Rock-Cut Sanctuaries And Cult Complexes

Rural religion in Roman Spain continues to be misunderstood due to problematic narratives in both ancient and modern sources. Ancient sources misrepresent the religious practices of local inhabitants due to their lack of understanding of rural religion and bias towards portraying an adoption of Roman culture. In turn, modern scholars focus too much on the urban sphere, models of acculturation, and textual evidence. In contrast, I propose an alternative model aimed at presenting a more complete picture of religion in Roman Spain by analyzing the rural sphere, tracing inventions of traditions and analyzing textual evidence alongside its spatial context.

Megalithic monuments are seen as memorials, which receive the souls of ancestors and in the same time they are commited to healing practices, mainly relating to conception, suggesting that they are seen as a facility associated with the reincarnation of souls. These archaic beliefs are associated not only with dolmens and menhirs, in most cases they are associated with natural rock formations, characterized by something unusual and impressive. Significantly, in many places
around the world similar rock monuments, apart of their relationship with the Beyond are associated with health related practices and practices related to fertility.

Gods, deities, symbolism, deposition, cosmology and intentionality are all features of the study of early ritual and cult. Archaeology has great difficulties in providing satisfactory interpretation or recognition of these elusive but important parts of ancient society, and methodologies are often poorly equipped to explore the evidence. This collection of papers explores a wide range of prehistoric and early historic archaeological contexts from Britain, Europe and beyond, where monuments, architectural structures, megaliths, art, caves, ritual activity and symbolic remains offer exciting glimpses into ancient belief systems and cult behaviour. Different theoretical and practical approaches are demonstrated, offering both new directions and considered conclusions to the many problems of studying the archaeology of cult and ritual. Central to the volume is an exploration of early Malta and its intriguing Temple Culture, set in a broad perspective by the discussion and theoretical approaches presented in different geographical and chronological contexts.

The present dissertation focuses on the peak sanctuaries in Southern Thrace.
The introduction reviews the geographical characteristics, political and socioeconomic features of south Thracian regions. In the first chapter a methodology for determining the ritual significance of peak sanctuaries is laid down. It is based on ascertaining the so called distinctive and non-distinctive criteria for identifying a site as a place of worship.
In the second chapter written records for the peak sanctuaries in South Thrace are examined. They are differentiated into several groups depending on whether they relate directly to the peak sanctuaries, or provide information about other aspects regarding the socio-political, economic, geographical or other characteristics of the issue.

Third chapter points out the archeological data of peak sanctuaries in South Thrace.
At the beginning of third chapter the history and current state of the places of worship in South Thrace subject to examination are discussed. Further on in the same chapter the methods of archaeological research of peak sanctuaries in the mountains of South Thrace are presented as well as the methodology for identifying a site as a ritual one or a place of worship. This methodology is based on developing clear and systematic criteria, which are provisionally divided into two types - distinctive and non-distinctive.

The last (fourth) chapter of the dissertation is devoted to the ritualism in peak sanctuaries in the region subject to examination.
Two sanctuary types in Thracian mountains are differentiated according to social, economic, ethnic or other principles.
The role of folklore references is examined as well, that contributes to the clarification of the ritual practices in peak sanctuaries in South Thrace.

Above-ground burials in south-western Anatolia can be seen as result of the influence of both an older, local Lycian and the Persian-Anatolian tradition. Their adaptation within Greek part of population emerged new structural and decorative elements in funerary architecture. Rock-cut tombs can be found not only in the Lyco-Carian borderland, but also in central Caria, i.e. in areas where a substantial representation of the Carian ethnic group is attested. Among very common iconographic motifs are funeral feasts and offering ceremonies as well as depictions of riders or warriors (seeking to realism?). Banquet scenes are nowadays understood more in the context of social status than cult significance. However, at least partial cult meaning cannot be avoided. A space designated for cult activities (e.g. banqueting) is characteristic for almost all types of Hellenistic funerary monuments. The raised stepped podia of Hellenistic built tombs and al- tars elevated on pedestals (in the case of temenoi with an underground chamber) are similar in character to the rock-cut tombs carved above the ground. The presence of altars in front of rock-cut tombs can only be assumed in combined built and rock- cut tombs. However, the symbolism of offering (and consumption) is present as depiction of “funeral banquet” on the façades. On the other hand, in the case of built tombs, altars are important cult and decorative elements. Both an altar and a relief depiction of a funeral banquet can be understood as carriers of the same or similar ideological message. The tomb became not only a resting place of the deceased but also a place of “formal worship” - with perhaps more ideological than religious aspects.

