones. Experimentally induced reminders of secular moral authority had as much effect on generous behavior in an economic game as reminders of God.

The purpose of this paper is to evaluate the cognitive mind of the great ape.  This assessment will examine the multiple facets of ape cognition, what it consists of, and its many dimensions.  The current investigation seeks to demonstrate evidence of cognition and mind.  Recent primate literature will be reviewed with an interdisciplinary approach, taking into account research in anthropology, biology, ethology, primatology, and psychology.  The science of studying the faculty of apes will be highlighted, and examples that suggest cognitive processes will be provided.  Focusing on empirical evidence, the following cognitive abilities of great apes will be explored:  complex and meaningful use of language, deception, manipulation, imagination, and understanding.  Cognition and language are highly intertwined.  The inferior capacity of animals to use language may in fact be a consequence of cognitive and learning limitations.  After all, without the ability to think, there would be little need for language, because there would not be any ideas to communicate.  Therefore, the progression of ape research and ape language research must consider the evolution of the animal mind.  Examples will be used to illustrate evidence of thinking, problem solving, social interaction, and the use of social information.

Цель работы – анализ внутренних противоречий социобиологии, преобладающего направления поведенческих исследований сегодня.
Методы. Выделены ключевые идеализации («эгоистический индивид») и теоретические конструкции социобиологии (поведение индивидов в каждый данный момент структурируется максимизацией краткосрочного выигрыша, так что выбор поведения из репертуара возможных тактик и форм деятельности определяется соотношением их «выигрыша» к «плате» здесь и сейчас). Исследовано, насколько обе они приложимы к разнообразным ситуациям жизни животных в сообществе, действительно ли структуру связей между ними и особенности поведения по их поддержанию объяснимы на основе атомарных характеристик индивидов (мотивация, сила, активность, конкурентоспособность и пр.).
Результаты. Показано, что то и другое имеет место быть лишь в анонимных статях и бесструктурных скоплениях, и то лишь короткое время. Далее учащение контактов перерастает во взаимодействия, делающих животных социально связанными и социально зависимыми. В этом состоянии их поведение противоположно предсказаниям социобиологии как по ультимативным, так и по проксимальным механизмам.
Первые характеризуются как примат системности над адаптивностью: взаимодействуя в сообществе, особи 1) сперва выстраивают видоспецифический паттерн социальной организации (кооперативное и «альтруистическое» действие по созданию системного целого); 2) только потом, в рамках возникшей структуры связей, они конкурируют дуг с другом за территории, самок, социальный статус и пр. ресурсы, важные для их собственной приспособленности («эгоистическое» действие). 2) происходит лишь при условии реализации 1), и никак иначе, даже когда 1) связано с высоким риском потери статуса в данном поселении вовсе (занятие территории в плотной группировке или как можно ближе к центру, где конкуренция наибольшая, занятие места на току, непопулярного у самок, и территорий в колониях, в данном году не обеспеченной кормом). Его сочетание с  2) (перемещение в сторону более благоприятного поселения и социальная активность там) легко бы поправило ситуацию, но животные отказываются это делать, реализуя 1) «слепо» и «в ущерб» собственной приспособленности.
Вторые характеризуются «неоптимальностью» поведения животного в сообществе. В их социальной активности и в поведении самообеспечения неизменно присутствуют затраты, с т.з. социобиологии «лишние», ибо «снижают эффективность». Причина этого – животные стремятся к долгосрочной устойчивости поддерживаемых отношений вопреки возможным «шумам» и «помехам» среды, и для этого жертвуют кратковременным выигрышем.

Within the capacity of Homo sapiens, learning capacity is the construct of conditioning. Conditioning generates autonomic responses reinforced by emotional drives. These activated by preset triggers that actuate the reaction can drive individuals, groups, and or socie ties to controlled or uncontrolled changes. Variations within conditioning can result in a positive action that is beneficial to the individual or cultural grouping. Similar results can be applicable to conditioning that has negative benefits. The goal of this essay is to discuss and present a fram ework for how Negative Conditioning (NC) and Positive Conditioning (PC) have detectable results. How to enhance PC and change NC within individuals, groups, cultures, and or societies as a whole, various types of NC examined independent of prime nomenclature. This is to pre sent an unbiased format for determining a NC. Categories assigned terms based on type and not reference points. In this regard, it may be possible to review PC and NC without previous Conditioning states activating trigger mechanisms that cause cognitive biases to prevent full assessm ents of possible PC and or NC states.

