Phytoremediation

Paraffin wax produced from crude oil consists primarily of long chain, saturated hydrocarbons (linear alkanes/ n-paraffins) with carbon chain lengths of C18 to C75+, having individual melting points from 40 to 70°C. This wax material is referred to as " macrocrystalline wax. " Naphthenic hydrocarbons (C18 to C36) also deposit wax, which is referred to as " microcrystalline wax. " Macrocrystalline waxes lead to paraffin problems in production and transport operations; microcrystalline waxes contribute the most to tank-bottom sludges.[1] The n-heptane structure is an example of a " normal " paraffin; 2-methyloctane is an " iso " paraffin and n-butylcyclopentane is a naphthene. These specific n-paraffins and naphthenes are too small to crystallize as wax deposits The iso-paraffins of the 2-methyloctane type are more likely to be included in a wax deposit than the more highly branched alkanes. The solubility line of wax is hardly a function of pressure, so wax deposition is considered to be only temperature dependent. (Rønningsen, 2006) As the temperature of the crude drops below a critical level and/or as the low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons vaporize, the dissolved waxes begin to form insoluble crystals. The deposition process involves two distinct stages: nucleation and growth. Nucleation is the forming of paraffin clusters of a critical size (" nuclei ") that are stable in the hydrocarbon fluid. This insoluble wax itself tends to disperse in the crude. Nathan (1955) classified the carbonaceous fractions of paraffin deposits as: (1) soluble in cold acetone (generally the contained oil); (2) soluble in hot acetone (the soft wax portion); and (3)insoluble in acetone (hard wax). The hard wax material consists of straight chain material with molecular weights of 525 to 700 daltons. The proportions of each of these will vary from well to well, and even in a given well at different times. Burger et al. (1981) found that deposits in the trans-Alaska pipeline consisted of 14 to 17% solid (wax), 86 to 83% whole oil. Wright, (1951) remarked that the number of different compounds and types of waxes found in paraffin are dependent upon the character of the crude oil.

Heavy metals are contaminants that poses great environmental burden as they are hazardous to human, animal, plant health and the environment at large. In this Study, the phytoremediation potential of sunflower (Helianthus annuus L.) on contaminated soils of abandoned dumpsites was investigated. Some abandoned dumpsites within University of Port Harcourt premises were identified growing with stands of the plant species (Helianthus annuus). Samples of both soils and plant were collected and analysed for certain pollutants (Ni, Pb, Cr and Cd) using the Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (AAS). Results of analysis were further interpreted using simple descriptive statistical tools. Results of the study confirmed the presence of heavy metals in the soil. Also evidence of accumulation of these metals in the various plant parts studied were established. The leaves of sunflower were found to contain higher concentration (55%) of heavy metals than the stems (45%). From the results, it was clear that cadmium was below detectable level (BDL) in both the soil and the plant parts analysed and lead was found to be lower in concentration compared to nickel and chromium which were higher. Nickel was found to be the most dominant heavy metal (287.6 mg/kg) in the soil samples analysed. Similarly, it was the most accumulated metal (15.71 mg/kg) in the sampled plant parts and clearly exceeds Food and Agricultural Organisation/World Health Organisation (FAO/WHO) recommended threshold limits (1.5 mg/kg) and also those of the control. In all, the concentration of heavy metals in the soil sampled in decreasing order was found to be as follows; Ni > Cr > Pb > Cd respectively where as that of the plant parts includes Ni > Pb > Cr > Cd. Therefore, this study has provided valuable data supporting the use of sunflower plants in phytoremediation.
Index Terms: Phytoremediation, sunflower, heavy metals, cadmium, lead, chromium,    nickel

The amount of matter in the ecosphere was significantly changed in the last century by urbanization, industrialization and due to the rapid growth of the world population, depending on the conditions of production and consumption of harmful domestic and industrial organic and inorganic substances. Heavy metal pollution of soils is increasingly becoming a global problem with the development of industry, mining
activity, irrigation of wastewater and the application of sewage sludge. Heavy metal accumulation in soils has an important influence not only on the fertility of soils and functions of ecosystem but also on the health of animals and human beings via food chains. Today, the removal of toxic metals from the environment using plants (phytoremediation) has become more important ıssue. The tolerance of plants to heavy metal toxicity depend on element type, the duration of exposure to stress and stress types. Up to now, many plants have been found as remediation plants, but there was little report about ornamental plants that can remedy contaminated soils. Thus, this will provide substantial bases for screening out remediation plants. In this review, the potential availability of ornamental plants for phytoremediation is discussed.

