Medical bacteriology

Staphylococcus aureusis a gram-positive bacterium that can cause infections in almost anyone. The problem with the bacterium arises when S. aureus becomes resistant to methicillin. The bacterium's resistance to Methicillin and other beta-lactams is inherited from the mec.A gene located on the staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec), which serves a variety of functions in conferring its resistance to the drugs. It is important to understand the characteristics and components of infectious organisms, especially for epidemiological purposes. There are a variety of tests that can be conducted for the epidemiological and molecular study of MRSA which include plasma analysis, antibiogram typing, zerotyping, phage typing, bio typing, whole cell protein typing and zymotyping along with analysis restriction endonuclease. The two main DNA sequences analyzed when typing MRSA are MLST and SLST. MRSA can be classified as CA-MRSA (Community Acquired MRSA) and HA-MRSA (Hospital Acquired MRSA), based on the location where infection was contracted. Damage to skin and the mucous membrane gives a passage way for the bacteria to enter the individual. Diagnosis of MRSA can be made based on a samples obtained from an infected site on the patient and treatment is based on whether the infection is CA-MRSA or HA-MRSA. Worldwide, the infection rate of MRSA varies greatly, however, regardless of location, MRSA infection is a great concern. There are a variety of risk factors associated with infection of MRSA that have to be taken into consideration, especially when attempting to prevent the disease. This review looks into details of the molecular epidemiology of MRSA as well as the transmission, diagnosis and treatment options available.

Abstract- This study was carried out to isolate and identify bacterial flora from German cockroaches (Blattella germanica) collected from dwellings and health facilities in Tebessa city. A total of 187 bacteria were isolated from 46 cockroachs pecimens. The most common and abundant bacteria species belonged to Enterobacteria group (54.54%), while pathogens like Staphylococcus aureus as well as
Pseudomonas aeruginosa w isolated with a rate of 12.83 % and 4.81 %, respectively. The results indicated that B. germanica is a possible reservoir and carriers of bacterial pathogens via their bodies and thus may spread multiple drug resistance species.

The MAP-LC3 system regulates the intracellular
formation of autophagy-associated vacuoles. These vacuoles
contain the LC3 protein; thus it has been utilized as a
marker to identify autophagosomes. The aim of our study
was to investigate whether Haemophilus influenzae strains
and their supernatants could activate autophagy in human
larynx carcinoma cell line (HEp-2). We demonstrate that
higher expression of the LC3B-II protein was induced, particularly
by nontypeable Haemophilus influenzae (NTHi)
49766 and by supernatants, containing <50 kDa proteins,
of both strains. Ultrastructural studies demonstrate vacuoles
with a double membrane and/or membrane material
inside, showing similar features to those of autophagic vacuoles.
Together, our findings demonstrate that H. influenzae
strains and their supernatants trigger an autophagic process.

Though the promotion of resistant bacteria worldwide has mainly been attributed to the injudicious use of many antibiotics, the role of non-antimicrobial drugs used in the clinical management of pathological conditions of non-infectious diseases in the modulation of microbial drug resistance or susceptibility needs to be assessed. The effects of the antibiotic non-antibiotic drug-drug interactions against bacteria in SCD patients and in other chronic diseases cannot be overemphasized. The interactions of nine SCD management drugs and fifteen phenotype modulating compounds on the activities of 19 standard antimicrobial drugs
against clinical isolates of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA GGP E120) and E. coli (E. coli GGP E100) were investigated by pairwise drug combinations between SCD drugs/phenotypic compounds and antimicrobial agents using the agar plate disc diffusion method. The comparative effects of the SCD drugs/PMCs on ethidium bromide (EtBr) uptake and efflux in the bacterial cells relative to verapamil were detected by measuring fluorescence of intracellular EtBr. SCD drugs and PMCs biofilm inhibitory and disrupting abilities were analyzed by reading absorbencies of crystal violet stained biofilms. Bacterial strains were obtained from the bacteriology departments of the Noguchi Memorial Institute for Medical Research, University of Ghana, Accra.

In the preliminary pairwise combination screen by disc diffusion, SCD drugs produced mostly resistance-inducing interactions with standard antibiotics particularly the cell wall inhibitors, amoxicillin and ampicillin and some few weak resistance-breaking features mostly with gentamicin. The opioid medication, morphine emerged as a key resistance-breaking (antibiotic enhancing) SCD drug. Methotrexate, an anti-inflammatory and anti-folate
compound generated significant interactions with antibiotics against both organisms. Resistance breaking and resistance inducing effects were characterized as increase and decrease in zones of inhibition by four millimetres or more respectively, compared to zones produced in the absence of SCD drug.

