Pre-Roman Period

The Early/Late Pre-Roman Period transition was a time of a profound
cultural change in the Odra and Vistula drainages, on the north-eastern
periphery of the Celtic world. Its result was the decline of the “post-
Hallstatt” Pomeranian-Cloche Grave Culture previously spread across
much of Poland, now replaced by two formations deeply influenced by
the La Tène Culture – the Przeworsk and the Oksywie cultures. The view dominant in the literature is that these two are a direct continuation of the “post-Hallstatt” cultures. According to currently accepted views the main cause of this major cultural transformation was impact from the La Tène Culture which triggered significant changes in the spiritual and the material culture, and in the economic systems of the “Pomeranian-Cloche Grave” communities. Only recently the role of the Jastorf Culture in this process has come to be recognized as vital. The number of Jastorf sites recorded across the Polish Lowland, far east of the lands on the lower and the middle Odra settled by the communities of the peripheral Gubin Group and the Oder Group of the Jastorf Culture. A special contribution to the recognition of Jastorf Culture materials and charting the current line of research on the archaeological situation at the onset of the Late Pre-Roman Period in Poland was made by the research of T. Dąbrowska and Z. Woźniak.
Relics of Jastorf settlement are scattered mostly in areas of Wielkopolska, Kujawy, western Mazowsze and the Lublin region. Some rare finds have been recorded in Lower Silesia outside the range of the
Gubin Group of Jastorf Culture. Others are known from the northern
reaches of the Lowland, the cradle of the Oksywie Culture, and from the West Balt Barrow Culture (Fig. 1, 2). Jastorf settlement does not form any more obvious concentrations, this may partly reflect the status of research, i.a., the general failure to identify settlements of this culture. This is because in many cases we have to rely only on the sparse and poorly diagnostic surface finds.
Jastorf Culture materials recorded in the Lowland, is mostly pottery,
dated by analogy to other zones of Jastorf Culture settlement (Fig. 3).
Pottery assemblages of this culture from the Lowland (Fig. 4–10) are
obviously in correspondence with materials recorded in Denmark –
in Jutland and Funen, dated mostly to between phase Ib and IIIa acc.
to C.-J. Becker, and to phases I and II acc. to E. Albrectsen, which
corresponds to phases IB and IIA in the modified division of J. Martens.
They are similar to some extant also to finds originating from the parent territory of the Jastorf Culture in the middle and the lower Elbe drainage linked with the Ripdorf phase acc. to G. Schwantes, or phases Id and IIa acc. to H. Hingst. On the other hand, there are no recognizable connections of this pottery with the wares of the Gubin Group and the Oder Group.
Jastorf Culture pottery connects also with forms which are present
in the earliest pottery assemblages of the Przeworsk and the Poieneşti-
Lukaševka cultures, dating to phases A1–A2 of the Late Pre-Roman
Period.
Some of the objects recovered in the Lowland in settlements and
in burials with Jastorf pottery can be dated with some precision. They
are e.g., northern Jastorf pins from the Early/Late Pre-Roman Period
transition and Celtic imports, mostly brooches characteristic for
phase LTC1 (Fig. 12). The latter are noted in assemblages with pottery
resembling the younger Danish materials from Becker phase IIIa, or
Martens phase IIA (Fig. 13). The presence of this pottery has been confirmed also in Celtic settlements in Upper Silesia occupied during the
Middle La Tène, mostly during its earlier segment, i.e., LTC1 (Fig. 11).
A small group of metal objects of northern Jastorf origin recovered
as stray finds or excavated from Jastorf sites in the Lowland has been
dated to the close of the Early and the onset of the Late Pre-Roman Period. They include: winged pins of the Danish type, typologically
late Holstein pins of Skovby/Bjerndrup type, early and later forms of
crown neck-rings (Kronenhalsring) and cast bronze brooches characteristic for the Danish-northern German region (Fig. 14).