Son yüzyılda kentlesme, sanayilesme ve dünya nüfusunun hızlı artısı nedeniyle evsel ve endüstriyel üretim ve tüketim kosullarına baglı olarak olusan organik ve inorganik zararlı maddeler ekosferin madde bütçesini önemli ölçüde degistirmistir. Madencilik, kentsel veya endüstriyel katı, gaz ve sıvı atıkları, pestisit ve yapay gübre kullanımı, boya sanayisi ve araba egzoz gazları dogaya asırı miktarda agır metalin salınmasına neden olmaktadır. Agır metallerin toprakta asırı birikmesinin sadece toprak verimliligi ve ekosistem fonksiyonları üzerinde degil aynı zamanda besin zinciri yoluyla havyan ve insan saglıgı üzerinde de önemli etkileri vardır. Günümüzde agır metaller ile kirlenen toprakların temizlenmesinde (fitoremediasyon) hiperakümülatör bitkilerin kullanılması ve bu özellige sahip bitkilerin tespit edilmesi önem kazanmaktadır. Bitkilerin agır metal toksisitesine karsı toleransları bitki türüne, element türüne, strese maruz kalma süresine ve strese maruz kalan doku veya organın yapısına baglı olarak degismektedir. Bugüne kadar pek çok bitki remediasyonda kullanılmıstır fakat süs bitkilerinin kirlenmis toprakların iyilestirilmesinde kullanılması hakkında çok az rapor mevcuttur. Çevresel kirliligin temizlenmesinde bu bitkilerin kullanılabilirliginin arastırılması önemli bir temel teskil edecektir. Bu derlemede, süs bitkilerinin fitoremediasyonda kullanılabilirligi tartısılmıstır.

PL: Wieloletnia presja antropogeniczna wywarła głębokie zmiany w krajobrazie doliny Kłodnicy w Gliwicach. W artykule przedstawiono różne warianty rewitalizacji doliny rzeki Kłodnicy, możliwe do realizacji w ramach funduszy unijnych, krajowych, partnerstwa publiczno-prywatnego i budżetu obywatelskiego. Zdecydowana większość mieszkańców (81%) źle ocenia stan badanego odcinka doliny, wskazując na potrzebę jej rewitalizacji (76%). Zaproponowane w pracy rozwiązania, zgodne z koncepcją zielonej architektury, pozwoliłyby na odtworzenie potencjału ekohydrologicznego doliny Kłodnicy i stworzenie przyjaznej dla mieszkańców przestrzeni publicznej. Przywrócenie właściwego stanu ekosystemów rzeki umożliwiłoby uzyskanie wielu usług ekosystemowych (poprawa bezpieczeństwa powodziowego, poprawa warunków aerosanitarnych, estetyzacja krajobrazu), podnoszących jakość i standard życia mieszkańców. Przewidziane w projekcie obiekty i infrastruktura stanowiłyby interesującą ofertę spędzania czasu wolnego oraz służyłyby podniesieniu świadomości ekologicznej mieszkańców. EN: Long-term anthropopressure caused negative changes in the landscape of the Kłodnica valley in Gliwice. The article presents various variants of revitalization of the Kłodnica valley. They are possible to realize within European funds, national funds, public-private partnership and the civil budget. Most inhabitants (81%) poorly assessed the state of the studied section of the Kłodnica valley. The inhabitants pointed also at the need to the revitalization of the valley (76%). Solutions proposed in the article, according to green architecture concept, would allow the reconstruction of the ecohydrological potential of the Kłodnica valley and creating friendly public space. The restoration of the proper state of river ecosystems would allow many valuable ecosystem services (improving flood safety, micro-climate regulation, aesthetization of landscape), which increases the standard and quality of life of inhabitants. Objects and infrastructure proposed in the project would be an interesting offer for spending leisure time and would increase the ecological awareness of inhabitants.

