Mineral Raw Materials

Siderophores are a class of biogenic macromolecules that have high affinities for metals in the environment, thus could be exploited for alternate sustainable metal recovery technologies. Here, we assess the role of siderophores in the extraction and complexation of metals from an iron oxide-rich metallurgical processing residue and a low-grade primary Ni ore. Evaluation of the biological siderophore production by three pseudomonads, P. fluorescens, P. azotoformans and P. putida identified that P. putida could generate the highest siderophore yield, which was characterized as a hydroxamate and catecholate mixed-type pyoverdine PyoPpC-3B. Key physicochemical parameters involved in raw siderophore mediated metal extraction were identified using a fractional factorial design of experiments (DOE) and subsequently employed in purified PyoPpC-3B leaching experiments. Further targeted experiments with hydroxamate and catecholate functional analogues of PyoPpC-3B confirmed their marked abil...

This monograph connects to the research results Petar Milojević presented in his graduation paper titled “The Survey of potential Paleolithic sites in the region of the Sokobanja basin and closer vicinity” the research for which was conducted within the project “Research of the transition from the middle to the upper Paleolithic in eastern Serbia” conducted by the Faculty of Philosophy from Belgrade in cooperation with the University of Arizona from Tucson (USA), under the auspices of Dušan Mihailović and Steven Kuhn. The research was conducted based on data collected by a team of three authors during only two research campaign each of which lasted two weeks conducted
during 2012 and 2013.
The contribution of this study in the archaeological survey of the Paleolithic
represents a standardized and systematic method of collecting data by means of forms and their compiling by applying Geographic Information Systems and the locating of
apsolute coordinates by means of a GPS device, which enables any further researcher to conduct a thorough preparation prior to fieldwork by means of selecting data of interest and enabling and entirely independent localization of the mentioned speleological objects. Our objective was also to point out the archaeological potential and instigate further archaeological researches of the Sokobanja region because it belongs to a group of areas with the least number of archeological researches. Besides their importance for archaeology, the presented data is solid starting point for geomorphological and speleological research.

This open access peer-reviewed book presents a wide overview of certain aspects of the pottery analysis and summarizes most of the methodological and theoretical information currently applied in archaeology in order to develop wide and deep analysis of ceramic pastes. The book provides an adequate framework for understanding the way pottery production is organised and clarifies the meaning and role of the pottery in archaeological and traditional societies.

The goal of this book is to encourage reflection, especially by those researchers who face the analysis of ceramics for the first time, by providing a background for the generation of their own research and to formulate their own questions depending on their concerns and interests. The three-part structure of the book allows readers to move easily from the analysis of the reality and ceramic material culture to the world of the ideas and theories and to develop a dialogue between data and their interpretation.

As the last one of a series of ten monographies, the above title covers a summary of basic resesarch projects carried out in the primary and secondary sources of criticel elements in Hungary, University of Miskolc, in the frame of the CriticEl project (www.kritikuselemek.uni-miskolc.hu).  The volume was written by 48 co-authors, edited by Janos Foldessy

Raw materials constitute an integral part of the industrial base of any country. Such raw materials may form the source of the required input into other industries or they may be distinct. Where such downstream industries do not exist, manufacturing companies are faced with the sourcing and processing of the raw materials. The concept of value addition is a vital component of the overall strategy for addressing global market competition, post-harvest losses and food security. The processing of agricultural raw materials into various innovative products promotes market acceptability and gives the products high economic value which consequently brings higher income to the producer. Processing also expands the horizon of human participation in the production process and therefore creates awareness for employment generation in the downstream activities such as packaging, marketing, retail, exports, etc. Value addition provides opportunities for developing countries to work out economic ...