In E. coli, no SCD drug exceeded the accumulated intracellular ethidium bromide (EtBr) level achieved by verapamil, the control for maximum accumulation. Hydroxyurea and paracetamol induced higher uptake of EtBr within MRSA relative to verapamil. Results were analyzed using the fluorescence value of verapamil control as standard to assess and compare the effects of the SCD drugs, taking into consideration the overlapping of error bars.

Generally, all SCD drugs showed higher rates of efflux inhibition (low efflux activity) relative to the no drug treatment control (bacterial cells and EtBr only) in both organisms, following the course of the line curves. Efflux activities of SCD drugs were not significantly different from verapamil with the exception of deferasirox and methotrexate in E. coli. In MRSA, efflux activities of methotrexate, morphine, ibuprofen and paracetamol treated cells were not significantly distinct relative to efflux activity of verapamil, the control for minimum rate of efflux.

Using a 50% value of biofilm formed in the compound free medium as a cut-off to analyze the effects of SCD drugs, the most effective biofilm inhibiting abilities (approximately greater than 60%) was observed for methotrexate and pethidine against E. coli and none (greater than 50%) against MRSA. Deferasirox showed above 50% biofilm disrupting activity against E. coli biofilm and again none against MRSA biofilm. Overlapping of error bars representing standard error of the mean was carefully considered in the analyses. Biofilm formation and integrity tended to be more robust in MRSA than in E. coli.

Extracts from four fungal isolates – SBF 052, SBF 062, TEF 246 and TEF 256 showed antibacterial activities against both E. coli and MRSA in a preliminary disc diffusion assay.

The resistance-inducing interactions and few resistance-breaking interactions generated by SCD drugs to the antibiotics against both bacterial strains could not be attributed to their effects on efflux or biofilm formation and thus, the need for further investigations to establish the molecular mechanisms causing such interactions.

Further investigations are also necessary to provide healthcare providers with information on what antibiotics to prescribe for certain chronic disease patients who are continually taking particular management medications. Analyses of microbial stress responses to the unique antibiotic-non-antibiotic interactions in further studies would reveal a number of endogenous resistance-promoting genes that represent possible therapeutic targets in countering antimicrobial resistance.

Extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (ESBL) are enzymes produced by gram-negative rods capable of hydrolyzing broad-spectrum cephalosporins and monobactams. Most belong to the Enterobacteriae family, such as Klebsiella pneumoniae and Escherichia coli. However, they are also associated with other bacteria such as Proteus, Serratia, Salmonella, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Acinetobacter. Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae have not only been isolated from the hospital environment, but also from the community. We present a female patient with a history of AIDS and secondary osteomyelitis to septic arthritis caused by a community Klebsiella pneumoniae ESBL. It is concluded that a timely and effective treatment can avoids the surgical option, reducing the morbidity and mortality of this condition.

Aims: The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence of paragonimiasis and aspergillosis in patients suspected of pulmonary tuberculosis in Yaounde.
Study Design: Cross sectional study.
Place and Duration of Study: Participants were recruited between March and June 2014 using the tuberculosis treatment centers of the University Hospital Center and Jamot Hospital Center of Yaounde
Methodology: Two sputum samples were collected from participants and analysed using standard microbiological methods.
Results: A total of 260 patients were enrolled, 131 (50.4%) females and 129 (49.6%) males. Of the 260 samples collected, Mycobacterium tuberculosis was detected in 44 (16.92%) [CI: 12.33–21.51], Aspergillus spp. in 42 (16.15%) [CI: 11.65–20.66] and Paragonimus africanus in 7 (2.69%) [CI: 0.7 – 4.67]. Aspergillosis was more prevalent in the age group 41-60years 29 (44.62%) (P = .000) and among builders 19 (45%) (P = .013). Isolates of Aspergillus included A. fumigatus 20 (47.62%), A. flavus 10 (24%) and A. niger 10 (24%). Other pathogens isolated included Candida albicans 80 (39.8%) and Histoplasma capsulatum var duboisii 21 (8.1%). Nine (3.46%) and 20 (7.69%) of patients with tuberculosis were coinfected with Aspergillus spp., and Candida albicans respectively. No coinfection was observed between Mycobacterium tuberculosis and Paragonimus africanus. Gram staining revealed that 20 (7.7%) were positive for fungal elements, 80 (30.8%) for yeast, 5 (1.9%) for yeast and Gram positive rods, 40 (15.4%) for Gram negative rods and 30 (11.5%) for Gram positive cocci.
Conclusion: This study demonstrates varying prevalence of Aspergillus spp., Paragonimus africanus in patients suspected of tuberculosis in Yaounde. Other potential pathogens isolated included Candida albicans, and Histoplasma capsulatum var duboisii. Further studies will be required to shed more light on the biology and transmission of Paragonimus africanus in Yaounde.