The SO4= toxicity in gypsiferous soils, which represent more than 100 million hectares worldwide, constitutes one of the major problems limiting world agricultural output. Currently, phytoremediation of SO4= is regarded, from agricultural and environmental standpoints, as one of the most effective alternatives for the decontamination and recovery of these soils. In this study, we analyzed the behavior of five plant species characteristic of gypsiferous soils (Gypsophila struthium, Helianthemun alypoides, H. squamatum, H. syriacum, and Lepidium subulatum) in order to establish the variability of these plants in terms of S-extraction mechanisms. Our results indicate that the species best adapted and with the densest population was Lepidium subulatum. This plant showed the highest concentration of total S and the greatest organic S, as well as the highest levels of amino acids and proteins. In this study, we propose that the incorporation of S into organic compounds is the essential me...

Polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are major and recalcitrant pollutants of the environment and their removal presents a significant problem. Phytoremediation has shown much promise in PAH removal from contaminated soil, but may be inhibited because the plant experiences phytotoxic effects from low-molecular-weight PAHs such as naphthalene. This paper describes the construction of a naphthalene-degrading endophytic strain designated Pseudomonas putida VM1441(pNAH7). This strain was found to be an efficient colonizer of plants, colonizing both the rhizosphere and interior root tissues. The inoculation of plants with P. putida VM1441(pNAH7) resulted in the protection of the host plant from the phytotoxic effects of naphthalene. When inoculated plants were exposed to naphthalene, both seed germination and plant transpiration rates were higher than those of the uninoculated controls. The inoculation of plants with this strain also facilitated higher (40%) naphthalene degradation rates compared with uninoculated plants in artificially contaminated soil.

Air pollution has become a major environmental problem facing the world today due rapid increase in industrialization and anthropogenic activities. As such, there is a need for more reliable and sustainable air pollution monitoring and control methods. Biomonitoring of air pollution using plants is the method of interest in recent time as it is cost effective, sustainable and environmentally friendly compared to traditional physico-chemical methods. Some plant species are highly sensitive to particular air pollutants and show specific responses to pollutants effects by showing specific damage symptoms. These species can be used to detect and monitor the presence or absence of air pollutants. Several methods such as index of atmospheric purity, air pollution tolerance index and mathematical models had been proposed to study the role of plants in monitoring of air pollution. This paper therefore presents a shot review on biomonitoring of air pollution using plants.

Essential roles of microalgae during the tertiary treatment of municipal wastewater have been proven. In order to avoid wash out of the biomass and also modify the quality of the treated wastewater; some techniques such as cell immobilization have been developed. To do so, in this study four samples from two species of microalgae (Chlorella vulgaris and Chlamydomonas sp.) were determined and confirmed by taxonomic identification. The samples were immobilized in calcium alginate beads. Within 10 days the amounts of nitrate (No3(-)-N) and orthophosphate (Po4(3-)-P) were measured to calculate the removal efficacy for each individual sample. Based on the standard methods, the amount of nitrate and orthophosphate were determined every 3 days within 10 days. The results indicate that immobilized microalgae are able to remove the nutrients and reduce the amount of nitrate and orthophosphate, significantly. Furthermore, the C. vulgaris (YG02) was the best species in this experience with 72%...

