Renewable Energy Policies

Across the globe, renewable energy sources are well-recognized essential components of the energy consumption
mix. Over the years, India has strategically enhanced solar energy consumption to meet its electricity deficit and
reduce carbon emissions. However, the pace of adopting solar photovoltaic technology among Indian households
remains lower than alternate micro-technologies like generators and inverters. Since literature suggests that
entrepreneurship invokes awareness of social responsibility, activism, and environmental concerns, the role of
entrepreneurship in adopting solar photovoltaic technology cannot be undermined, especially in addressing the
challenges of low adoption rates. Considering these facts, this study empirically investigates the role of entrepreneurship and household characteristics either as barriers or drivers of adopting solar photovoltaic technology.
The study sample contains 1551 Indian households extracted from the 72nd round of the Household Expenditure
on Services and Durable Goods survey of 2014–2015. The probit regression model with sample selection bias
correction is estimated to examine the likelihood of adopting solar photovoltaic technology in relation to
alternate micro-technologies at the household level. The results reveal that entrepreneurship has a positive and
significant influence on the likelihood of adopting solar photovoltaic technology. The findings also indicate that
the likelihood increases with the family size, residence in rural areas, and being in the casual workforce.
Conversely, the likelihood decreases with an increase in age, income, and being in the higher caste category.
Based on the findings, several implications are discussed to promote the higher adoption rates of solar photovoltaic technology among Indian households.

While renewable energy is essential to reduce global warming, such projects are not always implemented in a socially responsible manner as regards local communities. In northern Kenya, the installation of wind turbines for power generation has negatively affected indigenous peoples due to the occupation of their lands without prior consultation, their forced displacement, and an increase in prostitution, substance abuse, and inter-ethnic conflict. Marianne Wiben writes for Debates Indígenas.

The study critically reviews the prospects and challenges of utilizing wind energy resources for power generation in Nigeria. The various initiatives by governments and researchers were surveyed and the nation is found to sit in the midst of enormous potential for wind harvest for power generation. The far northern states, the mountainous regions and different places of the central and south-eastern states were identified as good areas for wind harvest together with the offshore areas spanning from Lagos through Ondo, Ogun, Cross-Rivers to Rivers states along the Atlantic Ocean in the south–south. Despite this great potential and huge prospect, the country is found to still suffer from serious energy crises due to her over dependence on hydropower which also is susceptible to seasonal variation in the amount of water levels at dams. There is yet to be committed wind energy project for power generation on-going in the country. Several challenges bedeviling the development and utilization of wind energy resources were identified and suggestions highlighted to help pull the nation out of this lingering energy crisis.
c 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved

The electric power sector in Afghanistan suffers from numerous challenges. Roughly 70% of the population has no access to electricity, and 90% of those without electricity live in rural areas. The vast majority of its power is imported from neighboring countries, and is often subject to outages. Since 2002, more than $4 billion has been spent on Afghanistan's electrification in cooperation with international funders, yet this has not increased electrification to the level anticipated, particularly in rural areas. This study uses the Institutional Analysis and Development framework to examine the policy and institutional barriers to expanding the power grid. Looking at major laws, policies and actors that comprise the energy sector, and the patterns of interaction among them, this study finds that ambiguity, overlaps and contradiction in the scope of work of five government ministries exacerbates the current challenges. Moreover, the lack of a coordinated development agenda among the government of Afghanistan and international partners has led to fragmented planning and implementation of projects, inadequate prioritization of investments, and much of the work being done by consultants or short-term contractors. The result has been low rates of electrification, diminished institutional capacity and minimal private sector involvement in the energy sector.

This study constitutes a comprehensive qualitative and quantitative report on the coal-impacted community of Lazarevac, Serbia, that aims to capture a bottom-up perspective, or “a view from below”, of the problems, needs and desires of Lazarevac’s residents regarding key issues of energy and just transition. The study investigates the residents’ awareness and attitudes towards the just transition issue and offers recommendations on how to improve the communication and information flow amongst various stakeholders at the local, national and international level, based on the data collected. The study aspires to become an essential source of information, providing guidelines for the design of a balanced and effective communication and advocacy strategy, to support the vital process of mitigating the risks of energy and just transition.

