Galilee in early roman time

In Luke 5:1-11, the Bible describes a miraculous event. Peter and his fishing partners caught so many fish that both of their boats started to sink. 1 We wanted to know the economic impact to Peter and his partners from this catch of fish. Using the dimensions of a boat from approximately the same time and location, we estimate that a total of 62,696 pounds of fish filled the two boats. A wage and commodity price law from 301 AD indicates this gave each of the four fishing partners 24.5-36.4 years' salary at General Laborer rates, or 12.1-18.2 years at the skilled labor rates, depending on the fish's quality. With modern financial advice saying one needs 25 years' expenses in savings to live entirely from the interest, this put Peter and his partners in good stead to leave the fishing business and work for God full time. Introduction and Background: While preparing study guides for the book of Luke, 2 we came to the story of Peter letting Jesus use his boat to preach a sermon to the people on the shores of Lake Gennesaret, another name for the Sea of Galilee 3. After He was finished using the boat, Jesus asked Peter to go back out into the lake, and let down his nets for a draw of fish. Peter decided to do it, and pulled in a record catch. He called his fishing partners over to help him, and the Bible says that both the boats were starting to sink because of the significant number of fish. After this large catch of fish, Peter and his partners decided to leave the fishing profession, and be full-time disciples.

The importance of Tiberias, capital of Galilee during
the Roman and Late Antique periods, cannot be
understated. From its founding by Herod Antipas in
the early first century CE, Tiberias became a focal point
for commerce, intellectualism and culture within the
region. Its multi-ethnic community included pagans,
Christians and Samaritans, alongside a Jewish majority.
The city was originally established according to Roman
principles of urban planning. It contained streets set out
on a grid as well as private dwellings and a mélange of
public buildings such as entertainment and recreational
establishments, religious buildings and a variety of civic
and commercial centers. Tiberias continued to flourish
during Late Antiquity, expanding in size and population
into a multi-cultural cosmopolis.
This article aims to synthesize archaeological
and literary evidence pertaining to Tiberias, from
its foundation up to the Islamic conquest. A similar
feat was carried out over three decades ago by the
late Prof. Yizhar Hirschfeld, one of the ancient city’s
greatest admirers and researchers. In the time that has
lapsed between Hirschfeld’s study and today, many
new discoveries have come to light, necessitating a
reevaluation of the material. This article attempts to
coalesce previous research with modern scholarship,
questioning established conceptions regarding the
city’s matrix in light of recent interpretations and
discoveries. Accompanying the study are maps
identifying the locations of buildings, both private
and public, comprising cityscapes that enable a better
understanding of the urban development over an
extended period of time. Thus the urban complexity
and dominance of Tiberias is underscored within its
regional context as well as in the wider mis-en-scène of
the Roman and Late Antique Near East.

A book about three controversial topics.
1. Messiah son of Judah or Joseph, which tribe was chosen?
2. Shiloh or Jerusalem , which place was chosen for the temple?
3. An alternative interpretation of the Land of Israel according to the book of Torah and Joshua alone without interference from the Bible.

This lengthy book chapter serves two purposes: First, it demonstrates how Jesus' Galilean context has been used in biblical scholarship since the 19th century as a mean to distance Jesus from mainstream Judaism. The Jewish »Wissenschaft des Judentums« used the Galilean Jesus as argument that Jesus was not familiar with the best of Judaism as taught in the (rabbinic) academies in Jerusalem; for Christian scholars Galilee allowed for a more universal perspective and non-Jewish (hellenistic) influences in the teaching of Jesus. The second part demonstrates the work of the German NT scholar Walter Grundmann, who developed this argument to the extreme, culminating in his book »Jesus der Galiläer« (1940), which manipulates its readers to the conclusion (which Grundmann himself does not spell out explicitly) that Jesus was not a Jew but an Aryan. The article undertakes to describe the development of Grundmann's position starting in 1933 and to demonstrate how his understanding of Jesus followed closely the Nazi party's politics against Jews and Judaism in the Third Reich.