Article type: Original Article Background: Multi-drug resistant strains of Acinetobacter spp. have created therapeutic problems worldwide. The objective of this study was to detect integrons in Acinetobacter spp. isolates from Ventilator -Associated Pneumonia patients using PCR method. Methods: A total 51 Bronchoalveolar lavage samples were obtained from patients in ICU and examined for Acinetobacterspp. infection by biochemical and PCR methods using blaOXA51-like primers. Antimicrobial susceptibility testing was performed using disk diffusion and MIC methods. Results: Among 51 patients with VAP (62.7% males, 35.2% females, mean age 53 year), 50 (98%) were positive, with a high prevalence of gram-negative bacteria, mainly Acinetobacter spp. (70%), from which A. baumani was detected in 34 (68%) and A. lwoffii in 1 (2%) of isolates. More than 90% of isolates were resistant to imipenem, pipera cillin+tazobactam, third generation cephalosporins and gentamicin, while the most effective a...

In this study, Enterococcus faecalis was isolated from100 samples of apparently healthy and diseased cultured Tilapia fish (Oreochromis niloticus) collected from 4 different fish farms at different localities in Kafr El-Sheikh governorate with an incidence of (20%) and it, also isolated from 12 samples (8 water samples and 4 ration samples) at the same infected farms with incidence of 50% from water samples, but the ration samples give a negative result for Enterococcus faecalis isolation. The antimicrobial susceptibility test has revealed that isolates were sensitive to vancomycin, amoxicillin, ampicillin, norfloxacin, gentamicin and ciprofloxacin, while resistant to cefotaxime, tetracycline, streptomycin and erythromycin. Molecular detection of some virulence genes from 8 Enterococcus faecalis isolates revealed that 3 isolates produced esp gene, 7 isolates produced asa1gene and all isolates produced EF3314 gene, while the cylA was not detected in any of Entero-coccus faecalis isolates. Also PCR results of some resistance genes showed that 8 isolates and 7 isolates were found to produce blaz and tetk genes respectively. Experimental infection test with some isolated Enterococcus faecalis revealed that the isolates caused mortality in fish with characteristic disease signs.

[Diphtheria in Geneva at the end of the 19th century: the emergence of bacteriology and the use of serotherapy]

At the end of the 19th century, diphtheria was one of the infectious diseases striking children the most. With the development of laboratory medicine, appearing at this time throughout Europe, came the identification of the diphtherial bacillus, which not only causes a local infection, but also produces a poison attacking the whole organism. The discovery of this microbe will be an important vector for bacteriological research, leading to the elaboration of the antidiphtherial serum, considered the first specific and effective therapeutic product in the new experimental medicine. Through the study of diphtheria in the canton of Geneva, we examine the causes and consequences of the application of laboratory techniques and concepts in the sphere of clinical medicine.

Background: Rotavirus infection is the most common cause of severe diarrhea in young children and
infants worldwide. Epidemiological knowledge concerning rotaviruses among infants and children is
critical for the development of effective measures, including vaccines. Method: Cross-sectional study
was conducted at Omdurman Pediatric Hospital, Sudan to investigate the frequency of rotavirus
infection among vaccinated and non-vaccinated children and associated possible risk factors among
children. The solid-phase sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) was used to detect
rotavirus antigens. Structured questionnaire was used to gather socio-demographic data. Result: Out of
100 diarrheal cases, 21 were rotavirus-antigen positive (21%). Out of the 21 rotavirus positive subjects,
22% (11/50) were in non-vaccinated children and 20% (10/50) were in vaccinated children (p > 0.05).
Second half of the first year of infancy showed highest incidence (34.8%) of rotavirus infection and the
infection rate decreased with the increasing age (p>0.05). Children infected with rotaviruses were
more likely to have vomiting (90.4%) (P > 0.05) and fairly low frequency of fever (71.4%) (P > 0.05).
Out of the 21 rotavirus positive subjects,5 (26.3%) were breast-fed, 8 (34.8%) were both breast and
bottle-fed, 5 (16.7%) were bottle-fed and 3 (10.7%) were neither breast nor bottle-fed (p > 0.05).
Furthermore, the non-treated children revealed the highest percentage of rotavirus antigen (25%)
compared to the antibiotic treated children (20.8 %). Conclusion: Rotavirus frequency was 21% (20%
vaccinated and 22% non-vaccinated) among children less than 5 years. There is incidence of rotavirus
infection among vaccinated children with Rotarix vaccine against rotavirus infection. The use of
universal vaccine (multiple serotypes) is the most important preventive strategy.