TÜBA-AR, Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi (TÜBA) tarafından yıllık olarak yayınlanan uluslararası hakemli bir dergidir. Derginin yayın politikası, kapsamı ve içeriği ile ilgili kararlar, Türkiye Bilimler Akademisi Konseyi tarafından belirlenen Yayın Kurulu tarafından alınır. DERGİNİN KAPSAMI VE YAYIN İLKELERİ TÜBA-AR dergisi ilke olarak, dönem ve coğrafi bölge sınırlaması olmadan arkeoloji ve arkeoloji ile bağlantılı tüm alanlarda yapılan yeni araştırma, yorum, değerlendirme ve yöntemleri kapsamaktadır. Dergi arkeoloji alanında yeni yapılan çalışmalara yer vermenin yanı sıra, bir bilim akademisi yayın organı olarak, arkeoloji ile bağlantılı olmak koşuluyla, sosyal bilimlerin tüm uzmanlık alanlarına açıktır; bu alanlarda gelişen yeni yorum, yaklaşım, analizlere yer veren bir forum oluşturma işlevini de yüklenmiştir. Dergi, arkeoloji ile ilgili yeni açılımları kapsamlı olarak ele almak için belirli bir konuya odaklanmış yazıları "dosya" şeklinde kapsamına alabilir; bu amaçla çağrılı yazarların katkısının istenmesi ya da bu bağlamda gelen istekler Yayın Kurulu tarafından değerlendirir. Kazı ve yüzey araştırmaları da dahil olmak üzere, yeni yorum ve açılım getirmeyen, yalnızca malzeme tanıtımı içeren, ön rapor niteliğindeki yazılar dergi kapsamının dışındadır. Kültür tarihi açısından önemli bir yenilik getiren önemli buluntular "haber" olarak dergiye kabul edilebilir. Yazarlar dergiye makale gönderdiklerinde, söz konusu yazının daha önce, çeviri olarak bile başka bir yerde yayımlanmadığını ya da yayımlanmak üzere bir başka dergiye gönderilmemiş olduğunu kabul etmiş sayılırlar.

"Publicado en Cuadernos de Prehistoria y Arqueología de la Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (CuPAUAM) 21, 1994, págs. 271-296 (figs., láms.)

RESUMEN.- En este artículo se reestudia un monolito de granito con algunos relieves y una inscripción, "A las tres Marías" (así en R.C. Knapp, 1992, n º 221), que para la autora era originalmente romana: 'A(nimo) l(ibens) s(olvit votum) • Sisc(inius?) Q(uietus?, -uartus?) Dianae', siendo retocada en época medieval. Podría tratarse de un pequeño oratorio a Diana, parecido a su santuario rupestre de Segóbriga (Cuenca). Se propone también una relación de este monumento con los “Toros de Guisando” (provincia de Ávila) hacia el N., y con otros “verracos”, esculpidos o no, hacia el Sur (prov. de Toledo), sugiriendo una hipótesis sobre este tramo, discutido, de la frontera oriental de la provincia de Lusitania. En esta línea podría insertarse Piedra Escrita. Contra lo recientemente propuesto por la TIR (K-30: Madrid, 1993), la ciudad de Ávila (Avela) sería vetona y lusitana.

