Low Carbon Economy

This article focuses on low carbon economy and sustainable development of China. For the past 30 years, rapid economic development has heavily altered the society and environment in this country. Renewable energy contributes to promote three pillars (economy, ecology and society) of national sustainable development model. China is one of the top energy consumption countries in the world; thereby it has been highly committed to increase the use of renewable energy for the purpose of saving ecology along with supporting on sustainable development of the nation. That is the reason from the government level it has been continuously exploring energy from hydropower, wind, solar, etc. It has been promoting low carbon economy applying through various ways such as: law of renewable energy, top 1000 enterprises energy conservation action program, Golden sun and ICARE.

This paper offers a critical analysis and extension of dominant policy approaches on the transition to a low carbon economy, suggesting the need to embed that research within a much more political, politicised framework of socio-energy green transformation.

It suggests that as a central element socio-energy transformation is a clear recognition of the often ‘dirty politics’ involved in any transition from ‘dirty energy’. Energy transformations are political struggles, not simply technological, market-driven policy decisions. It also contends that they are characterised by biophysical/ecological, cultural, political economy and ethical considerations and choices. It argues that political contestation, struggle and antagonism are central to understanding and analysing, as well as effecting low carbon socio-energy transformations. In this the paper argues one cannot neatly separate the analytical from the normative. All seemingly descriptive analyses of energy transitions are also prescriptive, and always already political and ethical. 

The paper concludes with the suggestion that the key to energy transformation struggles we contend are strategies to actively delegitimise them (including such recent campaigns as the divestment one) as well as reframe ‘fossil fuels’ as ‘fossil resources’ with multiple, better uses than burning them for energy.

Keywords: energy transformation, socio-energy system, politicisation, political struggle, the good life.

The author was invited by Mayor Hau Lung-pin to come to Taipei City tin 2011 to discuss strategies for the city’s tenth successive Car Free Day — and as part of this collaborative brainstorming process to draw on his experience of some seventeen years working with this, one hopes, transformative transportation approach in different cities around the world.

The low-carbon energy transition is a form of socio-technical transition and, as such, it involves profound changes in the institutions that govern society. Despite the acknowledged importance of institutions in shaping the pace and nature of transition, a relatively small proportion of the academic literature on the topic applies institutional theory to the analysis of this transition in a systematic and detailed manner, and these accounts draw mainly on organizational and sociological institutionalism. This paper aims to demonstrate the benefits of applying a wider set of institutional theories to the study of the low-carbon energy transition. It draws principally, but not solely, on rational choice and historical institutionalism with selective reference being made to key concepts within social and organizational institutionalism as well as discursive institutionalism. The paper demonstrates the high degree of parallelism that exists between the literatures on socio-technical regimes and institutions, and also shows how the systematic application of institutionalism can provide a deeper understanding of socio-technical transitions. It concludes by outlining the main elements of a research agenda relating to the low-carbon energy transition.

"Life-cycle assessment (LCA) is an increasingly important framework for evaluating and potentially certifying the comprehensive environmental “footprint” of products and services, and is often used for comparing non-renewable fossil material and energy products to alternative renewable material and energy products (e.g., plastic vs. paper, gasoline vs. ethanol).  For many products, the majority of life-cycle pollution emissions result from the operating inputs for raw material extraction (e.g., mining, harvesting), material conversion (e.g., manufacturing, refining), and from activities during the use phase (e.g., fuel combustion).  However, easily overlooked sources of pollution include the manufacturing, construction, maintenance, and renewal of equipment and infrastructure used in supplying materials to consumers
Supply chain emissions will become increasingly important to life-cycle assessment results as adoption of low-emissions and renewable energy increases.  Infrastructure maintenance is a significant expense and source of emissions for each transportation mode, and the technology for building and maintaining infrastructure is mature and predominantly dependent on fossil fuels.  Infrastructure and equipment management activities contribute an additional 20-40% beyond “fuel-cycle” activities to the life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from transportation modes (pipeline, ship, barge, rail, truck) used in transporting liquid commodities [1], as estimated by incorporating commodity-specific emission factors from the US economic input-output life-cycle assessment (EIO-LCA) tool [2], using a hybrid LCA methodology. 
Although EIO-LCA studies are often more comprehensive and even accurate than process-based studies [3], several limitations exist.  EIO tables published by the US Bureau of Economic Affairs (BEA) do not precisely or comprehensively describe economic activities (which can be translated into emissions) from the maintenance and renewal of transportation infrastructure.  The use of aggregated national average freight costs and emissions in EIO-LCA studies, neglecting intra-sectoral heterogeneity in terms of services offered (e.g., transportation of passengers and several types of freight), can lead to emissions estimates that are unrepresentative of specific activities of interest to modelers.  Additionally, the railroad and pipeline industries are largely self-sufficient in maintaining and renewing infrastructure, so economic and emissions inventories are comprehensive; however, maintenance of highways and waterways is largely subsidized by national and state governments, such that the significance of these (material and energy intensive) tasks are often underestimated by studies informed exclusively by EIO-LCA methodology.