Producing power through renewable energy systems in buildings, known as green buildings, is becoming more and more crucial and also popular in these days. In this paper we are introducing a new system by which it is possible to produce more than 1000 watts electrical power. The system works by wastewater generated from domestic activities such as laundry, dishwashing and bathing, known as greywater. To this end, it is necessary to have a vertical sewage plumbing system which is located inside or outside of the building. Conducting greywater of each floor to the plumbing system, it is possible to use plumbing system height and greywater pressure if we dam the end of the plumbing system. Whenever the pipeline fills completely with greywater, the fluid has constant pressure and makes sufficient turbine head that can propel the propeller of a turbine. This Waste to Energy (WtE) system is capable to provide notable electrical power of needful light or other public electrical facilities of a typical building complex. The turbine can produce electrical energy according to the height of the building (sewage plumbing) and its habitancy. The higher and more habitant the building, the more energy is produced.

For last eight (8) years, your writer is writing weekly column on local as well as international energy problems which mainly consist of his  past notes reflecting my past professional experiences, both in Turkish and English. The draft article first appears in my personal web page (Energy NewsLetter Turkey) blog to be corrected and updated with comments, criticisms, recommendations.  Editors make last review, and if we feel that the draft article has come to maturity, then we publish on paper newspaper then go live on web site. We feel that this 2022 digest book during Covid-19 days can/ will fill the demand of global investors, energy professionals, energy analysts. I hope that you will enjoy reading this book.

В статье анализируется процесс формирования политики Евросоюза в области развития возобновляемых источников энергии (ВИЭ). Проведен комплексный сравнительный анализ себе стоимости различных видов ВИЭ и применяемых в Евросоюзе и странах ЕС мер стимулирования. Сделан вывод о том, что, несмотря на впечатляющий технический прогресс, возобновляемая энергетика за редким исключением неконкурентоспособна по сравнению с традиционными источниками энергии. Показано, что быстрое развитие ВИЭ в Евросоюзе обусловлено прежде всего масштабными государственными субсидиями. В период экономического кризиса они стали тяжелой ношей для бюджетов и населения, что вынуждает Евросоюз изменить стратегию в области ВИЭ. Проводимая реформа неизбежно приведет к резкому сокращению темпов роста ВИЭ и срыву ранее согласованных целевых нормативов

The article analyses the EU policies of promoting renewable energy sources (RES), including the role of state subsidizing and the change of EU policy in 2013.
Keywords: European Union, energy policy, renewable energy sources (RES), RES competitiveness, RES subsidies, feed-in tariffs.

China’s energy profile provides a window into its economic soul. It tells us much about what China does, how fast it is doing it, and the efficiency of the process. Since energy is also a global commodity, whose demand and supply affects the running of nations, firms and households, and the environment, it becomes necessary to gauge the effect of China’s huge population and unprecedented economic growth on the world’s energy base.

Renewable energies are emerging across the globe in an attempt to slow down global warming and to improve national energy security in face of the depleting fossil fuel reserves. However, the general policy of mandating the replacement of fossil fuels with the so-called “green” energies may not be as effective and environmental-friendly as previously thought, due to the secondary impacts of renewable energies on different natural resources. Thus, an integrated systems analysis framework is essential to selecting optimal energy sources that address global warming and energy security issues with minimal unintended consequences and undesired secondary impacts on valuable natural resources. This paper proposes a system of systems (SoS) framework to determine the relative aggregate footprint (RAF) of energy supply alternatives with respect to different sustainability criteria and uncertain performance values. Based on the proposed method, the RAF scores of a range of renewable and nonrenewable energy alternatives are determined using their previously reported performance values under four sustainability criteria, namely carbon footprint, water footprint, land footprint, and cost of energy production. These criteria represent environmental efficiency, water use efficiency, land use efficiency, and economic efficiency, respectively. The study results suggest that geothermal energy and biomass energy from miscanthus are the most and least resource-use efficient energy alternatives based on the performance data available in the literature. In addition, despite their lower carbon footprints, some renewable energy sources are less promising than non-renewable energy sources from a SoS perspective that considers the trade-offs between the greenhouse gas emissions of energies and their effects on water, ecosystem, and economic resources. Robustness analysis suggests that with respect to the existing performance values and uncertainties in the literature, solar thermal and hydropower have the most and least level of RAF robustness, respectively. Sensitivity analysis indicates that geothermal energy and ethanol from sugarcane, have the lowest and highest RAF sensitivity to resource availability, respectively.