This paper intends to analyse problem-solving strategies in the context of the war in Afghanistan. The following chapters will first set the scene of the conflict and then attempt to come up with a possible way of ending hostilities. Since 2001, the forces of the Western-led coalition have been struggling in Afghanistan. First the British tried in 1839, then the Russians in 1979, finally the Americans (2001). However, all of these wars were unsuccessful. In reality, no foreign country has been able to pacify or colonize Afghanistan effectively (the infinite game paradox). Some named it even the "graveyard of empires" (Bacevich, 2011). Is there a solution to the problem of Afghanistan? No one has ever found an answer whilst Afghanistan has been torned by war continuously for over thirty years. Searchers of effective political solutions to the conundrum of Afghanistan would have to strictly adhere to a simple set of rules: (1) Test ideas by experiment, observation and past case studies (2) Build on those ideas that pass the test (3) Follow the evidence wherever it leads, and (4) Question everything that does not prove the rule. One method discovered by Hungarian mathematician, George Pólya is to inspect a related problem and solved before by quite a similar method in the past. The truth of the matter is that as the development of civilisation progresses some truths become widely accepted and policies based on them are implemented while others are rejected since they are no longer valid, for example, they are no longer verified by science or morally accepted. It may be argued that all global problems are connected and in solving them we have to scrutinize similar problems that were successfully addressed in the past. For example,  as noticed by Attenborough (2019), ''seventy years ago, nobody really knew about or talk about the link between humans and climate change.'' However, a breakthrough moment came when after the meeting of scientists in the 1980s with focus on CFCs. It was discovered that the ozone layer was depleted (Owen, 2019). In 1984, British Antarctic Survey scientists discovered recurring springtime Antarctic ozone hole that was published in Nature in May 1985. As Hansen (2012) noted, ''On September 16, 1987, representatives from nations around the world drafted a landmark treaty known as the Montreal Protocol. This step marked the beginning of the international agreement to phase out substances that deplete Earth's protective ozone layer.'' The protocol is considered today as an international policy success story. That success, however, rests on the ingenuity of numerous scientists involved with the initial discovery and analysis of the then-mysterious atmospheric phenomenon. Landmark at that time was unanimity in the world of science, ''By December 1984, we had a high degree of confidence that the hole was a real effect.'' (Hansen, 2012). First, scientists clearly defined the problem and were presenting evidence that it could be addressed in a successful way, e.g. if humanity simply disposes of the gasses contributing to the problem. ''Leaders in the positions of power were convinced simply based on the scientific evidence. At that time, it was not necessary to put the problem to the vote'' (Attenborough, 2019). Scientists agreed to inform people and politicians and both could see that it could be done. ''Not only this, but they also suggested the possible solution that was globally implemented and never put to the electorate.'' (Ibid). The response from the world of policy was positive, so politicians, the civil service and governments did act. Informed science on behalf of nations of the world through in a democratic sense was driving the process. Leaders were acting for the common good of humanity with a tacit agreement. Scientists united and felt it responsible to honestly inform governments before the problem scalated. The problem was incontrovertible and all simply decided to act. The problem was not an electioneering proposition, it was not subject to politicising in the way that the climate change problem now has become in a democratic society. Apart from depoliticising the issue technology was a massive incentive, '' in the early days of the ozone regime people thought responding to ozone depletion would be a very hard problem. The appearance of new technology, spurred by regulation and lowering the costs of phasing out ozonedepleting chemicals, changed the nature of problem by changing