References
[1] B. Strogen and A. Horvath, “Greenhouse Gas Emissions from the Construction, Manufacturing, Operation and Maintenance of US Distribution Infrastructure for Petroleum and Biofuels,” J. Infrastruct. Syst., 2012.
[2] CMU GDI, “Economic Input-Output Life Cycle Assessment (EIO-LCA), US 2002 Benchmark Model [internet],” Carnegie Mellon University Green Design Institute, 04-Jul-2010. [Online]. Available: http://www.eiolca.net/. [Accessed: 28-Feb-2011].
[3] M. Lenzen, “Errors in conventional and input-output-based life-cycle inventories,” Journal of Industrial Ecology, vol. 4, no. 4, pp. 127–148, 2000."

Turkey is promoting coal in order to strengthen high carbon development policies. Current data shows that; alongside the extraction of national coal reserves, Turkey is becoming an address of carbon leakage day by day through imported coal.  The report is analysing continuing  policies that develops privileges for coal usage and plans to release more GHG emissions by usage of more domestic and global coal reserves.

Sub-Saharan Africa lags far behind other regions in terms of the implementation of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects due to several reasons. One of the reasons is a general perception that, since the region contributes very little to global GHG emissions, it also offers few opportunities to reduce these emissions. Using a bottom-up approach, this study investigates the technical potential of reducing GHG emissions from the energy sector in Sub-Saharan Africa through the CDM. The study finds that sub-Saharan Africa could develop 3,227 CDM projects, including 361 programs of activities, which could reduce approximately 9.8 billion tons of GHG emissions during the CDM project cycles. The study also estimates that the realization of this CDM potential could significantly enhance sustainable development in the region as it would attract more than US$200 billion in investment and could generate US$98 billion of CDM revenue at a CER price of US$10/tCO2. Another notable finding of the study is that the realization of this CDM potential could supply clean electricity by doubling the current capacity and thereby providing access of electricity to millions of people in the region. However, realization of this CDM potential is severely constrained by a number of financial, technical, regulatory and institutional barriers.

Streszczenie. Wraz ze zwiększającymi się wymaganiami w zakresie ochrony środowiska, zwiększa się nacisk na zmniejszanie emisji, tak na poziomie krajowym, jak i lokalnym. Opracowywane ostatnio w Polsce plany gospodarki niskoemisyjnej mają w sposób zintegrowany i przy wykorzystaniu wszystkich dostępnych niskoemisyjnych technologii oraz dobrych praktyk ograniczyć wpływ na środowisko, zarówno przemysłu lokalnego, jak i gospodarstw domowych. Obejmują one między innymi sektor transportu, który jest wykorzystywany w każdym z pozostałych sektorów i oddziałuję na nie. W artykule przeanalizowano wpływ transportu miejskiego na środowisko proponując działania ograniczające. Przedstawiono również aktualne regulacje prawne i metody promujące wdrażanie niskoemisyjnych rozwiązań w transporcie miejskim. Wprowadzenie coraz bardziej restrykcyjnych norm emisji spalin (np. Euro 6) m.in. dla autobusów napędzanych silnikami konwencjonalnymi (tj. benzynowymi, dieslowymi i gazowymi), nie wpłynęło znacząco na minimalizację emisji spalin i hałasu. Dopiero od kilku lat przeprowadzane są testy mające na celu zastąpienie ich autobusami z napędem niekonwencjonalnym, w tym elektrycznym. Dla oszacowania efektów ekologicznych przeprowadzono ocenę wpływu z wykorzystaniem metody śladu węglowego (redukcji CO 2eq) dla przewozu pasażerów oraz oszacowano i porównano koszty związane z eksploatacją autobusów elektrycznych.

ABSTRACT Adequate supply of cleaner, affordable, and reliable electricity is critical for the growth and prosperity of any economy. The Government of Ontario, Canada's largest province both by population and by electricity generation capacity, has enacted a long-term energy plan in 2007 to ensure reliable, sustainable and cost-effective supply of electricity. To better understand the long-term dynamics of Ontario's electricity system in socio-economic and CO2 emissions dimensions, this research develops, validates, and applies a dynamic simulation model. The dynamic model endogenously represents Ontario's supply mix and demand side initiatives, and their interactions with pricing, profitability, investments, and electricity intensity sectors. Model-based results show that the current plan (i) will continue to increase the share of “green power” but Ontarians, even with “excess capacity” at hand, will continue to face rising rates of electricity for a long time, and (ii) is not likely to achieve the expected improvements in electricity consumption intensity and level of imports of electricity in the next decade. On the other hand, model based results point to an alternative plan, focused on the reduction of thermal generation, addition of renewable generation, and investments in research and development of electricity system, which can lead Ontario towards a future with “more” and affordable “green power”.