En el presente trabajo se muestra la situación actual del sector energético hondureño. Específicamente, el análisis está orientado en el sector transporte, hidrocarburos, electricidad, electrificación rural, consumo de leña, el potencial desarrollo en biocombustibles, así como una breve reseña de la situación del potencial geotérmico y biomásico. También, se muestran las iniciativas en eficiencia energética que se han implementado o que se espera implementar para hacer un racional uso de la energía eléctrica. Asimismo, se muestran los resultados obtenidos en el desarrollo de la prospectiva energética de largo plazo, en la cual se aplica el software LEAP, herramienta computacional ampliamente utilizada en el desarrollo de políticas energéticas y evaluación en la mitigación del cambio climático. Finalmente, se muestra el procedimiento que se siguió para desarrollar la política energética del país y un plan energético al 2030, que servirán al Gobierno y a la empresa privada en el desarrollo del sector energético hondureño de una manera sostenible y eficiente de largo plazo.

As Japan raucously debates the future of nuclear power and renewable energy in both the National Diet and the courtroom of public opinion, some observers have wondered in which direction Japan's once "quiet politics" of national energy policy, in which highly organized interest groups dominated the policy process in arenas shielded from public view, would take the country now that energy has become a "high salience issue" (Culpepper 2011). Can Japan achieve a nuclear-free society without risk of rolling blackouts? Are energy security and environmental sustainability fundamentally compatible or mutually exclusive? Is economic efficiency still possible in an energy market that also promotes and subsidizes renewable energy sources? This chapter seeks answers to these fundamental questions. It begins by discussing the fundamental principles of Japan's national energy policy since Basic Energy Plan (BEP) in broad strokes —what has changed and how. It then explores the origins and logic of this policy by analyzing the country's electricity sector in cross-national and longitudinal context. The third section of the chapter analyzes the feasibility of BEP pre- and post-Fukushima. It finds that many of the policy goals and aspirations of its political actors to be sometimes vague, contradictory or logistically difficult given Japan's market structure. The final section discusses the political will and capacity actors have to change Japan's energy policy, concluding that no single actor dominates the process. If a subsystem collapse is imminent, to whom or what can this change be attributed and what lessons can be draw from it?

The Renewables 2021 Global Status Report (GSR) provides up-to-date data and analysis on the status of the global clean energy transition, including country-by-country information on renewable energy policies and markets.  For data packs, country profiles, and summaries in multiple languages, please visit: https://tinyurl.com/kf68mwdw

produced at varying binder concentrations from a modified
block briquetting machine that was designed and fabricated
in the Federal University of Technology Minna, Niger State,
Nigeria, were assessed with a view to ascertaining the best
binder concentration that produced the best briquettes in
terms of their combustibility. 10 kg of rice husk was
collected from Onyx rice mill, Bida, Niger State Nigeria.
They were manually cleaned to remove minor rice bran
particles and other impurities using sieve of hole size 3 mm
diameter. The rice husk were dried in the sun to 5% and
mixed with five different concentrations: 10 g, 20 g, 30 g, 40
g and 50 g and mixed uniformly. The resultant aggregates
were used to produce briquettes and sun dried for 3 days at
an average daily temperature of 32°C to a moisture content
of 5%. The process was replicated three times and their
combustion properties: percentage volatile matter, ash
contents, fixed carbon and heating values were evaluated.
The briquettes with lower starch concentration, 10% and
20 % had higher and similar volatile matter value of
72.00±0.01d and 73.20±0.00e respectively while the volatile
matter percentage reduce with increase in starch
concentration value from 68.49±0.04c to 57.14±0.01a at
30% and 50%. Ash content values of the briquettes
produced increased from 9.73±0.00a at 10% binder
concentration to 22.15±0.00e at 50%.Fixed carbon percent
reduced from 18.27±0.01b to 16.59±0.01a at 10% and 20%
binder concentration levels and increased from 16.59±0.01a
at 20% to 20.71±0.02e at 50% binder concentration, while
heating value of briquettes reduced with increase in binder
concentration from 30.39±0.01e MJ/kg to 26.25±0.00a
MJ/kg at 10% and 50% binder concentrations respectively.

First, this is a really long shot, because of the complexity of the topic.