Despite being the most studied species on the planet, ecologists typically do not study humans the same way we study other organisms. My Ph.D. thesis contributes to scientific development in two ways: i) synthesizing our understand of the inter and intraspecific variation in social behavior in an understudied rodent lineage, the caviomorphs, providing a comparative context to understand social evolution in general, and ii) developing a macroecological approach to understand the metabolic trajectory of the human species. Through comparative analysis, chapter 2 synthesizes the available information on the diversity of sociality in the caviomorph rodents, both within and across species. Studies and theory derived from better-studied mammalian taxa establish an integrative and comparative framework from which to examine social systems in caviomorphs. We synthesize the literature to evaluate variation in space use, group size, mating systems, and parental care strategies in caviomorphs in the context of current hypotheses. We highlight unique aspects of caviomorph biology and offer potentially fruitful lines for future research both at the inter and intraspecific levels. We can gain unique insights into the ecological drivers and evolutionary significance of diverse animal societies by studying this diverse taxon. Chapter 3 outlines core ecological principles that should be integral to a science of sustainability: 1) physical conservation laws govern the flows of energy and materials between human systems and the environment, 2) smaller systems are connected by these flows to larger systems in which they are embedded, 3) global constraints ultimately limit flows at smaller scales. Over the past few decades, decreasing per-capita rates of consumption of petroleum, phosphate, agricultural land, fresh water, fish, and wood indicate that the growing human population has surpassed the capacity of the Earth to supply enough of these essential resources to sustain even the current population and level of socioeconomic development. Chapter 4 applies a socio-metabolic perspective of the urban transition coupled with empirical examination of cross-country data spanning decades. It highlights the central role of extra-metabolic energy in global urbanization and the coinciding transition from resource extraction to industrial and service economies. The global urban transition from resource producers in rural areas, to industrial and service employment in urban systems is fuelled by supplementing extra- metabolic energy in the form of fossil fuels for decreasing human and animal labor. Collectively, I hope this work demonstrates the utility of comparative analysis and synthesis in understanding the evolutionary ecology of sociality and the power of a macroecological approach in understanding the metabolic ecology and trajectory of the human species.

The relationships between group size, survival, and longevity vary greatly among social species. Depending on demographic and ecological circumstances, there are both positive and negative effects of group size variation on individual survival and longevity. For socially foraging species in particular there may be an optimal group size that predicts maximum individual survival that is directly related to the potential for information transfer, social coordination, and costs of conspecific interference. Our aim was to investigate this central aspect of evolutionary ecology by focusing on a socially foraging bat, Molossus molossus. This species optimizes foraging success by eavesdropping on the echolocation calls of group members to locate ephemeral food patches. We expected to find the highest survival and longest lifespans in small groups as a consequence of a trade-off between benefits of information transfer on ephemeral resources and costs of conspecific interference. In a mark-recapture study of 14 mixed-sex M. molossus social groups in Gamboa, Panama, spanning several years we found the expected relatively small and intermediate, but stable groups, with a mean size of 9.6 ± 6.7 adults and juveniles. We estimated survival proxies using Cox proportional hazard models and multistate-mark recapture models generated with recapture data as well as automated monitoring of roost entrances in a subset of the groups. Median survival of females was very short with 1.8 years and a maximum estimated longevity of 5.6 years. Contrary to our expectations, we found no relationship between variation in group size and survival, a result similar to few other studies. Strong selection towards small group size may result from psychoacoustic and cognitive constraints related to acoustic interference in social foraging and the complexity of coordinated flight. The short lifespans were unexpected and may result from life at the energetic edge due to a highly specialized diet. The absence of a relationship between group size and survival may reflect a similar but optimized survival within the selected range of group sizes. We expect the pattern of small group sizes will be consistent in future research on species dependent on social information transfer about ephemeral resources.