Abstract This review brings to the fore the fast-growing and significant phenomenon of community and private sector renewable energy partnerships, which constitute a fundamental building block of the global renewable energy transformation. This paper theoretizes on this issue by identifying six archetypes of local community–private sector renewable energy partnerships, namely knowledge sharing, private finance, local consumption, land seeking, community employment, and lease architypes. These archetypes are discussed with relation to key variables influencing partnership formation and perpetuation as part of the wider discussion regarding renewable energy partnerships between local communities and the private sector and the role they play in energy transition to a low-carbon society.

The fact that algae biofuels introduce huge possibilities and a variety of options in dealing with the world‘s energy and climate problems is well documented in literature. With significant amounts of financial investments and effort being allocated to research, the race is now on to develop the first commercial-scale algal biofuel production infrastructure that is sustainable and commercially viable.
Most researchers readily concede that the commercial viability of algal biofuel economics are extremely challenging, highly variable, and subject to dynamic, speculative, and volatile commodity markets. The infrastructure required to develop a profitable, algae-based fuel generation is still in various stages of development and the final configuration is yet to be determined and demonstrated on an industrial scale.
A grounded theory and techno-economic framework for data analysis was adopted for the study. The comparative approach incorporated the use of case studies and addressed the research issue from various perspectives in chapters 3 and 4. An extensive review of current and relevant literature was carried out in Chapter 2. This was to provide the reader with a firm background of the opportunities and limitations peculiar to algae – biofuel production.
The analyses presented here will provide a deeper understanding of algae biofuel economic drivers and will help address the specific challenges of algae growth strains, harvesting and conversion technologies. More importantly, it sets the tone for a correct appraisal of algae biomass not only for fuel purposes but as part of a wider production chain that will add value to the other parts of the algae.
A remarkable change in fossil fuel production and consumption has been predicted based on the overall shift by key energy providers and governments towards clean fuel technologies. Microalgae production via the routes recommended in this dissertation will open up new ways for environment friendly manufacturing and nature preservation. It is possible to expect that in the near future the model recommendations will be better perceived, thus leading to global reorientation of priorities for algae biofuel development and deployment.

This project report presents the rationale and the first results as regards the ongoing learning process of the PROMETEUS (PROMotion of EmobiliTy in EU regionS) project, co-financed by the Interreg Europe program, in the context of EU policies and programs dedicated to the promotion of sustainable mobility, and electric mobility in particular. Electric mobility, and in general low-carbon mobility, is one of the main targets of the European Union’s policies dedicated to a green transition. Despite continuous efforts, the number of electric cars in circulation remains low and the objectives of expanding the market for such vehicles by 2030 are still far from being fulfilled. Up until 2018, the share of electric vehicles was in fact only 1.5% of total car sales in the EU. Specifically, it has been noted that an increase in the uptake of electric vehicles in Europe is hampered by the presence of three main barriers: affordability, infrastructure availability, and lack of investments. In...

Low Carbon Development: A Paradigm Shift Towards a Green Economy in Indonesia (Full Report)
Pembangunan Rendah Karbon: Pergeseran Paradigma Menuju Ekonomi Hijau di Indonesia
Kementerian Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional/
Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Nasional (BAPPENAS)
Maret 2019

Austenitic Stainless Steels (SS) have around soft material property, welding "galling", chemical attack, biological attack and many other issues. However, this material is used by the major manufacturers use to comply with the code for internal parts as this is a non-corroding material for most services in which to meet the code plus it is cheaper than the alternatives materials.

The materials of disc and nozzle seats must differ, in hardness and chemical composition, in order to minimize the risk of seats sticking and cold welding, problems which might happen independently from the temperature. Austenitic stainless steels, even though suitable for cryogenic temperatures, are very prone to seize and to welding when coupled, because of their quite poor mechanical properties (low hardness and yield stress) and very poor tribology characteristics indeed.

Hard-facing of disc and nozzle seats is often used to solve the problem, but in practices, hard-facing of disc with stellite can negatively affect the valve tightness at very low and high temperatures, as a consequence of different thermal expansion coefficients of austenitic stainless steel and stellite. Therefore, for valves for cryogenic service, TAI only propose, for the disc, materials with mechanical properties higher than AISI 304/316, which needn’t hard-facing and with suitable tribology properties, when coupled to the nozzle seat material.

The customers typically don't know the difference and do not specify accordingly. They want a valve that works. We found most end users don't even know what is in the valve they buy and they don't care. For this fact, the following should be blamed: poor maintenance engineering practices, poor inspection reporting and not knowing the proper failure mechanisms for the process units. Generally speaking there is a not sufficient awareness of operations reliability and cost optimization.