The aim of this research is to propound an innovative method to remediate the nickel (Ni) pollution in agricultural soils by using canola (Brassica napus L.) plant. For this purpose, a field experiment was conducted on the campus of Namık Kemal University, namely its Faculty of Agriculture Research and Experimental Area, during 2011. Nickel (100 mg/kg) as NiSO 4 forms was applied to each parcel. Then ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid (EDTA) chelate was applied to each parcel at four doses (0, 5, 10, and 15 mmol/kg) during the blossom period of the plants. The plants were harvested four months after planting. The soil in the samples was classified with neutral pH, low lime, and insufficient organic matter. The available phosphorus content and the exchangeable potassium content of research area were both found to be sufficient. The amount of available iron, manganese, and copper of the experimental soil was sufficient, but the available zinc amount of the soil was determined at a deficient level. The experimental area soil was classified to be in clay texture. According to the field experiment results, root and shoot yield of plants decreased with increasing EDTA doses. On the other hand, nickel amount of root and shoot of the plants increased with increasing EDTA application to the plants. These increases and decreases were found to be statistically significant at the level of 1%. According to the results of the experiment, heavy metal pollution of the soil of Tekirdag ˘ province can be remediated by the phytoremediation method.

In tolerance towards metal uptake, there is a need to evaluate the performance of vetiver grass for metal removal to reduce water impurity. This study was aimed to evaluate contaminant removal by vetiver grass at varying root length and plant density and determine the metal uptake in vetiver plant biomass. Pollutant uptake of vetiver grass was conducted in laboratory experiment and heavy metal analysis was done using acid digestion and Atomic Absorption Spectrometry. Findings indicated that the removal of heavy metal was decreased in seven days of the experiment where iron shows the highest percentage (96%; 0.42 ppm) of removal due to iron is highly required for growth of vetiver grass. Removal rate of heavy metals in water by vetiver grass is ranked in the order of Fe>Zn>Pb>Mn>Cu. Results also demonstrated greater removal of heavy metals (Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, Zn) at greater root length and higher density of vetiver grass because it increased the surface area for metal absorption by plant root into vetiver plant from contaminated water. However, findings indicated that accumulation of heavy metals in plant biomass was higher in vetiver shoot than in root due to metal translocation from root to the shoot. Therefore, the findings have shown effective performance of vetiver grass for metal removal in the phytoremediation of contaminated water.

Water, air, and soil pollution are becoming a major concern of the entire world due to rapid industrialization, economic growth, urbanization, increase in population, unsuitable and nonaffordable treatment technologies, and inadequate waste management practices. The safe disposal of solid waste mismanagement is a global issue in terms of environmental contamination and economic sustainability, which requires integrated assessments and holistic approaches for its solution. Landfills remain the main method of solid waste disposal and management in developed and developing countries. However, the major environmental challenges associated with the sustainable management of landfills are the surface and groundwater contamination and greenhouse gases and odor emissions. Phytocapping is an eco-friendly, cost-effective, and sustainable techniques to cover old landfill/dumpsites and to cap new landfills, with an objective to minimize leachate generation by reducing water infiltration into waste and to mitigate greenhouse emission and odor. The present chapter provides an overview of the role and mechanism of phytocapping technology for environmental cleanup.

A field study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of the sunflower plant for phytoremediation of contaminated soils in the absence and presence of organic soil amendments (compost and vermicompost). Tested organic amendments significantly influenced the uptake of Pb, Zn and Cd by the sunflower plant. The compost and vermicompost treatments significantly reduced the heavy metals concentration in the sunflower seeds, meals and oils, but the effect differed among them. There was a dose effect of the amendments as well. The 40 t/da compost and 20 t/da treatment led to decreased heavy metal contents in the sunflower oil below the regulated limits. The possibility of further industrial processing will make sunflower an economically interesting crop for farmers applying the phytoremediation technology.

Drainage from mining sites rich in sulfur bearing rocks is known as acid mine drainage (AMD). Acid mine drainage water is a serious environmental pollutant that has its ill effects on plants, animals and microflora of a region. Mine water drainage mainly results due to anthropogenic activities like mining that leave the sulfur bearing rocks exposed. This drainage water poses as a potent soil, surface water and ground water pollutant. Although a lot of remediation measures have been implemented in the past but, none of them have been able to solve the problem completely. This review intends to focus on new emerging and better techniques in the form of phytoremediation and nanoremediation for treatment of acid mine drainage water. Besides, the review also gives more importance to the phytoremediation technique over nanoremediation because of the cost effectiveness and eco-friendly nature of the first as compared to the latter. A hypothetical model discussing the use of hyperaccumulator plants in remediation of acid mine water has been proposed. The model also proposes natural induction of the phytoremedial ability of the plants involved in the remediation process. The proposed model assisted by inputs with further research, may be helpful in proper treatment of acid mine drainage water in the near future.