It follows from the above remarks that the dating of Jastorf finds
recorded in the Lowland is based largely on the analysis of the pottery,
the most plentiful here, which is compared against the materials
from Jutland, and in part, also from the northern Elbe region. Primarily
on this evidence, but making use also of the chronologically diagnostic
forms recorded in association with this pottery – the rare objects
of a Celtic provenance and some of the Jastorf ornaments – we
can attempt to separate the older and the younger materials. The older
forms, datable to the close of the Early Pre-Roman Period, would include
two- and tripartite vases, wide-mouthed mugs and cups which
have correspondence with forms known from Jutland, assigned to
Becker phases Ib and II. Their characteristic feature is a thickened
and strongly folded out rim. Sometimes there may be a strap handle
and a zone of an archaic, finely engraved geometric decoration. These
forms are resembled also by large bowls with a wide, strongly folded
out, nearly vertical rim, storage vessels with several lugs, or with
a cordon set in the upper portion of the body, and jars which have
a tall neck separated from the broad lower body by a distinct set off,
decorated with deeply engraved designs, like in the “post-Hallstatt”
inventories (Fig. 4:1.3.5, 5:7, 7:5, 10:4). So far no early Jastorf materials
have been recorded in sites found in the eastern part of the Lowland.
A much larger group, noted also in the region to the east of the
Vistula, are pottery finds recognized as having a chronologically later
position, dated to the onset of the Later Pre-Roman Period. These
vessels have internally facetted rims and handles constricted in their
middle section. This younger pottery includes “tableware” – neckless
vases, mugs and large bowls with a folded out rim, but also, slender
basin-like forms with a well defined neck reminiscent of the inversely
pyriform vessels. On some of these wares, mostly vases, there
is a zone of a finely engraved geometric decoration, sometimes filled
with a pricked decoration, a feature which is encountered also on the
younger pottery from Jutland. The much smaller group of “kitchenware”
includes jars with a facetted rim and two constricted handles,
and jar-like storage vessels with finger-impressed cordon near the rim
(Fig. 5:6.8, 7:1, 11:6, 13:2.4.7.8).
The legitimacy of the division of the Jastorf pottery from the Lowland
into older and younger forms based on analogies from the northern
Jastorf zone would be validated by metal finds found in the same
context which are dated according to the system of chronological divisions developed for the La Tène Culture. The association of younger
Jastorf Culture vessels with brooches corresponding to Celtic brooches
from phase LTC1 should be stressed in this context. Of high importance
is also presence of similar pottery in Celtic settlements in Upper
Silesia, occupied mainly during LTC. The younger Jastorf pottery has
parallels in materials of the Przeworsk and the Poieneşti-Lukaševka
cultures. However, any dating made on this basis is imprecise because
it covers a period which corresponds to phases A1 and A2.
The absolute chronology of the Jastorf materials from the Lowland
can be determined only through synchronization with the current
system of dating the La Tène Culture. It has been concluded on
this basis that the older Jastorf finds from the close of the Early Pre-
Roman Period, ie, approximately from phase LTB2, may date to the late 4th century or the first half of the 3rd century BC. The much more
abundant younger materials, dated to the onset of the Late Pre-Roman
Period – phase A1, and presumably present also in phase A2, are likely to belong mostly in phase LTC1, i.e., the first half of the 3rd century
and the first decades of the 2nd century BC. The latest possible dating for Jastorf finds come from around half of the 1st century BC.
During the Pre-Roman Period there is a development in the Polish
Lowland of four large culture units – the “post-Hallstatt” Pomeranian-
Cloche Grave Culture, the even more archaic West Balt Barrow Culture,
the Latenized Przeworsk Culture, and the Oksywie Culture related to it. There is no evidence for any connection between the Pomeranian-
Cloche Grave and the Jastorf cultures. On the other hand, there is an evident similarity of the pottery, built structures and features of the burial rite shared by the Jastorf and the early Przeworsk cultures. More than once, the materials of these two units have surfaced in the same settlement and grave context. On the evidence of more precisely dated grave assemblages from phase A1, which corresponds to phase LTC2, the emergence of the Przeworsk Culture belongs in a period which followed the decline of the Jastorf settlement. Nevertheless, the latter unit did have some influence on the formation of the Przeworsk Culture.