The most standardized and cheap disc material is ARMCO 17-4 PH. Until now, we have limited its use at temperatures higher than – 150 °C. At lower temperature the resilience of this material greatly decreases. The low resilience doesn’t necessary state that the material isn’t suitable for the application; anyway, TAI prudentially preferred to use Nickel Alloys, at the minimum temperatures. In order to reduce the impact of the disc material on the valve cost, TAI can reconsider the lower acceptable temperature for 17-4 PH material, also because, very often, the relieving temperature is higher than the operating one and the disc can be subject to impacts only during the opening-closing cycle.

Most end users do use SS in all application. They just choose to repair the valves more often or use rupture disk as a barrier, which is believed to be a risky way to maintain safety and reliability

This study investigated the possibility of achieving a low carbon development in Nigeria through the application of some sustainable strategies. The investigation was through a review of some low carbon policies applied in some country's cases. The strategies were then explored to ascertain the possibilities of replication in the Nigerian context. It was necessary due to the increase in climate change activities experienced in Nigeria. The strategies were based on some successful country case in a bid to improve their transition towards a low carbon economy. These strategies applied by other nations were investigated and explored for replication possibilities in the Nigerian context. They include; thinking and adopting the green growth ideology, energy policy reforms, long-term energy planning and target, energy regulations and standards, environmental tax reforms, urban planning, efficient building design, the efficiency of the energy system, efficiency of passenger transport system, and renewable energy options. The Mini-review Article

Global warming is an existential threat to humanity and the rapid energy transition, which is required, will be the defining social, political and technical challenge of the 21st century. Practical experience and research results of recent years have showed that our actions to cover the gap between real situation and aims of climate agreements are not enough and that improvements in climate policy are needed, primarily in the energy sector. It is becoming increasingly clear that hydrocarbon resources, which production volume is increasing annually, will remain a significant part of the global fuel balance in the foreseeable future. Taking this into account, the main problem of the current climate policy is a limited portfolio of technologies, focused on replacement of hydrocarbon resources with renewable energy, without proper attention to an alternative ways of decreasing carbon intensity, such as carbon sequestration options. This study shows the need to review the existing climate policy portfolios through reorientation to CO2 utilization and disposal technologies and in terms of forming an appropriate appreciation for the role of hydrocarbon industries as the basis for the development of CO2-based production chains. In this paper we argue that: (1) focusing climate investments on a limited portfolio of energy technologies may become a trap that keeps us from achieving global emissions goals; (2) accounting for greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions losses, without taking into account the potential social effects of utilization, is a barrier to diversifying climate strategies; (3) with regard to hydrocarbon industries, a transition from destructive to creative measures aimed at implementing environmental projects is needed; (4) there are no cheap climate solutions, but the present cost of reducing CO2 emissions exceeds any estimate of the social cost of carbon.

The transition to a sustainable bio-based economy is perceived as a valid path towards low-carbon development for emerging economies that have rich biomass resources. In the case of Colombia, the role of biomass has been tackled through qualitative roadmaps and regional climate policy assessments. However, neither of these approaches has addressed the complexity of the bio-based economy systematically in the wider context of emission mitigation and energy and chemicals supply. In response to this limitation, we extended a bottom-up energy system optimization model by adding a comprehensive database of novel bio-based value chains. We included advanced road and aviation biofuels, (bio)chemicals, bioenergy with carbon capture and storage (BECCS), and integrated biorefinery configurations. A scenario analysis was conducted for the period 2015-2050, which reflected uncertainties in the capacity for technological learning, climate policy ambitions, and land availability for energy crops....

This article describes the fuel poverty and household energy situation in England as of early 2008, while also briefly covering the international context. It was compiled from a literature review conducted by the authors. An English household is said to be in fuel poverty if it would need to spend more than one tenth of net income on fuel to keep warm and provide hot water and power. The level of fuel poverty is thus determined by fuel prices, incomes, occupancy levels and thermal efficiency of homes. Fuel poverty causes health and mortality problems, especially amongst the elderly. Social, economic and environmental benefits result from alleviating fuel poverty. A variety of energy efficiency measures are used to reduce fuel poverty and increase the energy efficiency of homes, including installing thermal insulation and efficient heating systems. Fuel poverty is of interest to various government departments, and policy is enshrined in the UK Fuel Poverty Strategy. The main energy efficiency grant schemes in England are Decent Homes, Warm Front and the Energy Efficiency Commitment. Targets for the eradication of fuel poverty are unlikely to be met. Dealing with the ‘fuel rich’ is a strongly related but somewhat different issue, with the focus being on reducing carbon emissions.

The urgency of climate-change mitigation is well-accepted. Yet, the scale-up of clean energy which it requires is hampered by numerous trade-related obstacles and a lack of clear governance frameworks on trade and clean energy that increase costs of clean energy technologies (CETs) as well as increasing uncertainty for investors. This article proposes a number of policy options to address obstacles to trade in CETs, improve energy trade governance, and use trade policy proactively in support of clean energy. Whereas many of the systemic options are challenging, requiring a great degree of convergence among the full WTO membership, short-term proposals more easily within reach are also identified. A variety of options are also suggested for improving market access. Relevant policy processes, including regional trade agreements, the Environmental Goods Agreement (EGA), and the Trade in Services Agreement present interesting opportunities for implementing several of these options. The article further proposes that existing policy space, in particular in the area of subsidies, needs to be clarified, and in some cases strengthened.