Between 1880 and 1920 the medical quest to unearth the causes of disease saw two pathbreaking discoveries. One was the bacteriological revolution-the identification of specific germs as causal agents of specific diseases (anthrax, tuberculosis, diphtheria, cholera and so on), and the simultaneous effort to develop disinfection techniques and immunisation measures to combat these diseases. The other was the rediscovery of Mendel's laws of heredity and the resulting emergence of medical genetics, where an entire set of medical maladies (deafness, blindness, bodily deformities, haemophilia, Huntington's chorea, feeble-mindedness and many mental diseases) were identified-rightly or wrongly-as genetically determined. The 'germ theory of disease' and the 'gene theory of disease' shared striking, all-too-often overlooked similarities. Both theories built on shared epistemological assumptions that influenced their explanatory mechanisms and their overall conceptual frameworks; both mobilised similar visual and linguistic vocabulary; both appropriated-and enforced-prevailing cultural and gender norms; and both enshrined broadly parallel hygienic practices. Reflecting similar social concerns, medical bacteriology and medical genetics acquired kindred scientific and societal configurations, which this paper highlights and scrutinises.

Introduction DNA-based surveillance of bacterial diseases has been using pulsed field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) since 1996. Currently, the international surveillance network (PulseNet international) is turning toward whole genome sequencing (WGS). ATCGs of WGS are compared using several sequence alignment methods. While patterns of horizontal lines of PFGE profiles are being compared using relative positioning of bands within a range of tolerance. A recently suggested image analysis algorithm and a deployed database (geltowgs.uofk.edu) collectively invented a promising method for comparing PFGE to in-silico obtained digestion models (DMs) derived from WGS. The database requires a parameter that determines PFGE resolution. Here, the author suggests a new method for calculating this factor. Epidemiological and molecular conclusions returned by the database are evaluated. Methodology two PFGE profiles representing XbaI digests of E. coli and Salmonella enterica analyzed by the suggest...

Article type: Research Article Background: More than 30 bacterial, viral, and parasitic pathogens have the potential for transfusion (sexually transmitted), an infectious group called sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Atofobium vagina, Gardnerella vaginalis are one of the most common causes of the disease. T. vaginalis is also the most common protozoa among vaginosis causing agents. This study aimed to determine the prevalence of these factors in conjunction with the multiplex PCR method. Methods: In this study, among 320 women who referred to Shahid Akbarabadi Hospital in Tehran, 70 samples of people with symptoms of vaginosis who had not taken antibiotics at least one week before the visit were selected. The results of the Amsel criteria and Nugent score tests indicated only 27 cases as bacterial vaginosis. After DNA extraction from the specimens, a multiplex PCR was performed on the samples. Results: The results of the multiplex PCR showed that in 27 cases, 14 cases of bact...

Background and Aims: The type IV Pilin is an important colonization factor for opportunistic pathogens of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, which plays a role in the formation of biofilms and binding to the host cells. Each type of Pilin is coded with a particular auxiliary gene. This specific relationship can be used as a therapeutic target for detecting P. aeruginosa strains as well as its molecular classification. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the frequency of different types of auxiliary genes in cystic fibrosis, burns, and environmental samples.    Materials and Methods: Pseudomonas aeruginosa samples were collected from patients with cystic fibrosis, burns as well as environmental wastewaters during 2016-2017. Samples were cultured and identified using standard microbial and biochemical methods. DNA extraction was performed by boiling and PCR was performed through specific primers.    Results: Totally, 90 isolates of P. aeruginosa samples (35 environmental, 30 burns, and 25 cystic fibrosis) were examined. tfpO and tfpZ were positive in 71 and 2 isolates, respectively.    Conclusion: The results indicated that Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pilin types are very diverse. Regardless of the source of the samples, the most common tfp was tfpO. Taking into account the fact that tfpZ was found only in burns, it can be assumed that this particular type may appear in severe clinical conditions. Ultimately, larger statistical population and use of more comprehensive typing methods is suggested for better results.