Cacao (Theobroma cacao) worldwide has increased its area sown and yield per hectare, however currently producers are facing strong legislation issued by the European Union regarding the maximum levels of lead and cadmium that must have chocolates that contain an amount greater than or equal to 50 % cocoa solids. Based on a review of the work carried out around the world and published in the last three years in global databases are presented, in the first instance, the problems caused in people by the consumption of food contaminated by heavy metals and the routes through which the cocoa can be contaminated, from its planting to its processing. The remediation techniques (phytoremediation and bioremediation) that have obtained good results regarding the cleaning of contaminated soils or that avoid the transfer of the contents of lead and cadmium from the soil to several Crops of commercial interest to have options of potential application in the cacao areas of Colombia or anywhere in the world. The results show the importance of implementing an integrated soil remediation system that includes the gradual incorporation of native trees, herbaceous plants, aquatic plants, biochar, bacteria and arbuscular mycorrhizae.

Сафонов М.А., Чердинцев А.А., Маленкова А.С., Зайнагабдинова З.И. СОВРЕМ
В статье приводятся данные о видовом составе биоты искусственных древесных насаждений на отвалах Кумертауского буроугольного разреза (Башкортостан). Приводятся данные об общем жизненном состоянии древостоев; анализируется видовой состав травянистых растений, произрастающих под пологом этих насаждений, фауна жесткокрылых герпетобионтов, биота древоразрушающих базидиальных грибов.
Отмечены отличия в видовом составе сравниваемых компонентов биоты между насаждениями разных типов, между насаждениями, произрастающими в условиях с разным уровнем техногенной нагрузки. Сделан вывод, что в искусственных насаждениях на отвалах происходит формирование своеобразных биотических комплексов, которые по структуре доминантов близки к комплексам других искусственных и естественных древостоев аналогичного состава в Южном Приуралье, но отличаются низким видовым разнообразием вследствие сравнительно малого возраста и специфики средовых условий, определяемых структурой насаждений.

CURRENT STATE OF THE BIOTA OF ARTIFICIAL FOREST STANDS OF THE KUMERTAU LIGNITE MINE DUMPS (BASHKORTOSTAN)

A field experiment was conducted to study the effects of inoculation with the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus Glomus caledonium and/or Rhizobium meliloti on phytoremediation of an agricultural soil contaminated with weathered PCBs by alfalfa grown for 180 days. Planting alfalfa (P), alfalfa inoculated with G. caledonium (P+AM), alfalfa inoculated with R. meliloti (P+R), and alfalfa co-inoculated with R. meliloti and G. caledonium (P+AM+R) decreased significantly initial soil PCB concentrations by 8.1, 12.0, 33.8, and 43.5%, respectively. Inoculation with R. meliloti and/or G. caledonium (P+AM+R) increased the yield of alfalfa, and the accumulation of PCBs in the shoots. Soil microbial counts and the carbon utilization ability of the soil microbial community increased when alfalfa was inoculated with R. meliloti and/or G. caledonium. Results of this field study suggest that synergistic interactions between AMF and Rhizobium may have great potential to enhance phytoremediation by alfalfa of an agricultural soil contaminated with weathered PCBs.