If you belong to a group of readers who only want to read abstracts, then I only have one sad message for you:

the status of compliance with the commitments defined by the IPCC will not be possible to maintain globally or in countries with the greatest impact on global GHG numbers. There is no way to keep the 2050 safe zone, based on existing goals set up by the most important countries` actions. No doubt the 2030 or 2035 goals are just kind of politicians` promises for their electorate. It's even worse than you can imagine.

Nowhere have I found the existence of comprehensive IPCC commitment countries` plans. Just too many parallel activities that shoot off the target, but at least it's well published. It works for the masses that don't understand it but obediently follow the keywords. Followers = a product of this fast era.

This work is a summary of the papers I have published so far on Academia.org. In the end, you will find we do not have many options on how to solve it all. I present a few basic directions. However, it won’t be effortless, and everyone will experience discomfort. In every possible scenario.

This Article examines the role of international law in the innovation and transfer of green technologies in the context of South-South cooperation. It argues that collaboration merely between developed and developing countries is insufficient and that cooperation among advanced developing and developing countries is essential. To ensure wide innovation and transfer of green technologies, international laws dealing with climate change and international trade related issues must play major roles. As such, this Article demonstrates how these branches of international law can facilitate South-South cooperation in the innovation and transfer of green technologies and proposes methods for creating a favorable environment for innovation and transfer in light of the global climate regimes and trade-related legal frameworks.

Poor air quality from coal combustion adversely impacts human health including mortality and morbidity effects on respiratory, cardiovascular, nervous, urinary, and digestive systems. However, the continued use of coal are no longer necessary to provide for society's electrical needs because of advances in solar photovoltaic (PV) technology. In order to inform health policy this paper reviews the data for quantifying the lives saved by a replacement of U.S. coal-fired electricity with solar PV systems. First the geospatial correlation with coal fired power plants and mortality is determined for the U.S. at the state level. Then, current life cycle mortality rates due to coal combustion are calculated and current energy generation data is collated. Deaths/kWh/year of coal and PV are calculated, and the results showed that 51,999 American lives/year could be saved by transitioning from coal to PV-powered electrical generation in the U.S. To accomplish this, 755GW of U.S. PV installations are needed. The first costs for the approach was found to be roughly $1.45 trillion. Over the 25 year warranty on the PV modules the first cost per life saved is approximately $1.1 million, which is comparable to the value of a human life used in other studies. However, as the solar electricity has value, the cost per life is determined while including the revenue of the solar electric generation using a sensitivity analysis on the value of the electricity. These results found that for most estimations of the value, saving a life by offsetting coal with PV actually saved money as well, in some cases several million dollars per life. It is concluded that it is profitable to save lives in the U.S. with the substitution of coal-fired electricity with solar power and that the conversion is a substantial health and environmental benefit.

Centralized communication-based control is one of the main methods that can be implemented to achieve autonomous advanced energy management capabilities in DC microgrids. However, its major limitation is the fact that communication bandwidth and computation resources are limited in practical applications. This can be often improved by avoiding redundant communications and complex computations. In this paper, an autonomous communication-based hybrid state/event driven control scheme is proposed. This control scheme is hierarchical and heuristic, such that on the primary control level, it encompasses state-driven local controllers, and on the secondary control level, an event-driven MG centralized controller (MGCC) is used. This heuristic hybrid control system aims at reducing the communication load and complexity, processor computations, and consequently system cost while maintaining reliable autonomous operation during all possible scenarios. A mathematical model for the proposed control scheme using Finite State Machines (FSM) has been developed and used to cover all the possible modes/sub-modes of operation, and assure seamless transitions among them during various events. Results of some case studies involving severe operational scenarios were presented and discussed. Results verify the validity and effectiveness of the proposed communication-based control scheme. Index Terms—Communication-based control, DC microgrids, finite state machine, hybrid state/event driven control.

For a century, the geopolitics of energy has been synonymous with the geopolitics of oil and gas. However, geopolitics and the global energy economy are both changing. The international order predominant since the end of World War II faces mounting challenges. At the same time, renewable energy is growing rapidly. Nevertheless, the geopolitics of renewable energy has received relatively little attention, especially when considering the far-reaching consequences of a global shift to renewable energy.

The paper starts with a discussion of seven renewable energy scenarios for the coming decades: the IEA’s World Energy Outlook 2016, the EIA’s International Energy Outlook 2016, IRENA’s REmap 2016, Bloomberg’s New Energy Outlook 2016, BP’s Energy Outlook 2016, Exxon-Mobil’s Outlook for Energy 2016 and the joint IEA and IRENA G20 decarbonization scenario.