The aim of this study was to investigate the antimicrobial activities of calcium ions and other cross-linking agents of alginate dressings, as well as their compatibility with commonly used topical antimicrobials. The antimicrobial activities of cross-linking agents and antimicrobials (five antibiotics and four antiseptics) were evaluated by the broth dilution method. The interactions between individual cross-linking agents and antimicrobials were evaluated using the chequerboard test against common skin pathogens, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. From the MIC determined, antibiotics were the most active, followed by the antiseptics and cross-linking agents. Calcium ions, which are commonly used to cross-link alginate, exhibited very weak antimicrobial activity and higher fractional inhibitory concentration than the other cross-linking agents. The use of calcium and gentamicin resulted in antagonism against S. aureus. In contrast, aluminium, zinc and copper ions exh...

Threats of Acinetobacter baumannii, a Gram-negative and multi-drug resistant bacterium, to the public health have recently received great attention worldwide. This is because the high incidence rate of the bacterial infections and the ability of the A. baumannii to resist a wide range of antibiotics. This study is designed to investigate the antimicrobial activity of the cinnamon oil in water as Nano emulsions (NEs) alone and in combination with different antibiotics against clinical isolate of A. baumannii. At the beginning, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of different antibiotics and also cinnamon Nano emulsions (CNEs) were determined. Later, the synergistic effect of the CNEs with each of the studied antibiotics was also examined. Results showed that the bacterium has the highest resistant towards ampicillin (MIC = 700 µg/ml), followed by kanamycin, and gentamycin with MIC of each of the antibiotics was 200 µg/ml and 150 µg/ml, respectively. Cinnamon Nano emulsions (CNEs) were also showed a profound inhibitory effect on A. baummanii. Interestingly, combinations of cinnamon Nano emulsions (CNEs) with either kanamycin or gentamycin, but not ampicillin, show a significant increase in the antimicrobial activity of each of the antibiotics compared to when they were used alone. The results of this study strongly suggest the potential application of CNEs in combination with antibiotics to overcome A. baummanii infections.

Threats of Acinetobacter baumannii, a Gram-negative and multi-drug resistant bacterium, to the public health have recently received great attention worldwide. This is because the high incidence rate of the bacterial infections and the ability of the A. baumannii to resist a wide range of antibiotics. This study is designed to investigate the antimicrobial activity of the cinnamon oil in water as Nano emulsions (NEs) alone and in combination with different antibiotics against clinical isolate of A. baumannii. At the beginning, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of different antibiotics and also cinnamon Nano emulsions (CNEs) were determined. Later, the synergistic effect of the CNEs with each of the studied antibiotics was also examined. Results showed that the bacterium has the highest resistant towards ampicillin (MIC = 700 µg/ml), followed by kanamycin, and gentamycin with MIC of each of the antibiotics was 200 µg/ml and 150 µg/ml, respectively. Cinnamon Nano emulsions (CNEs) were also showed a profound inhibitory effect on A. baummanii. Interestingly, combinations of cinnamon Nano emulsions (CNEs) with either kanamycin or gentamycin, but not ampicillin, show a significant increase in the antimicrobial activity of each of the antibiotics compared to when they were used alone. The results of this study strongly suggest the potential application of CNEs in combination with antibiotics to overcome A. baummanii infections.

It is believed that an important criterion for a potential probiotic strain is that it is capable of adhering to mucosal surfaces in the human gastrointestinal tract. The purpose of this study was to investigate a possible relationship between exopolysaccharide production and adhesion to Caco-2 cells by Bifidobacterium breve A28 and Bifidobacterium bifidum A10. In a preselection process, the hemagglutination abilities of these bacteria were determined prior to undertaking adhesion studies. B. breve A28, which produces large amounts of EPS (97.00 ± 2.00 mg/l) and has good hemagglutination abilities (+3) was found to adhere strongly to Caco-2 cells. Under gastrointestinal conditions, the high EPS producing- B. breve A28 was found to have better viability and adhesion to Caco-2 cells than the low EPS producing- B. bifidum A10. Also, B. breve A28 was found to be more effective at inhibiting Escherichia coli ATCC 11229 than B. bifidum A10. This investigation showed that high EPS production and adhesion ability may be important in the selection of bifidobacteria as probiotic strains.