Phytoremediation potential of Duck weed Lemna minor L. was studied invitro for the period of seven days to
investigate the removal of pollutants in domestic wastewater with special reference to nutrients. The study was
conducted in plastic tubs of six inches deep and of 175cm diameter. Twenty liter domestic wastewater was used
in tubs for the culture of Duck weed. The domestic wastewater quality was assessed by analyzing Physicochemical
characters and obtained data was indicated as initial value. 100g of fresh weight of Lemna minor L was
cultured for the period of seven days and again domestic wastewater was analyzed for the same Physicochemical
parameters and obtained values were indicated as final value. Net primary productivity (NPP) of Duck
weed was also determined by Harvest method for the period of culture. The study revealed that pH, Dissolved
oxygen and Percentage oxygen saturation value had increased, while the values for other studied Physico
chemical parameters decreased significantly after seven days of culture of Lemna minor L. An increase in value
of pH. Dissolved oxygen, Percentage oxygen saturation and decrease in value of Alkalinity, Carbon di oxide
concentration, Chloride, and C.O.D., Hardness, Nitrogen and Phosphorus value indicated an improvement in
water quality. An increase in fresh weight of Lemna minor L. and NPP value have suggested its great potential in
Phytoremediation for removal of pollutants with special reference to nutrients like Nitrogen and Phosphorus
from domestic wastewater.

Persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are a group of toxic compounds with global distribution and long persistence in the environment. POPs are hydrophobic with the potential to bioaccumulate in fatty bodies of tissues and biomagnified through food webs. Remediation of sites contaminated with POPs is highly desirable. Although phytoremediation of POPs is very difficult because of their low bioavailability, recent literature indicates that some plants, especially those belonging to the Cucurbitaceae family are capable of taking up and accumulate significant amounts of POPs. In this chapter we summarize the most important findings concerning POPs in relation to Cucurbitaceae.

It is a common practice for farmers in India to use soils in municipal waste dump sites as fertile soil for the cultivation of a variety of leafy vegetables and the soils are also used as ‘compost’ by farmers without regards for the probable health hazards the heavy metal contents of such soils may purpose. This was the case of formers using the deserted dumpsite soil at Baxibandh municipal waste for their livelihood. It was concern that prompted the determination of heavy metals in the soil and control planting on Sheila Dhar Institute of Soil Science farm and that of the Makoy (Solenum nigrum L.) plant used to inactivate metals in dump soil. The concentration of heavy metal in the edible part of Spinach vegetable from the dump site and control: Pb (12.4-1.2 mg kg-1); Cd (0.65-0.26 mg kg-1) Zn (44.8-24.6 mg kg-1); Cu (24.2-11.8 mg kg-1) and Cr (0.08-0.04mg kg-1), respectively. The concentration of heavy metals in Makoy (Solenumnigrum L.) plant is Pb (45.6mg kg-1); Cd (1.44 mg kg-1) Zn (92.6mg kg-1); Cu (28.8 mg kg-1) and Cr (0.81mg kg-1) in Buxibandh dumpsite soil. The levels of heavy metals in the dumpsite soil and the soil after harvesting the makoy (Solenum nigrum L.) plant are Pb (116.4 -50.64mg kg-1); Cd (3.26-1.86 mg kg-1) Cr (2.24-1.72mg kg-1); Zn (184.4-108.6 mg kg-1) and Cu (58.2-24.24mg kg-1), respectively. The spinach species from the dump soil accumulates more heavy metals than that of the control. The level of heavy metals in dump soil decreases rapidly after harvesting the makoy (Solenum nigrum L.) plant.

Booming anthropogenic activities is the main reason of widespread contamination of soil by petroleum hydrocarbons, resulting in environmental, health and socioeconomic concerns. Remediation of contaminated soil has received much attention including phytoremediation which has the advantages of being low cost and technologically uncomplicated. Numerous papers on phytoremediation have been published and this review aims to examine selected studies on phytoremediation in the past five years to deduce the study trend and make recommendations for the way forward. The review shows an increasing number of studies combining phytoremediation with other methods particularly the physical methods such as soil amendment, electrokinetic remediation and surfactant application, as well as bioremediation using fungi and bacteria. There is increasing interest to investigate the synergy of these methods which leads to co-applications of one or more remediation methods with phytoremediation. Such co-applications often yield higher petroleum hydrocarbons removal rates in shorter time. Future studies can also include chemical remediation in the synergistic studies of phytoremediation and other remediation methods.