incentives, making a deep and comprehensive regime feasible.'' (Parson, quoted in Keohane and Victor, 2010: 13). Can we practically convince the electorate to effectively deal with this problem? One idea is accelerating the low carbon energy transition globally with stronger, more targeted and coordinated action in every economic sector (Victor, Geels and Sharpe, 2019). Humanity should be investing and encouraging industry to try sustainable technologies. One of the paradoxes is that power is streaming down on the Earth from the sun with no restriction. Mankind can use and direct it with no problem. The popularity of solar power has led to the rise of solar batteries that can store extra solar power for later use. Although solar panels are expensive companies like Tesla are already developing batteries that can be installed with solar panels to create “solar-plus-storage” systems for homes across the planet. There are efficient ways in which we can store power, namely batteries which can store power on a major scale and ways in which can also transport power without  a major loss of the product. The breakthrough discovery of the lithium-ion battery necessary for a fossil-fuel-free society can alleviate the problems of climate and energy. When solar panels are producing more electricity than homes need, the excess energy could go towards charging the battery. Later, when our solar panels are not producing electricity, we can draw down the energy that has been stored earlier in our battery for night use. Thanks to this technology, we could change the pollution problems connected with both airlines and cars. The scientific knowledge, as well as the know-how technology is already known to the industry. The only challenge is the practical method, high-efficiency solar energy conversion and storage. If the method will be discovered we can introduce a huge solution to a great number of our problems connected with clean energy. The authors of the report entitled, 'Exponential Roadmap: the 36 most viable solutions to halve greenhouse gas emissions globally by 2030' point out that ''Solar and wind energy have reached a tipping point and are now cheaper than fossil fuels in many places. Tumbling costs and rapid innovation of low-emissions technology including battery storage and electric vehicles makes a very rapid transformation almost inevitable.'' (Falk, et al., 2019). Energy around the world is ''very expensive and scarce in economic terms only because humans have not thought cleverly enough about how to capture it, use it in humanely useful terms and make it widely available for all people'' (Hepburn, 2015). Global leaders must show climate leadership. It may be argued that God offers every leader a choice between truth and repose. If leaders desire wisdom with all their heart, they will know what good leadership is when it will be put to the test. If they do not show climate leadership, they will prove poor leaders. In such a situation, the climate movement will win more hearts and minds, ''the more wise people there are in the world, the more likely it is that humanity will be saved. The policymakers of this planet must collectively realise that they can either work with young people trying to heal the planet or risk a revolution. ''A sensible ruler gives stability to his people.'' (Book of Wisdom 6-24). A wise symbiosis (biological homeostasis) averting a costly revolution implies that engineers could generate electricity by relying on the power of the sun, wind, etc; we could convert vehicles to electricity; reduce plastics in supermarkets; decarbonize the economy. We can tap into the world's most awe-inspiring natural phenomena to discover new sources of energy, not taking advantage of nature but working in symbiosis with it. As Attenborough (2019) noticed, ''combatting climate change can be viewed as a huge opportunity for nations willing to carve out a leadership position and get ahead of the game by setting and achieving robust policies.'' Another method that can shed more light is not letting failure afflicting too much but trying to supervise an obstacle that cannot be overcome directly. Recent developments suggest that neither the Taliban nor the Coalition forces have won; climate is also marked by impasse. Perhaps, it is a high time for global leaders to listen more carefully to the foreign policy and climate experts who offer very valuable advice on these important issues and can help us find unconventional solutions.