Background : The pathologies classified as urinary tract infections (UTI) can have a deleterious effect on patients who have undergone a renal transplantation.  Often recurrent UTIs will occur, leading to high morbidity, failure of the grafting process overall and even death.  The study presented here seeks to expand the knowledge of recurrent UTIs in the context of renal transplantation, what risks recurrent UTIs pose to transplant patients and evaluate possible treatments. M ethods : Renal transplantations were performed on 94 patients.   For six months post-surgery the patients were evaluated for the presence of recurrent UTIs.  The criteria for determining a patient as having a UTI was given as finding   more than 103    and 105  pure colonies within one ml of urine for asymptomatic and symptomatic patients, respectively.   The criteria of recurrent UTI was defined as two or more conclusive UTIs within the first six months after the surgery or three more within a year after rena...

Threats of Acinetobacter baumannii, a Gram-negative and multi-drug resistant bacterium, to the public health have recently received great attention worldwide. This is because the high incidence rate of the bacterial infections and the ability of the A. baumannii to resist a wide range of antibiotics. This study is designed to investigate the antimicrobial activity of the cinnamon oil in water as Nano emulsions (NEs) alone and in combination with different antibiotics against clinical isolate of A. baumannii. At the beginning, the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of different antibiotics and also cinnamon Nano emulsions (CNEs) were determined. Later, the synergistic effect of the CNEs with each of the studied antibiotics was also examined. Results showed that the bacterium has the highest resistant towards ampicillin (MIC = 700 µg/ml), followed by kanamycin, and gentamycin with MIC of each of the antibiotics was 200 µg/ml and 150 µg/ml, respectively. Cinnamon Nano emulsions (CN...

The roles of group C and F streptococci in causing endemic pharyngitis are still controversial, although group C streptococci are implicated in the outbreaks of pharyngitis and associated disorders. The aim of this study was to determine the prevalence and the role of these groups of β-hemolytic streptococci in acute pharyngitis with emphasis on the Streptococcus anginosus group. The antimicrobial susceptibility profile of these bacterial isolates and their ability to produce some virulence factors was also determined. Throat swab specimens were collected from 177 patients suffering from acute pharyngitis who had been admitted to the Hilla Teaching Hospital, Hilla, Iraq, during October 2009 to January 2010. The necessary biochemical tests were conducted and the organisms identified using standard procedures. Susceptibility of isolates pathogens to several antibiotics was examined using standard susceptibility testing. Virulence factors of these isolates were also determined using standard methods. Results revealed that a total of 67 isolates belonged to β-hemolytic streptococci, of which 11(16.4%) isolates belonged to anginosus group streptococci, which possessed Lancefield group C and F antigens. Most of these bacterial isolates have the ability to produce more than one virulence factor such as capsule, hemolysin, CFA III, and lipase enzyme. The bacterial isolates were highly resistant to ampicillin, cefotaxime, and cefepime while they exhibited moderate resistance to tetracycline, ceftriaxone, and ciprofloxacin. On the other hand, they showed a high sensitivity to vancomycin, ofloxacin, and clindamycin. This study concluded that groups C and F Streptococci were implicated as a cause of acute pharyngitis in 6.2% of the specimens among other groups of streptococci. Most of these isolates have the ability to produce more than one virulence factor. There was a high rate of resistance among isolates for β-lactam antibiotics; however, they were highly susceptible to vancomycin, ofloxacin, and clindamycin.

Background: Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) is an opportunistic pathogen and a predominant cause of life-threatening nosocomial infections. Drug resistance in S. aureus is attributed to production of biofilm, which is controlled largely by bacterial quorum sensing (QS) systems. Methodology: In vitro analysis of biofilm inhibition assay was performed using crystal violet staining assay, swarming motility, light microscopy and growth curve analyses. Identification of the major constituents of I. verum fruit extract was performed by GC-MS. Ligand-protein interaction was analyzed by molecular docking investigations. Results: The methanol extract of I. verum inhibited the growth of MRSA at the concentration of 4.8 mg/ml. At the sub-inhibitory concentration (2.4mg/ml), the extract showed significant reduction in biofilmogenesis. Light microscopy analysis confirmed the antibiofilm activity as well as the efficacy in disturbing biofilm architecture. A reduced swarming motility was observe...