Synthesis of the Policy Options E15 Expert Group on Clean Energy Technologies and the Trade System

This paper develops a geographic understanding of urban energy transitions in sub-Saharan African towns and cities. In doing so this paper seeks to critically reflect on the value and limits of urban transitions analysis as a framework for understanding energy networks beyond the largely integrated systems across the Global North. We explore how these potentials and deficits can be addressed by examining promising developments across a series of debates in urban studies that can help sensitise this approach to energyscapes in the African context. By reviewing urban transitions analysis through these debates the paper offers four important contributions to expand existing ways of understanding energy transition. These include the particular urbanisation dynamics of African towns ands cities, the need to locate the urban across energy regimes, the agencies of various intermediaries and urban actors and the contested politics inherent in the governing of energy networks. In the conclusion we reflect on the specific directions that have emerged from the paper in relation to our contributions, offering a geographically informed framework that allows us to better examine the challenges and specificities of transition across these rapidly growing urban regions.

Hydrogen as an energy vector is seen by many as a key enabler of low carbon energy and transport systems. However, the current lack of dedicated infrastructure together with the need for technologies that can produce low carbon hydrogen at competitive costs remain as major barriers to its introduction.

The EPSRC SUPERGEN Delivery of Sustainable Hydrogen (DoSH2) consortium brought together a multidisciplinary team of leading UK researchers with the aim of addressing both the scientific and the socio-economic challenges facing the development of hydrogen as an energy vector. This report summarises key insights from the socio-economic component of the consortium’s work, based upon research undertaken at the Centre for Energy Policy and Technology, Imperial College and the Welsh School of Architecture, Cardiff University. Specifically the report seeks to address the following questions:

• How do hydrogen fuel cell vehicles compare with current and prospective alternatives for the decarbonisation of road transport?

• What are the main barriers to the development of a sustainable hydrogen infrastructure for road transport?

• What is the role of novel, low carbon hydrogen production technologies in supporting the transition to hydrogen fuel in road transport?

• How does the UK hydrogen and fuel cells ‘innovation system’ compare with that in Germany, and what are the implications for green growth and international competitiveness?

The question of how to achieve ‘green’ development – to maintain economic growth without the trade-offs of ecological degradation or carbon emissions – has long perplexed theorists of development and environmental change. Yet most studies analyze green development as applied to industrialized economies or international aid projects; fewer examine how it is interpreted and implemented in the Global South, especially in resource-rich areas, even as many countries chart their own development path distinct from that of the Global North. This dissertation addresses this issue by examining the political economy and socio-environmental impacts of small hydropower (SHP) in China, the country’s most widespread renewable energy technology. At its core, it seeks to explain a seeming paradox: that while the government promotes SHP abroad as a Chinese model of green development, it is actively restricting further SHP expansion at home. Using conceptual and methodological tools from economic geography, political ecology, and development studies, I ‘follow the technology’ from policy design in Beijing, to implementation in China’s southwest Yunnan province, to export abroad through international training workshops in Hangzhou. In doing so, I unearth the logics and politics that shape when, where, and how green development policies and technologies are designed and used, and the economic and environmental consequences that they entail.

Based on fourteen months of fieldwork across six research sites, this dissertation finds that the function of SHP has changed constantly in different times and places, from rural electrification and industrialization, to conservation and national carbon mitigation. I argue that these changes reflect shifting state logics of green development, which have evolved from a focus on rural poverty alleviation to national low-carbon growth. Through new policies and energy subsidies, the state has re-framed rural southwest China as a ‘low-carbon frontier’, generating rapid and uncoordinated growth in SHP construction since the early 2000s. Yet I also found local conflicts between electricity generation and other natural resource uses, such as irrigation, forest conservation, and water storage, which have negatively affected rural livelihoods and agricultural yields. Moreover, while SHP is promoted as a substitute for dirty fuels, I found that it propelled an increase in mineral extraction and deforestation for charcoal production. For these reasons, and because of overcapacity, the state no longer favors SHP as a source of low-carbon value, ceding its position to solar and wind. This has driven SHP firms to new markets abroad, buoyed by state officials eager to tout China as a ‘green’ aid and investment partner. These findings thus contrast with typical accounts of low-carbon transition to highlight the spatial and environmental inequalities that shape renewable energy expansion and green development.