SNELA 2022 ‘Archaeology and Anthropology of Resource Use in the Near East’ is dedicated to resource use at the regional level with special emphasis on anthropological perspectives. While there is not a strict temporal frame, research focusing from the prehistoric to medieval periods will be given priority. The following five themes form the core of 2022 meetings:
• Social approaches to the archaeology and anthropology of resource use
• Patterns of resource use, long-distance trade
• Ancient technologies and technology transfer
• Political economy and patterns of social complexity through resource use (discussions related to Anatolia are especially welcome)
• Human impacts on ancient environments as a result of resource use.
The primary resources for discussions are classified into seven subgroups. Researchers working on these materials are welcome to submit abstracts to oral or poster sessions.

1. Metals: mining and metallurgy, economic geology of ores
2. Stones: precious and semi-precious stones
3. Minerals: salt, natron, clay, and tempering materials
4. Water: ancient hydrological practices, water related reserves e.g. food and textile industry, shells
5. Fuel: forestry, wood, dung
6. Organic materials: bone, bitumen
7. Crop production

This paper documents a comprehensive study of thirty-two stamped bricks found in territory of the ancient town of Cosa (Ansedonia, Grosseto). The geographical distribution of these materials distinguished ‘municipal’ productions, i.e. those found within the territory of Cosa (ager cosanus) only, and ‘urban’ productions, i.e. those found in the ager cosanus, as well as in the territory comprising Rome and its suburbs and/or the entire Tiber Valley. Main aim of the study was to verify the provenance of ‘municipal’ productions, by a combination of archaeological, epigraphical, prosopographical and archaeometrical (OM, SEM–EDS, ICP-OES, ICP-MS, INAA) research instruments and techniques. Data integration revealed that six ‘municipal’ productions (over a total of nine) were produced in the territory surrounding the Cosa's promontory, using marine and fluvial clayey deposits. Conversely, three ‘municipal’ productions were assigned to the ‘urban’ area, and possibly assigned to the Tiber Valley. An important distinction was made among the ‘urban’ productions, proving the feasibility of their discrimination

En el yacimiento prehistórico de Antoliñako koba (Gautegiz-Arteaga, Bizkaia), han aparecido sílex exóticos que pueden haber circulado una larga distancia desde su fuente de aprovisionamiento. Las similitudes externas de los sílex de Antoliñako koba y los recogidos en la región de Bergerac, así como las coincidencias en los caracteres petrográficos permiten comprobar que no existe ninguna característica que haga pensar que ambos tipos de sílex sean diferentes, por lo que a falta de un mejor conocimiento sobre materias primas al sur de los Pirineos, se puede sugerir una fuente común para ambos

The European Green Deal is the new strategy for economic growth adopted by the European Commission (EC) in late 2019. One of the most important tasks in the realisation of this strategy is the mobilisation of the industry for a clean and circular economy (CE). Currently, the European Union (EU) is in the process of transformation towards a CE model, which was announced in 2014. The CE assumes a transition from a linear model based on take-make-dispose to a circular model, in which waste, if it arises, becomes a valuable resource. At the same time, it is recommended to use raw materials (RMs) more efficiently and to recycle them. The EC underlines that both changes in the management of mineral resources in individual member states and their effects should be monitored. Therefore, in 2018, the EC pointed out issues related to RM management as important elements of the monitoring framework in transformation process towards CE. The paper presents strategic directions aimed at sustainable and circular RM management in the EU, with a strong emphasis on the key elements of sustainable development-environmental, economic and social. Moreover, the importance of mineral resources management in the EC in the context of transformation towards the European Green Deal and CE is presented, and the results of selected CE indicators related to the RMs, and indicators that present sustainable RMs management are discussed. The core of the paper is presentation of a set of recommended actions which should be taken in coming years with strong emphasis on the implementation of the sustainable development (SD) principles. RM management faces a number of challenges, primarily in achieving increased levels of critical raw materials (CRMs) recycling, as well as the greater involvement of stakeholders themselves and awareness raising in the field of SD and CE among enterprises operating in the RMs sector. Currently, all member states are working together to accelerate the transformation process in the area of CE and the European Green Deal, e.g., by implementing national CE programs. A great opportunity to accelerate the transformation process is the new financial perspective for projects under the balanced and circular management of RMs-Horizon Europe, which plans to finance the new projects on RMs management and recycling.

The main objective of this study was to provide a methodological insight in the archaeometric field of ceramic provenance and technology, through the identification of the scale of representative differences in terms of clay composition. For this purpose, a total of 78 clay specimens-representative of the three types of Daunian clayey raw materials (Sub-Apennine clays, alluvial deposits and terraced alluvial deposits)-was collected and geo-chemically investigated, with the aim of determining up to which geographical scale, the exclusive application of geochemical analyses can provide reliable results for the reconstruction of clayey raw materials supply. For the Daunian territory, the scale has been identified with that of a 'riverine province', i.e. between the local and the regional extension of the north Apulian fluvial courses. In practice, the Sub-Apennine clays can be chemically distinguished into a northern group, including the Salsola, Vulgano, Celone and Lorenzo streams and a southern group, including the Carapelle stream and the Ofanto river. Moreover, the comparison between the geochemical composition of the clay samples and that of local ceramic productions (previously investigated) has shown that the Sub-Apennine clays were either used as received (Clay 1 group) or refined through decantation (Clay 2 group), before being shaped into fine wares or building materials; conversely, both the alluvial and the terraced alluvial deposits were used " as received " for the production of coarse wares. Furthermore, for the first time, the geospatial network analysis was further applied to the investigation of ancient raw materials exploitation. This analysis was performed in order to reach a reasonable reconstruction of both routes and travel times linking supply areas with production and distribution sites. Surprisingly, the results have shown that, at small distances, the transportation of clayey raw materials is not only reliable but rather highly likely, especially in those sites where Sub-Apennine clays are not readily available.