La continuación del movimiento de Jesús en Galilea después de su muerte es una de las etapas más oscuras de la historia del cristianismo naciente. La primera tarea para iluminarla consiste en describir el escenario (Galilea y sus relaciones con Jerusalén) y determinar qué fuentes son relevantes para ello (las composiciones pre-evangélicas). Estudiando las alusiones polémicas a otros grupos de discípulos de Jesús in tres de estas composiciones (el Relato pre-marcano de la pasión, las Controversias galileas y el Documento Q) es posible reconocer la percepción de los grupos que están detrás de estos documentos acerca de otros grupos de discípulos de Jesús.  Esta visión desde fuera, junto con la visión desde dentro que aparece en cada uno de estos documentos, refleja los procesos de construcción de identidad social que estaban viviendo los primeros grupos de discípulos en Galilea y Judea y permite describir algunos de sus rasgos más sobresalientes.

""Dozens of mosaic floors were discovered in excavations conducted in Tiberias and its southern suburb, Hammat Tiberias, from the early 20th century to the present. These mosaics adorned the floors of both public and private buildings, synagogues and churches; dating from the third through the mid eighth centuries. At present the mosaics from these sites have mostly remained outside of academic debate, due to their poorly preserved state and a lack of comprehensive research.

This work is a compilation of all available material regarding the mosaics from Tiberias and Hammat Tiberias, thereby creating a database able to serve current and future studies of the mosaics from this region of the Galilee. The group of mosaics considered here is important in that all were found within a small geographic region, dating from an extended period of time, which parallels the lifespan of the ancient city, thus providing insights into the development of the city's urban aesthetic. The study is facilitated by an analysis of stylistic and technical aspects on the one hand, and the architectural contexts of the mosaics on the other.

The compositions of the mosaic floors reflect prevalent fashions, belonging for the most part to the allover carpet style, incorporating figurative, floral and geometric patterns. The origin of allover carpet design may be found in the Roman mosaics of North Africa, in conjunction with local eastern traditions, especially from Antioch. The majority of mosaics from Tiberias and Hammat Tiberias are decorated by an infinitely repetitive floral or geometric pattern, covering the entire floor surface. Sometimes this consists of a single pattern, but the carpet also may be enhanced by secondary floral or figurative motifs, as in a border surrounding the central, major theme. This tradition is characteristic of the Byzantine period, and carries over into the Early Islamic period as well. Additional reoccurring compositions found in the mosaics are grid patterns created by schematic flower buds or inhabited scrolls, which are in essence a geometricized floral motif. In a number of cases, figures are strewn over a plain white background, disregarding naturalistic landscapes, their depictions resulting in a flat, two-dimensional effect. Narrative scenes and heraldic compositions usually appear within separate frames, creating pseudo-emblemata, as for example, in the nave of the Phase IIa Synagogue at Hammat Tiberias.

The iconography appearing in the mosaics of Tiberias is familiar from other sites in the region; these include themes such as: Nilotic scenes; Christian symbols (especially crosses); Jewish symbols (menorot, shofarot, bundles of the four species, architectural façades/book shrines, and incense shovels); Helios accompanied by the zodiac and the seasons of the year, and wreathes bearing inscriptions. The inhabited scrolls contain hunt and chase scenes as well as solitary animals and inanimate objects, which are unlikely to bear religious symbolism, since the majority have been found in buildings of a secular nature. The first known appearance of the combined motifs of Helios, the zodiac, and the seasons, is in the Phase IIa Synagogue at Hammat Tiberias. Far reaching assumptions cannot be made regarding later depictions of this iconography, but it is nonetheless of utmost importance that the earliest example is in the synagogue of Hammat Tiberias, which was patronized by associates of the Jewish Patriarchate, residing in Tiberias at that time.