The presence of Jastorf communities in the Lowland used to be
linked with the migration of the Germanic Bastarnae, who supposedly
moved through the Odra and the Vistula drainages in the 3rd century
making for the south-eastern regions. The result of this migration to
the present-day Romanian-Moldovan border would be the emergence
of the Poieneşti-Lukaševka Culture. It does not appear likely, despite
the similarity of the Jastorf and Poieneşti-Lukaševka inventories, that
the Jastorf communities of from the Polish Lowland played a part in
the emergence of the latter culture. It is more likely that the makers
of the Poieneşti-Lukaševka came from the parent territory of the Jastorf
Culture, this is suggested by the presence of many “Elbian” elements in the material culture.

Recent years have brought plenty of reports about new discoveries made in central and southern Poland concerning locally issued Celtic coins in gold and Roman Republican silver coins. In some cases they have been found at the same sites. Therefore, the question is to what extent can we examine jointly the use of Celtic coinage and Roman silver coinage in the territories inhabited by the people of the Przeworsk culture and the Tyniec group during the final years of the 1 st century BC and the early years of the 1 st century AD. For the time being, very little is known on the subject. The only thing that can be said with a probability bordering on certainty is that in some parts of this region both types of coins were used during the same period. Additionally, the reservation that the phenomenon of the use of Celtic coins may have ended sooner and may have been more limited in terms of territory must be taken into account. Local coinage activity and import of Roman silver should be connected with some kind of Celtic activity. It is also not impossible that the influx of Republican denarii to the region to the north of the Carpathians and the Sudetes had more complex reasons. The more so because the local late Celtic coinage activity has been examined only within the Boii context, and that other elements may come into play in the territory lying to the north of the mountain ranges, like the activity of other Celtic tribes and of the Dacians. At present, there is little else to do but wait for new coin finds that could shed more light on the subject.

The publication presents the results of research completed within the ‘Coins of the Roman Republic in Central Europe’ project implemented at the Institute of Archaeology, University of Warsaw. The author discusses the coins of the Roman Republic found in East-Central Europe north of the Sudetes and the Carpathian mountains (the territories of Poland, western Belarus and western Ukraine) – issues from the period of the first Roman emissions until 27 BC.
The region of interest was never a part of the Roman state. This means that all of the Roman coins found in this territory must be treated as imports. The main aim of this study is to specify the time, causes, circumstances and directions of the import of Republican coinage to the study area, and to determine its uses in this region.
The book includes a foreword written by Aleksander Bursche and contains the inventory of the finds with a comprehensive commentary. It is both numismatic and archaeological in its subject matter, placing itself somewhere on the border between these two disciplines.