The investigation of an early Roman period settlement at Slepotice (Pardubice District) yielded, among others, a considerable collection of stone artefacts of various dates, showing differing degrees of complexity. These collections of artefacts without doubt originated as a result of intentional human manipulation of stone raw materials. Their composition is significantly different from the range of raw materials available on the site, in both a quantitative and qualitative way. Raw materials which were brought to the site (mainly for the production of sharpening stones and crushers) are dominant. Local raw materials were only utilized for the simplest artefacts – such as the materials brought to the site in order to improve the properties of pyrotechnological facilities and sporadically possibly also
materials for bedding of walkable areas.

In this paper the first data ate given about the source areas of silica materials in the Eastem atea of the Basque-Cantabrian Basin during the Upper Pleistocene and the
Holocene. Those outcrops whose chert has been identified for this period are described. We have seen an important transformation in the catchment strategies. This can be seen at the end of the Palaeolithic and is patticularly significant from the Epipalaeolithic. Also the pattems of occupation of the territory show evidences of a profitable and seasonal exploitation areas are probably more extensive than those previously considered by the literature related with Cantabric Palaeolithic.

La prospección sistemática de las Sierras Marginales Catalanas (SMC) y el sector oriental de la Cuenca del Ebro ha permitido catalogar los recursos de sílex de esta región. Su posterior estudio mediante métodos petrográficos (caracterización macro y microscópica) y mineralógicos (Difracción de Rayos X) ha determinado la procedencia de los artefactos de sílex hallados en la unidad arqueológica 497C de Cova Gran de Santa Linya. La predilección por los materiales autóctonos (98,6% de sílex Garumniense) y el hallazgo de stocks de materia prima definen un interesante sistema de gestión de los recursos líticos para esta unidad del Paleolítico superior antiguo en el ámbito del Prepirineo oriental.

This paper presents the results of the analyses of raw material
used in the production of chipped stone tools collected during the excavation of Rug Bair. Through the analyses of the stone artifacts, an attempt was made at constructing a more comprehensive picture of the raw materials and petrologic characteristics
of the chipped stone industry at Rug Bair. The stone tools from Neolithic sites in the Republic of Macedonia have not been thoroughly analyzed in terms of raw materials. The absence of this analysis complicates the identification of the raw materials that were used by the inhabitants within the Neolithic settlements in Macedonia, including their provenance, the geographical distribution area in which the residents were moving, as well as the question of interaction with other simultaneous populations.

A brief presentation of the history of research on variscite use in Neolithic and Chalcolithic Portugal is the framework within which the available evidence is discussed. Research has focused on the distinction between the various “green stones”, the search for geological sources, distribution patterns across time and space, and provenance and circulation. Little is known regarding the Early and Middle Neolithic, when variscite of unknown origin/s is found mostly in dolmens in the northern provinces. It is likely that it was acquired directly (if locally available) or through neighbour-to-neighbour networks (if imported). The acknowledged long-distance transportation of Iberian variscite to Brittany in such early dates finds little support in the Portuguese evidence, and further research is required. During the Late Neolithic and Chalcolithic the number of sites and finds increased dramatically, especially in the Tagus Estuary region. Artefacts so far analysed have been found to be importations from Pico Centeno / Ensinasola (Huelva) and mainly Palazuelo de las Cuevas (Zamora), in Spain. Strontium analyses of human remains coupled with provenance studies permit long terrestrial routes, covered by “itinerant traders”, to be proposed on a preliminary basis for the Late Neolithic onwards—and consequently explain why “down-the-line” theoretical models in such cultural contexts have proven to be inadequate.