Infrastructure threatens to lock-in societies to fossil fuels, unless something is done about it now. This is because infrastructure lasts for such a long-time, meaning that any infrastructure built or rebuilt now will last well into the 21st century – even until the end of the century in some cases. Consequently, there is a need to integrate climate change, especially adaptation, into infrastructure now or societies will be left with infrastructure designed around an unsustainable socio-technical system (e.g. combustion engines, roads, suburbanization, etc.). Such change is conceptualized in the literature as a sustainability transition. However, any attempts at such transitions have to address the materialities of infrastructure systems (e.g. physical form, environmental context, etc.). In this paper I develop the concept of socio-material systems and apply it to transport infrastructure in Ontario, Canada.

Current models examining the possible implications which
such changes may reflect for low-income countries include
a look at best practices from countries such as Kenya, Cambodia and Nepal, some of which may also prove
relevant for the Caribbean context. To this end, ten key
measures were identified by the ODI which could help such
countries to remain competitive in a future low-carbon
global economy. These ten measures further assisted in
examining the Caribbean context and may be seen to sum
up the various observations and recommendations already
examined within this paper.

Global warming is a major concern in the globalized world in the aspect of industrialization. Low carbon practices are the major strategies to control global warming. Low carbon economy is the fundamental pattern of the mainstream economy in the perspective of ecology. The aim of this study is to explore the status of low carbon economy of China through assessing low carbon practices. It also finds out the challenges and opportunities of low carbon practices for sustainable economic development. An extensive literature review with meta-analysis has been done considering various indicators of low carbon practices. The study explores that China already adopted some policy, strategy, and practices regarding low carbon economy. China already set its policy regarding control of carbon emission by 2030. Research and innovation in low carbon practices, low carbon industrial structure, low carbon technology adoption and emphasizes on environmental sustainability are the major initiatives of China for low carbon economy. Major challenges regarding low carbon practices are heavy pressure on carbon emission, heavy industriali-zation, extensive development stream, resource endowment, unplanned industrial structure and trade, and confusion regarding industrial transformation. This study suggests that vigorous and efficient planning in industrialization, improved technology adoption, ecological consideration in every project and sufficient finance are necessary to obtain better low carbon economy in China.

Progress towards a Just Transition on the island of Ireland from fossil fuels in particular and unsustainable (and neoliberal) models of economic development in general, is a mixed picture. It is full of deep and as yet unresolved contradictions, but also great potential. On the one hand, the island of Ireland has some of the best renewable energy resources on the planet, particular in offshore wind. As the International Energy Agency puts it “Ireland’s location at the edge of the Atlantic Ocean ensures one of the best wind and ocean resources in Europe”. Ireland’s solar climate is as good as Paris, and equivalent to 70% of the solar climate on the Mediterranean coast. This means that a transition to a 100% renewable energy system is entirely feasible. Yet, there is sluggish movement on decarbonization and greenhouse gas emissions reduction across the island, and at best only a rudimentary understanding of what a ‘just energy transition’ means from a trade union’s perspective. And then there is Brexit and the problematic post — conflict politics of Northern Ireland to contend with….

This paper outlines the lessons learnt through the multidisciplinary ‘Science-to-Action’ approach to formulating, mainstreaming and implementing the Low Carbon Society Blueprint for Iskandar Malaysia 2025 (LCSBP-IM2025). Iskandar Malaysia (IM) is a rapidly developing urban-region in southern Peninsular Malaysia that was institutionalised in 2006 with a view to spurring Malaysia’s economic growth up to 2025. In pursuing rapid economic growth to become a developed, high income nation by 2020, Malaysia is conscious of its global responsibility in environmental protection and global climate change mitigation; hence the country’s commitment to reducing its carbon emission intensity of GDP by up to 40% by 2020 based on the 2005 level. Being a premier economic region in Malaysia, IM seeks to develop a low carbon society (LCS) and lead the way to cutting its carbon emission intensity by up to 58% by 2025 based on the 2005 level through the implementation of the LCSBP-IM2025.

The LCSBP-IM2025 is the outcome of an internationally funded joint research under the SATREPS program that brings together Universiti Teknologi Malaysia (UTM), Kyoto University, Japan’s National Institute for Environmental Studies (NIES), Okayama University and the Iskandar Regional Development Authority (IRDA), in a unique ‘academia-policymaker’ partnership, towards crafting a LCS pathway to guide and sustainably manage the projected rapid development in IM up to 2025. To that end, led by UTM, a multidisciplinary research team that comprises the above research institutions and IRDA has been set up. A methodology has been developed to formulate IM’s future LCS scenarios; propose LCS Actions to achieve the LCS scenarios; quantify the GHG emission reduction potential of the proposed LCS Actions; and continuously engage local stakeholders in a series of Focus Group Discussions (FGDs).

The project has been a great success from its official commencement in July 2011, which saw the LCSBP-IM2025 being launched at UNFCCC’s COP 18 in Doha in November 2012 and officially endorsed by the Malaysian Prime Minister in December the same year. In November 2013, the Iskandar Malaysia Actions for a Low Carbon Future was launched, outlining 10 priority projects selected from the LCSBP-IM2025’s 281 programs for implementation in IM in 2013-2015; the projects are now at various stages of implementation, yielding real impacts on IM’s progression towards it LCS goal.