Differences are evident in the stylization of motifs depicted in the mosaic floors.  Stylistic variations may occur among several floors within a single building, or may also appear within a single floor. These discrepancies may result from chronological differences in the construction of rooms within a building, consequently reflecting changing stylistic trends.  Another possibility is that different stylistic approaches may be the product of more than one artist employed in the laying of a single, or multiple floors.

The technical aspects of the mosaic art are made clear by a survey of the raw materials (local stone, imported marble and glass) used by the artisans. Likewise, the quality of the workmanship may often be defined by the density of mosaic stones per square decimeter; the higher the density, the higher the resolution of the image depicted. It may be seen that figures and complicated floral or geometric motifs often contain a higher count of stones than the simpler motifs or plain white backgrounds. In the current state of research, it is not possible to distinguish any particular workshop functioning in Tiberias during any given period. Stylistic differences in a single floor may be explained by the simultaneous work of two mosaicists, likely a master and his apprentice.

The final part of the work presents the mosaics within their architectural contexts. This aspect of the research is extremely important, since it may teach us about the hierarchy of the rooms within a building, thus better an understanding of the functions of the building as a whole. For instance, in a building containing both simple geometric carpets alongside intricate figurative motifs, it may be assumed that the rooms containing the figurative motifs are of greater importance than those paved by the simple carpets. Furthermore, the interpretation of the architectural spaces may be enhanced by an understanding of the mosaic floors. Conversely, the mosaic compositions may be more clearly understood by accurate identification of the spaces.

The compilation of all available material and the examination of the mosaics (both individually and as a group), in comparison with similar mosaics from the Galilee, as well as      from the greater Mediterranean region, have for the first time, brought the Tiberian mosaics to light, emphasizing their importance and creating a base of knowledge for future research of mosaics, locally and throughout the ancient world. 
""

In the heart of the Lower Galilee, 5 kilometers west of Nazareth, lie the remains of Sepphoris, longtime capital of the Galilee in antiquity. Hellenistic Sepphoris had a rural appearance. Its newly acquired status as a polis, replete with typical Roman-style civic buildings and institutions, changed the face of this Galilean city after the Great Revolt against Rome and later. Owing to its newfound wealth and prosperous economy, Sepphoris grew significantly, with a population that peaked at 15 to 20 thousand inhabitants. By the end of the first or early second century, the city expanded its boundaries and boasted public buildings and private dwellings that followed Roman guidelines. Sepphoris retained this layout throughout late antiquity, however in the course of the seventh century, when its magnificent buildings were destroyed and abandoned and its population waned, the city dwindled to a small town or large village.

The wealth of evidence emerging from Sepphoris, one of the major Galilean settlements that nurtured the creation of part of the rabbinic literary corpus, illustrates the glorious past of this large and prosperous city that housed a mosaic of cultures. The wide spectrum of its architectural features, artistic expressions, and small finds, combined with the information culled from epigraphic and literary sources, afford abundant insights into the relationship between Jewish society and Graeco-Roman culture and how the local population conducted its affairs in a period of transition and change—from Rome to Byzantium and from paganism to Christianity. Consequently, major concerns raised only a decade or two ago regarding the nature of the Galilean city have now given way to in-depth discussions not only about Sepphoris and its population, but also about urbanism, art, and architecture in ancient Palestine.

Khirbet Wadi Ḥamam is a Roman-period village located at the base of the cliffs of Mt. Nitai and above the gorge of Naḥal Arbel, two km west of the Sea of Galilee. In an attempt to shed new light on a number of topics concerning village-life in Roman Galilee, primarily the debated question of the date of ‘Galilean’-type synagogues, the site was excavated between 2007–2012 by an expedition from the Institute of Archaeology of the Hebrew University of Jerusalem. In addition to the synagogue and its surroundings, excavations were carried out in a series of domestic structures, agricultural installations and public spaces in the village, as well as along a massive fortification located on the summit of Mt. Nitai, accompanied by a survey of numerous caves in the cliffs between the village and the mountaintop. The rich remains opened a wide window onto the material culture of rural Roman Galilee, enabling us to delineate the history of a typical local village from its establishment in the Hasmonean period until its final abandonment at the beginning of the Byzantine era. The findings bear implications for various aspects in the study of ancient Galilee: the beginning of Jewish settlement in the region in the Second Temple period, the Jewish revolts against Rome, ancient economy, rural life and livelihood, communal organization, domestic architecture, household utensils, ancient diet, and above all the art, architecture and date of the ‘Galilean’-type synagogues.