Some of these are forecasting while others are backcasting scenarios. While all the forecasting scenarios envisage growth in renewable energy, none anticipate a revolution in which renewable energy use surpasses consumption of any of the fossil fuels in the next several decades. In contrast, the backcasting scenarios posit a future in which the world employs a radically different energy mix where consumption of renewables eventually surpasses that of fossil fuels. In all three backasting scenarios covered here, the share of renewables of total primary energy reaches 30-45% in 2035 or 2040 and 50-70% in 2050.

The paper then discusses seven mechanisms through which renewables could shape geopolitics.

Critical materials supply chains. As the transition to renewable energy accelerates, cartels could develop around materials critical to renewable energy technologies. Even if these cartels are unable to achieve the kind of impact that OPEC did in the 1970s oil market, they might be able to exert influence over consumers of these materials. Rare earth elements are widely used in clean energy technologies, including solar panels and wind turbines. Although rare earths elements are found in many countries around the world, they are usually found in dilute concentrations and are often difficult to extract. Today almost all mining, production and processing of rare earth elements takes place in China. Lithium, cobalt and indium are also widely used in clean energy technologies and might in some circumstances present opportunities for cartelization.

Technology and finance. In a world in which renewables are the dominant source of energy, capital for investment and technology may increasingly become sources of international cooperation or rivalry. First, increased tensions between developing and developed countries could develop over the transfer of technology. Second, conflict over renewable energy infrastructure could develop, especially if new asymmetric dependencies arise between major producers and consumers of renewable energy. Finally, it is not clear whether the expansion of renewable energy will involve a shift to more decentralized and distributed energy generation (similar to farming) or to larger companies with the financial and scientific clout to keep pace in an intense global race to continuously improve technology and cost-cutting (similar to mobile telephone manufacturing).

New resource curse. The prevalence of the resource curse could be affected by a rise of renewable energy in at least three ways. First, as oil and gas lose their dominance in the energy mix, petro-states will lose access to the high rents associated with the resource curse. Second, there is the question of whether countries that produce large amounts of renewable energy are likely to become subject to the resource curse, just as major oil and gas producers have been. However, it is also possible that countries producing renewable energy for export may actually end up with more diversified economies than they would otherwise, as the requirements for developing renewable energy resources are quite different from the petroleum sector. Third, there is potential for a new resource curse in countries rich in rare earth elements.

Electric grids. Renewable energy technologies may lead to greater electric interconnections between nations, more widespread distributed energy generation or both. The potential geopolitical implications are complex. On the one hand, greater cross-border trade in electricity could create geopolitical vulnerabilities for electricity importers. On the other hand, greater electric interconnection could increase interdependence among nations, reducing risks of conflict. Renewable energy technologies will affect the vulnerability of electric grids to cyber attacks, potentially creating new vulnerabilities while at the same enhancing resilience with more widespread microgrids and distributed energy technologies.

Reduced oil and gas demand. To the extent that renewable energy reduces demand for oil and gas, there could be significant geopolitical consequences. For oil and gas producers, the decline in revenue generated from fossil fuel energy exports can provide an impetus for political reform and economic diversification. However, a decline in petroleum revenue could also lead to political instability, especially in the short to medium term. Consumer countries would improve their trade balances and their room to maneuver in the international system. The development of renewable energy is already a game changer for Chile, Jordan, Morocco, and several island states in terms of energy security.

Avoided climate change. Reduced greenhouse gas emissions as a result of expanded use of renewable energy should logically reduce the risk of conflict and instability that climate change would otherwise generate. One region where large-scale deployment of renewable energy may have significant geopolitical consequences is Africa.

Sustainable energy access. Access to modern forms of energy is one of the preconditions for achieving sustainable development. The geopolitical impacts of access to energy are important, as such access can contribute to lasting solutions to instability and conflict. It is possible that renewables not only have an impact on geopolitics but that geopolitics, particularly in risky and institutionally unstable environments, can also influence investments in renewable energy by increasing the cost of capital.

These categories do not offer a comprehensive assessment of the ways in which renewables affect geopolitics. The purpose of this paper is to provide food for thought for a broader discussion on the ways in which greater renewable energy and geopolitics intersect. Accordingly, the final section (Section III) suggests areas and directions for future research.