The project offers valuable lessons especially in advancing scientific research on LCS into policymaking and, importantly, into real actions (hence Science-to-Action). These include the importance of having strong highest-level government support; aligning LCS Actions to higher-level development priorities; taking policymakers on-board the research team; continuously actively engaging local communities and stakeholders through FGDs; and overcoming science-policy and disciplinary gaps that emerged. What is clearly evidenced by the LCSBP-IM2025's success is that developing countries, with good synergy between highly committed local research institutions and policymakers, subject to adequate international funding and technological assistance from developed nations, are capable of crafting and putting in place implementable LCS policies that eventually contribute to mitigating global climate change through real cuts in GHG emissions while still achieving a desired level of economic growth.

Presently India is facing the twin challenge of energy universalization as well as emission reduction. Nearly 0.4 billion people in India– mostly residing in rural areas– do not have access to electricity and more than 0.8 billion people do not use modern cooking fuels. Provision of energy services however needs to take into account the global temperatures rise, which if to be limited to 2°C more from its pre-industrial value, Green House Gas (GHG) emissions must be halved by 2050 from its 1990 level. Energy infrastructure plays a key role to meet this dual challenge of universalization of energy services and reduction of energy-induced emissions. Assessing India’s infrastructure, this study presents the high humane (Energy universalization) and low carbon scenarios and discusses investment needs, financing mechanisms and the key policy issues.