RE: Facades, illusions & ideological concepts created & promoted by ancient royalty out of necessity; effective creation of an alternate version of reality. It is only by knowing this information that the true nature of ancient texts may be understood correctly. Not knowing, means making incorrect assumptions & conclusions. Important!

The harbor of Magdala/Taricheae, uncovered during the 2007–2011 Magdala Project archaeological campaigns, represents the only stonework-landing place stratigraphically excavated, along the shores of the Sea of Galilee (Lake Kinneret) in Israel.
The Magdala harbor has three phases of use: late Hellenistic (2nd–1st centuries B.C.), Early–Middle Roman (1st–3rd century A.D.) and Byzantine (6th–7th centuries A.D.). These phases are consistent with the development of the urban settlement, which is also currently being investigated, also through a geological approach.
Tarichaee and its administrative district were founded under the Hasmoneans and was the main urban site of the region, prior to the establishment of Tiberias as the capital. The prominence of the city and its principal economic activity, based on transformation and export of fish – hence the name Taricheae –, are well documented by the historical sources.
The first harbor consists of a quadriporticus and a Hasmonean tower, both having two sides facing the lake, and with mooring stones. The second has an inner basin, a landing place provided of 4 mooring stones in situ and a flagged platea connected with the city entrance.
The Byzantine–Islamic anchorage, described in the 70’s–90’s, is no longer visible. However, it served the fortified monastery built to aid the Christian pilgrims who visited the sanctuary dedicate to Mary Magdalene. The other 30 landing places around the lake are set ca. 3 m lower than the Hellenistic-Roman harbors of Magdala. For this reason, the analysis takes into account also the geological and environmental data, as well as the latest archaeological discoveries on the lakeshores.
This contribution intends to present the lacustrine harbor of Magdala/Taricheae, as the result of the on-going Magdala Project excavations. The architecture of the harbor will be analyzed with a regional-based approach, taking into account the latest archaeological data from the ancient sites on the shores of the Lake of Galilee, as well as the main geological and environmental research achievements. The state of the archaeological investigations in the area and the historical frame of the city will be briefly provided. The examination of the urban context will help to better understand the chronological phases of the harbor remains.

What made Jesus ‘news’? The key reason given in Mark and Matthew is that Jesus was an effective healer. In Q, likewise, Jesus fulfils John’s prediction of a Coming One who will baptize in Holy Spirit and fire by means of his healing mission. Luke complicates this slightly by emphasizing Jesus’ teaching on social justice, and John conceptualizes the healings as ‘signs’, but both also indicate that Jesus was news because he healed people. Thus, Galilee was in the grip of a chronic health crisis which people – both rich and poor – experienced as stress, and Jesus was news because he provided a solution. While being an exorcistic healer was not unusual, Jesus’ healing apparently was, both in its effectiveness and in its approach, involving physical touch. We now know that affective touch has a positive effect on the immune system. Disease crises in Galilee can be linked to the great density of its population, associated with widespread rural poverty and environmental degradation. Previo...