Drawing a comprehensive archaeological image of Silesia still has to wait until the  documentation left by German researchers is fully elaborated. The insights presented in this paper result from an archival research performed in museums of Upper Silesia which are in possession of information about finds related to the La Tène culture settlement. Thanks to the data obtained from the archive of historical documents of the former Upper Silesian office of Prehistory (Landesamt für Vorgeschichte Oberschlesiens), which is currently held by the Museum of Opole Silesia (Muzeum Śląska Opolskiego) in Opole, it was possible to expand the previous sparing information about the burial from Baborów, the Głubczyce district. In 1932,
Mr Schneider of Gliwice brought two Celtic vessels found in Baborów. In January 1933, he also drew a report about the context of their discovery. According to the report, the said vessels were found in 1895 inside a clay pit situated within a brickyard owned by Anton Deponte. They were deposited at the depth of ca. 1–1.5 m, in a pit filled with dark soil. Allegedly, there was also a skeleton, but it was removed by the finders. contrary to the information provided by Z. Woźniak (1970: 293–294), both vessels from the burial, previously known only from mentions in the literature were not lost and are currently held by the Museum of Upper Silesia (Muzeum Górnośląskie) in Bytom. The vase and bowl discovered there were thrown on a wheel and fired in the oxidising atmosphere. Analogous vessels are known from many La Tène burials from Moravia. The burial from baborów may be dated to phase LT b2. Typically, vessels were not deposited in La Tène culture graves. A higher frequency of pottery in grave goods is a regional feature typical for Upper Silesia, Moravia, and the eastern Czech Republic. Sets of more than one vessel appear mostly across the vast area of the Carpathian Basin. Within this area, the number of vessels in a burial ranges from two to seven. A set composed of a vase covered with an upturned bowl is common in cremation urn burials, as aptly exemplified by the burial ground in Kietrz (site 1), the Głubczyce district. However, it is not a rule and analogous grave goods are known from skeletal burials, as shown by burial no. 27 from the Sobocisko, the Oława district. The lack of information about the grave goods is also a problem in the case of a skeletal burial unearthed in ściborzyce Wielkie, the Głubczyce district. In 1932, Mrs Wallascheck notified the Upper Silesian office of
Prehistory about a discovery of human skeleton and a bronze necklace. The authorities reacted immediately. Within a few days since receiving the news, the burial, still partially covered with earth, was explored by an archaeologist, Dr. Georg Raschke, and a preparator, Otton Hanske, who drew its proper documentation. The burial was found at the depth of ca. 40–50 cm, whereas the burial pit, partially destroyed during tree grubbing, measured 80×200 cm with its longer axis aligned N-S. The skeleton was buried in an upright position (head directed northwards) with its right hand on the chest. The grave goods included a bronze necklace, two bronze bracelets, and an iron ring. The artefacts were stored by the Museum in Racibórz (Museum Ratibor) until 1945. currently, they are considered lost or destroyed. The burial was briefly mentioned in some post-war publications. The only information known so far about the grave goods from the Ściborzyce Wielkie came from a description originally contained in an archive which was quoted by Z. Woźniak (1970: 86–87, 313). The archival research performed by the author in the Museum of Opole Silesia in Opole indicated that there was a preserved photographic documentation of the exploration of the burial, as well as detailed drawings of the lost artefacts, which shed much light on them and allowed for correcting the previous, sometimes mistaken, conclusions. Numerous analogies for the necklace and bracelets suggest that the investigated burial from ściborzyce Wielkie should be dated to phase LT b1b, which corresponds to the 2nd horizon of La Tène culture burials according to the classification of R. Gebbhard (1989). The discussed burial belongs to the oldest Celtic graves known from Upper Silesia up to date. Additional archival information regard finds from
surface surveys on the sites 6 and 11 in the Roszowicki Las, the Kędzierzyn-Koźle district. both sites were discovered by a local teacher, Wilhelm Wieczorek, who explored them multiple times in the years 1932–1940 and provided the Museum in Racibórz with a significant number of artefacts. The archive of the Museum of Opole Silesia preserved a single photograph, taken probably by Georg Raschke in 1935, which shows the most interesting finds from the above-mentioned sites. They include: a fragmentarily preserved bronze brooch of Early La Tène construction and 3 fragments of glass bracelets of groups 5a, 8b, and 14 according to the classification of T.E. Haevernick. The aforementioned examples show that even today, despite a long time has passed since the Inter-War Period, many extremely interesting sources still remain unknown, which in the future may contribute significantly to altering our views on the regional enclave of the La Tène culture in Silesia as well as enable precise dating of its relics.

The subject of the younger pre-Roman and Roman period in the Choszczno Land has not been fully analysed yet. The article presents its history and research to date. An enclosed list of sites and finds has been compiled based on archival sources, literature and data collected during conducting the Archaeological Picture of Poland (AZP) project. They were discussed in relation to the cultural situation in Western Pomerania within the analysed time frame.