It is a commonly accepted view that the end of the Cold War and the demise of the Soviet Union and communist system in the early 1990s opened a new stage in the process of globalisation since it allegedly denoted a definitive triumph of capitalism as the only solution for countries to arrange their economies. In line with this argument, Francis Fukuyama (1989) described the process in his famous book, in which he explained that the era of the “end of history” has ensued, in the meaning that liberal democracy and the market economy have finally proven to be allegedly superior to any other authoritarian regime or system. The thesis is controversial, to say the least, even today because as the reality of modern politics shows not all countries have embraced democratic pathways although many in the West would like them to do so. The transition towards capitalism may undergo peacefully or disruptively, but at the end, we live on one planet and the argument that sooner or later all peoples and countries will unite under some kind of 'system' quite makes sense. The debate seems to be even more intense at the present time in the era of globalisation. In principle, globalisation is something nobody can influence and prove that is happening although it is widespread. It is an undeniable and inescapable part of international experience. (Bauman, 1998). Is it a positive process? We do not know exactly, but borders are disappearing, countries trade, people exchange goods, services labour and capital. Certainly, there is always a subtle “but”. Globalisation produces synchronicity and uniformity, and that is why, the whole global system is more prone to financial crashes and economic crises. Besides, mathematical models suggest that simple communities, with few species, are more stable than complex communities. Yet, Mother Nature on our Earth provides examples of a wide diversity of ecological complexity, which produces perfect, finely operating, open system that is beautiful, infinite and panarchic. However, since 1950s humans have been influencing the state of global climate. As King (2017) noticed, "an issue that has not received enough attention in the media and popular understanding is that the Earth is finite and this fact will have real world physical, economic, social, and political implications." Neoclassical economics ignores this obvious fact, yet it is used to guide most policy (eg, economic projections and scenarios), including that for climate change mitigation and adaptation. Are these strategies adequate to solve climate change? Most economists use an economic theory that is simply incapable and inapplicable for informing an unprecedented transformation of the economy. Will then the problem of climate change be solved based on the economic theory? Or some kind of social theory based on the wider social movement of millions of people or perhaps a new paradigm that will arise soon? We do not know yet, what we know is that from time to time, a leader arises who is ready to turn things inside out, by transforming the existing unfair structure while restoring faith in a rotting economic system by initiating so much awaited renewal based on evolution or revolution. The fact of the matter is that our societies and our political systems are addicted to both economic growth and fossil fuels (Tonnessen, 2013). These two addictions, as Tonnessen (2013) noticed, ''combined constitute a Gordian knot in the root system of the climate change problematic.'' Can we cut the Gordian knot, and solve the problem of climate change? That would amount to becoming able to think clearly and consequentially about climate change. In essence. The challenge humanity is facing given anthropogenic global warming is simple: We have to phase out our use of fossil fuels, at least to a very substantial degree. However, ''the discourse about solutions has been muddled by the power of fossil fuels lobbyists and our addiction to fossil fuels.'' (Tønnessen, 2013). Due to human interference with the planet, at critical moments, the system has to show a crucial quality of resilience whether through renovation or adaptation. And it can do so when the economy is resilient, healthy and working properly. But an economy that does not invest in innovation may dry out and will not be renewed even by King Salomon. And to quote Morihei Ueshiba, "Economy is the basis of society. When the economy is stable, society develops. The ideal economy combines the spiritual and the material, and it seems that the best values to cherish are sincerity, love and sustainability instead of fossil fuels and economic growth. ''Cutting or untying the Gordian knot of climate change would probably not solve all our problems with regard to environmental issues'' (Tønnessen, 2013). But if we succeed in decoupling our addiction to economic growth and our addiction to fossil fuels, we would at least be able to envision and then build the low-carbon economy that has now almost become official orthodoxy on realistic terms. As Tønnessen (2013) observed, ''No matter how we approach climate change, it is crucial that other central environmental concerns, including nature conservation, are not sacrificed in the process of phasing out fossil fuels.'' After cutting 'the Gordian knot' that is our current dual addiction, however, we would be faced with another challenge: how we are to reinvent our economic system. ''The current growth model served us well for a long time, but it does not do so anymore. At the very least, this is the case for all already more-than wealthy countries. And besides, the quicker we make a transition to a truly sustainable economic system – one that does not depend on endless growth – the easier it will be to phase out our use of fossil fuels in time to avoid catastrophic climate change.'' (Tønnessen, 2013). ''Those who want to minimize the environmental pressure should pay attention to both the desirability of a long-term decline in the world population and of a shift to a more stable economic system.'' (Tønnessen, 2008: 126). According to the author, ''What most economists tend to neglect is that the growth economy, considered as a historical phenomenon, has a beginning, and, in the time scale of civilizations, is likely one day to come to an end.'' (Ibid.: 116). Unlimited global growth is practically impossible and only the planet will suffer if we orient to achieve it despite the costs. ''All too often, it is simply taken for granted that our economic system is representative of a future without end'' (Ibid.). But this future must be designed and build in agreement with our planet. Renewable energy sources can help us on this right pathway, but ''they have characteristics that are different from those of fossil fuels: They are intermittent and produce electricity directly, while most of our current energy is used in the forms of liquid or gaseous fuels.'' (Heinberg, 2018). To entirely replace fossil fuels with renewables would require a nearly complete transformation in how we use energy. Is a dynamic energy transformation possible in this century? It can be achieved by an extensive redesign of systems for generating, storing, and distributing energy. As Heinberg (2018) observed, ''Switching to new and relatively clean energy sources while trying to maintain growth of the overall economy would be a little like redesigning and reconfiguring an airplane while it's in flight.'' Since the show must go on it might be very difficult to abolish the capitalist system based on an abrupt revolution. Ecological economists argue that one strategy that would reduce emissions would be to shrink overall economic activity and rein in population growth (Ibid.). ''But policymakers are unwilling even to discuss that pathway. Growth has become sacrosanct as a way of creating jobs, ensuring returns on investment, and expanding tax revenues. Every politician in every political party in nearly every country on Earth wants more of it, not less.'' However, ''an economy grows when whenever people take resources and rearrange them in a way that makes them more valuable.'' (Romer, 2016). A resilient model would create a value for something. The research on climate-economy nexus is still in infancy. One idea is that community-led and bottom-up approaches offer more chances for success for climate-resilient development pathways because local, social practices inform global ones (van Ham, 2010). At the level of individuals, communities, coasts and cities' emphasis on well-being, social inclusion, equity, human rights and living in harmony with the Earth helps to overcome limitations in capacity of our leaders. Humanity needs to change politics and the solution has to come from the bottom-up. Leaders often cannot enact policies if there is no support from the peoples. It could be argued that the best ideas belong to the people and power should be placed once again in the hands of the people.

To mitigate climate change, global greenhouse gas emissions need to be reduced substantially. Industry and energy sector together are responsible for a major share of those missions. Hence the development of  low  carbon  business  parks  by  maximising  energy  efficiency  and  changing  to  collective,  renewable energy  systems  at  local  level  holds  a  high  reduction  potential.  Yet,  there  is  no  uniform  approach  to
determine the optimal combination and operation of energy technologies composing such energy systems.
However,  techno-economic  energy  models,  custom  ailored  for  business  parks,  can  offer  a  solution,  as they  identify  the  configuration  and  operation  that  provide  an  optimal  trade-off  between  economic  and environmental  performances. However,  models  specifically developed  for  industrial  park energy  systems are not detected in literature, so identifying an existing model that can be adapted is an essential step. In this paper, energy model classifications are scanned for adequate model characteristics and accordingly, a confined  number  of  models  are  selected  and  described.  Subsequently,  main  model  features  are compared,  a  practical  typology  is  proposed  and  applicability  towards  modelling  industrial  park  energy systems is evaluated. Energy system  evolution models offer the most perspective to compose a holistic,
but simplified model, whereas advanced energy system integration models can adequately be employed to assess  energy  integration  for  business  clusters  up  to  entire  industrial  sites.  Energy  system  simulation models, however, provide deeper insight in the system’s operation.