Remains of large structures dated to the Second Temple period were discovered under the Late Roman synagogues of Khirbet Wadi Hamam, Arbel, Nahal Gush-Halav, Capernaum and Hammath-Tiberias. Since the excavators did not dismantle the synagogues and were content with excavating a few trenches beneath the floors, and since the late construction also blurred the early remains, it was hard to determine the exact nature of the early buildings. This paper discusses the layout of these structures, their date, architectural ornamentation (such as column capitals, stucco fragments and fresco paintings) and their location in the villages. A comparison of these characteristics to those of Second Temple period synagogues, such as those at Gamla and Magdala, leads to the conclusion that the earlier structures should also be identified as synagogues dating from this period.
This conclusion is important for our understanding of the dispersion of synagogues in rural areas, which was apparently wider than previously assumed. It also narrows the chronological gap between the Second Temple synagogues and those of the later Roman period, and supports the idea that the latter developed organically from the former, rather than ex nihilo.
The fact that these five structures are all located beneath later synagogues is significant, since it points to long-lasting local traditions regarding the role of the specific locations of public structures of this kind.


מתחת לבתי הכנסת מן התקופה הרומית המאוחרת בח'רבת ואדי חמאם, ארבל, נחל גוש חלב, כפר נחום וחמת טבריה נחשפו שרידי מבנים גדולים שתוארכו לימי הבית השני. מכיוון שהחופרים לא פירקו את בתי הכנסת והסתפקו בבורות בדיקה מתחת לרצפות, ומכיוון שהבנייה המאוחרת טשטשה את השרידים, לא ניתן היה לעמוד על מאפייניהם המדויקים של המבנים הקדומים. במאמר זה נדונים תוכניות המבנים הללו, זמנם, עיטורם האדריכלי (כגון כותרות עמודים, טיח מכויר ותמשיחי קיר) ומיקומם בכפר. השוואה למאפיינים הללו בבתי הכנסת המוכרים מימי הבית השני באתרים כגון גמלא ומגדלא מובילה למסקנה שגם את המבנים הגדולים בחמשת האתרים האמורים יש לזהות כבתי כנסת מימי הבית השני. מסקנה זו חשובה להבנת תפוצת בתי הכנסת במגזר הכפרי בתקופה זו, תפוצה שהייתה, כך מתברר, נרחבת יותר מכפי שסברו חוקרים בעבר. נוסף על כך זיהוי זה מצמצם את הפער הכרונולוגי בין בתי הכנסת של ימי הבית לאלו של תקופת המשנה והתלמוד, ומחזק את הדעה שהאחרונים התפתחו מתוך הראשונים ולא נולדו יש מאין. לבסוף, העובדה שחמשת המבנים הללו קבורים מתחת לבתי כנסת מאוחרים מלמדת על קיומן של מסורות מקומיות בנות מאות שנים, שנגעו לייעודה של החלקה שעליה ניצב מבנה הציבור בכפרים הנדונים

Galilee has received attention far disproportionate to its  size, because both the ministry of Jesus began in Galilee, and post-135 CE Judaism was centered there. This study maps the distribution of bronze coins found at some 250 sites in Galilee in the Hellenistic and Roman periods (c. 300 BCE–260 CE) and uses the pattern as an independent tool in evaluating historical processes in that region. Learning which coins were used as ‘small change’ by the Galilean
population provides insight into the dynamics of its ethnic composition during this time span. Employing spatial analysis of coin finds, related numismatic understandings, and archaeological and historical evidence when available, the boundaries of Jewish Galilee are traced from the
Hasmonean period onward. Drawing on the new ‘archaeology of ethnicity’ and the ‘archaeology of difference’ approaches, this study offers new insights and common sense answers to some of the controversial issues about
first-century Galilee.

The article focuses on the author's research on the chronographical background of the Zodiac Mosaic Calendar in Synagogue at Hammath-Tiberias. He researched to find the origin of mosaic decoration, the twelve zodiac sign, the four seasons, and Helios, which was found in synagogues in two parts of Palestine, Galilee and Judah. The chronograph of the mosaic art was extensively debated. The author further studied the history of Palestine Jews in the 4th century. Most of the work was done during the period of Hillel II.
The author concludes that the mosaic from the Stratum IIa synagogue with the Zodiac Calendar was executed in the time of Hillel II, who said to have died around 365 CE. He proposes the new date of the execution of the Zodiac Mosaic from Hammat-Tiberia (Stratum IIa) after the earthquake in 363, that is, in 364 or 365.