A partir de estos razonamientos, es fácil comprender por qué el cambio climático es más una falla de mercado que un efecto natural del planeta, como algunos grupos de poder siguen manifestando.  Pero así también resulta irónico reconocer que es la dinámica de mercado la mejor solución para mitigarlo.

This is a report that elaborates the challenges and opportunities involved in the development of geothermal energy in Indonesia, as well as gives a picture on their possible workarounds. This report discusses economic, social, policy, financial and environmental aspects of geothermal energy development in Indonesia, including balancing geothermal energy development and forest protection, and setting the price right for geothermal investment.

Kenaikan harga minyak mentah di pasar dunia dalam beberapa tahun terakhir menyebabkan beban subsidi pemerintah yang dianggarkan untuk bahan bakar minyak (BBM) meningkat, hal ini menyebabkan ketergantungan terhadap BBM harus dikurangi. Jenis BBM yang disubsidi pemerintah pada saat ini adalah solar, minyak tanah, dan premium. Penelitian ini akan memfokuskan pada biodiesel sebagai substitusi dari solar untuk mengurangi ketergantungan terhadap solar sebagai sumber energi.
Pemerintah menetapkan harga jual biodiesel tidak boleh melebihi harga jual solar sehingga konsumen diharapkan akan beralih dari solar menjadi biodiesel. Penetapan harga jual biodiesel itu berimplikasi pada penetapan harga input, yaitu harga biji jarak pagar. Apabila harga biji jarak pagar tidak ditetapkan, harga jual biodiesel yang seharusnya akan melebihi harga jual biodiesel yang ditetapkan. Road map pengembangan BBN menargetkan biodiesel mensubstitusi 15% konsumsi solar pada tahun 2015. Apabila pada tahun 2015 harga jual biodiesel melebihi harga jual solar, pemerintah harus mensubsidi biodiesel. Hal tersebut dilakukan agar tidak merugikan petani jarak pagar dan harga jual biodiesel tidak melebihi harga jual solar sehingga program biodiesel dapat dilaksanakan.
Hasil perhitungan dalam penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa harga jual biodiesel per liter lebih tinggi daripada harga jual solar per liter. Oleh karena itu, untuk menjalankan program biodisel pada tahun 2015 pemerintah harus menganggarkan subsidi kepada biodiesel berbasis jarak pagar. Penelitian ini merekomendasikan dua alternatif kebijakan subsidi untuk biodiesel berbasis jarak pagar, yaitu kepada petani jarak pagar atau kepada konsumen. Subsidi ini harus dianggarkan pemerintah mengingat biodiesel memiliki competitive advantage dari sisi lingkungan jika dibandingkan dengan solar sehingga berpotensi mendukung tercapainya sustainable development dalam jangka panjang.

When Ukraine introduced the green tariff in 2008, it did not expect that a boom, like the one in the recent years with unprecedent growth in the renewables energy generation sector leading to investments amounting to ca. 3 billion USD and 5.2 GW of power generation capacity, would occur. Together with the introduction of the green tariff in 2008 in the Law of Ukraine “On the Electric Power Industry”, the government also provided for an obligation to maintain the green tariff until the end of 2029 and reinforced its aims in the subsequent Laws of Ukraine “On Alternative Sources of Energy” and “On the Energy Market.” Yet, last year, the Ukrainian government, making an U-turn, stated that under the current circumstances the green tariff had become financially challenging to maintain and commenced negotiations with renewable energy producers on possible decreases of the green tariff. Upon the announcement of the Ukrainian government, several foreign investors threatened that they would initiate investment treaty claims under the Energy Charter Treaty leading to mediation proceedings and the signing of the 10 June 2020 Memorandum of Understanding. Nevertheless, on 21 July 2020, the Parliament of Ukraine passed the Law of Ukraine “On Amendments to Certain Laws of Ukraine on Improving the Conditions for Supporting the Production of Electricity from Alternative Energy Sources” which might have a negative impact on investors in the renewables energy sector and increases the chances of claims under the Energy Charter Treaty against the State. This article therefore discusses the recent changes in the Ukrainian green tariff regulations and the potential of investor-State arbitrations against the Ukrainian State due to these changes.