This essay is a foreword to the third edition of Peder Borgen's classic monograph: Bread from Heaven (NovTSup 10, 1965, 1981), published as Vol. 4 in the Johannine Monograph Series edited by Alan Culpepper and Myself (Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2017) i-xxvi.

This is the new introduction (uncorrected proofs) to The Prophet-King by Wayne A. Meeks, first published as NovTSup 14 (Brill, 1967), now in paperback as The Johannine Monograph Series, Vol. 5 (Eugene: Wipf & Stock, 2017--series editors Paul N. Anderson and R. Alan Culpepper) xi-xxx.

Although Jesus speaks at length on many occasions in the other three canonical Gospels, the Gospel of Mark contains only two sustained discourses, 4:1–34 and 13:5–37. With near unanimity scholars consider these discourses central to the kingdom's manifestation in Christ's ministry in the Second Gospel (Maloney: 54–62; Telford: 52–67). One problem that has been sparsely treated, however, is the relationship of the Calming of the Storm pericope (4:35–41) to the Parables discourse that precedes it in 4:1–34. A majority of scholars separates 4:35–41 from the preceding discourse and groups it with the miracle stories that follow in 5:1–8:26 (e.g., Gundry: 237; Donahue: 160; Guelich: 270), but this accepted distinction is not without its own problems. Even scholars who make this distinction note a close link between the Parables and the Storm. In this article I use a narrative-critical approach to identify and engage thirteen lexical connections and how they develop for the implied audience through the narrative structure of 4:1–41. Overall, I seek to demonstrate that the Parables discourse and Storm pericope complement one another and follow the instruction-demonstration pattern evident in 1:21–28; 1:35–45; 2:1–12; 2:13–3:6. In each case, a miraculous demonstration follows an episode of Jesus' instruction, the two are marked by a similar setting and lexical connections, and the latter miracle story develops the teaching of the kingdom and divine Sonship of Christ that were initially explained in the adjacent instruction. I will show how Mark 4:1–41 shares this structure and that analyzing the implied audience's reception of the narrative offers new developments of the Parables discourse, explains several obscurities in the Storm pericope, and further demonstrates the theological perspective and narrative line of thought in the text of Mark 1–4.

Sundials in Roman and Byzantine Mosaics (1st – 9th Century AD). A scientific monograph. The sundials on ancient mosaics have not been the subject of scientific studies so far. The author has gathered together  in this  publication  the sundials  already known (Torre Anunzaiata, Sarsina, Trier, Saint-Romain-en-Gal, Antiochia and Brading; Figs. 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9) and those which have  not  previously  been  identified.  Thanks  to  the author’s  new  identifcations,  the  catalogue  has  been enlarged  by  six  new  sundials (Grand,Tarsus, Antioch – interpreted by H. Pamir; Figs.  3, 6,  8, and 10. Tayibat al-Imam, Jerusalem and Umm al-Rasas (Sebastis); Figs. 10, 11, 12) and three monumental gnomes-columns with multiple functions that were used as monumental sundials [Madaba (Jerusalem), Umm al-Rasas (Kastron Mefaa) and Rome (Jerusalem); Figs. 13–15]. In addition, recognizing fully John H. Humphrey’s  interpretations,  the  author  enriches  the catalogue  by  eight  ancient  mosaic  representations  of obelisks in  circuses (Lyon, Barcelona, Volubilis, Piazza Armerina - two mosaics, Girona, Carthage and Gafsa; Figs.  16–23).  They  performed the roles of monumental sundials. In this way, the catalogue includes  twenty-three  mosaics with  the representations of sundials. They come from the Western and Eastern Provinces of the Roman Empire. The first mosaic is dated to the beginning of the 1st century AD and the last dates to the 9th century AD. The author, after  a  short  description  of each monument,  summarizes the issue discussing the role of sundials in Roman and Byzantine society, their complex signifcance and symbolic difficult linked with the progress of time on which nature and human life are dependent.