Despite the high profile of climate change in scientific and policy discourse, the Russian government has thus far failed to commit to an emission reduction target based on the latest science. Given Russia is a key supplier of fossil fuels, a major greenhouse gas emitter, and climate impacts on its vast territory likely to have far-reaching consequences, this contextual research shows that the country's current policies fall woefully short of what is required to implement the Paris Agreement. To support Russia in developing informed, internally consistent and scientifically literate energy policies, this paper presents low-carbon emission trajectories commensurate with the 2 °C goal, using stakeholder-informed backcasting. The results illustrate that even if Russia's CO2 emissions peak in 2017, a reduction rate of at least 9% per year between 2020 and 2030 is required to meet a 2°C budget constraint. These sustained rates are in excess of anything achieved globally or, indeed, deemed possible within most studies. Such emission reductions would involve unprecedented material changes to Russia's energy system, including both rapidly cutting energy demand and building extensive low-carbon infrastructures. Nevertheless, failure to transform Russia's existing policies will likely have global repercussions for achieving the Paris Agreement's goals.

Actualmente, las energías renovables en Argentina representan el 1,2% de la matriz energética del país. Gracias al Plan RenovAR de 2016 impulsado desde el Ministerio de Energía y Minería, se adjudicaron proyectos que permitirán alcanzar el 12% en 2020, con inversiones que rondan los USD 7 bn. La meta final es lograr una participación del 20% para 2025. Gracias a este objetivo, sumado a los proyectos del Programa de PPP orien-tados a energías limpias, podría llegar a duplicarse el financiamiento requerido.

Con el fin de solventar las necesidades de capital de trabajo, los adjudicatarios podrían recurrir al financiamiento externo. Para ello, una alternativa novedosa disponible en el mercado de renta fija son los bonos verdes, cuyos fondos deben destinarse al desarrollo de proyectos sustentables. Éstos se han constituido en un fenómeno global, ya que han experimentado en los últimos 2 años un crecimiento considerable, con tasas interanuales que se aproximan al 100%. Además, de cara a 2020, la OECD estima que se necesitarán fondos por más de USD 1 trn para cumplir con las metas del Acuerdo Climático de Pa-rís.

En este contexto internacional, se emplazan los programas de políticas públicas del Go-bierno Argentino orientados a las energías renovables. Las necesidades de financiamien-to estimadas para cubrir los proyectos licitados podrían acumular USD 17,5 bn entre 2017 y 2025.

La emisión de bonos verdes en Argentina no se ajusta a los valores de la región. Mien-tras México y Brasil acumulan emisiones por USD 6 bn y USD 5 bn respectivamente, Argentina apenas alcanza los USD 410 millones producto de dos bonos subsoberanos de las provincias de La Rioja y Jujuy. Dado este punto de partida y, trazando un sendero de crecimiento, la proyección a 2025 indicaría que Argentina podría acumular emisiones por un monto de USD 10,75 bn.

A pesar de esa diferencia, el ejercicio de proyección arroja que, a partir de 2021, el sen-dero de nuevas emisiones se ajustaría a las necesidades de financiamiento para la inver-sión en proyectos sustentables. Esto sumado al compromiso político del Gobierno actual y la existencia del marco regulatorio necesario para la difusión de los bonos verdes, han creado un entorno favorable para las inversiones en energías renovables.

Si bien el contexto actual se encuentra marcado por la incertidumbre (sucesivas devalua-ciones, suba del riesgo país, cambio del Ministro de Energía y Minería y las elecciones presidenciales de 2019) que afectaría las inversiones en el corto plazo, existe una posibi-lidad concreta para que los bonos verdes cumplan un rol fundamental en la transforma-ción de la matriz energética local, canalizando el financiamiento necesario para satisfacer las demandas de capital de trabajo y estableciendo definitivamente la utilización de las energías renovables en Argentina en el mediano plazo.

As the population and economies of Sub Saharan Africa continue to grow, the demand for modern energy will correspondingly increase. The current energy policy and limited overall access rate is not prepared for this massive demand increases and presents a major hindrance to country growth potential. This thesis focuses on the countries in East Africa (Kenya, Tanzania, Ethiopia), and compares their current energy policies and renewable energy potential within a historical context of the United States rural electrification of 1930s. It is clear that some progress has been made in plans to address the energy access concerns but there is still some delay in diversifying the energy mix with renewable sources and advancing the use of mini-grids. The use of mini-grids will provide a sustainable solution to the energy crisis by increasing electricity reliability and providing power to areas too remote for grid connection.