ABSTRACT.- This paper deals with the study of a granitic monolith with some reliefs and a latin inscription, "A las tres Marias", considered medieval (so R.C. Knapp, 1992, nr. 221). The author thinks it roman, and that the original inscription,  'A(nimo) l(ibens) s(olvit votum) • Sisc(inius?) Q(uietus?, -uartus?) Dianae' was retouched later. It could be a small aedicula consecrated to the goddess Diana, similar to her rock shrine in Segobriga. It is also proposed a possible link between this monolith with the “Toros de Guisando” (prov. of Avila) towards the north, and other “verracos”, sculpted or not, towards the south (prov. of Toledo), suggesting an hypothesis about this eastern, discussed, border of the román Lusitania. On this border line could be inserted “Piedra Escrita”. Against the recent proposal of the TIR (K-30: Madrid, 1993), the city of Ávila (Avela) would be Veton and Lusitanian.

- Cf.: versión digital, 6 de diciembre de 2005, con más ilustraciones comentadas: Parte I http://www.celtiberia.net/articulo.asp?id=1682 (con láminas 1 a 12) y Parte II http://www.celtiberia.net/articulo.asp?id=1681 (con láminas 13 a 19).

- La página municipal de Cenicientos tiene un espacio dedicado a Piedra Escrita: http://www.cenicientos.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=51:piedra-escrita&catid=73:arquitectcenicientos&Itemid=202 , en el que enlazan cronológicamente ocho noticias sobre el desarrollo de la investigación que aparecieron en El País entre 1995 y 1996. 

- Es más reciente este blog dedicado monográficamente al monumento: http://elmisteriodepiedraescrita.blogspot.com.es/

- Cf. ahora M. Fernández Diaz, "La Piedra Escrita de Cenicientos bajo la óptica de las Nuevas Tecnologías (Preprint)", X Jornadas de Patrimonio Arqueológico en la Comunidad de Madrid (2013): https://www.academia.edu/5303321/La_Piedra_Escrita_de_Cenicientos_bajo_la_optica_de_las_Nuevas_Tecnologias_Preprint_ , confirmando mis hipótesis de 1994. Tras aplicar al monumento nuevas tecnologías visuales y gráficas, el autor verifica tanto mi propuesta de 1994 sobre la existencia de dos inscripciones superpuestas como el texto de la inferior, la romana (la medieval de siempre se leía muy bien) y la interpretación que hice de la escena principal. Todo lo cual sin duda es una buena noticia."

We present a review of the Tomb of the Elephant at the Roman Necropolis of Carmona (Sevilla) made under the methodological principles of Building Archaeology and Archaeoastronomy. The results show that the building had several phases of use and was built to be a mithraeum as indicate its form and symbolism derived from the archaeoastronomical analysis of the window solar orientation.

Overview of an emblematic archaeological site in the North-western Hispania known as the rock sanctuary of Panóias (Vila Real, Northern Portugal), exceptional in its physical structure and religious framework. The history of the research associated with this site is briefly covered, its structures are characterized and its epigraphic texts are analysed as a way of approaching spatial interpretation and its protagonists. Its importance is central to understanding religion in a peripheral environment regarding large urban centres at the far-western end of the Roman Empire and the possibilities of integrating religious traditions of different origins, in this case under the intervention of an outsider, although with the high status and financial capacity required for theintervention. The preserved inscriptions appear as part of the monumental whole, acquiring meaning according to the building characteristics of the religious space which, in the current state of knowledge, appears without a unitary structure, but where the cults of Serapis and Isis take on relevance.

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É apresentado um emblemático arqueossítio do Noroeste hispânico conhecido como santuário rupestre de Panóias (Vila Real, Norte de Portugal), excepcional na sua compleição paisagística e religiosa. Percorre-se brevemente a história da investigação a ele associada,  caraterizam-se as suas estruturas e analisam-se os seus textos epigráficos como via de aproximação à interpretação espacial e aos seus protagonistas. A sua importância é fulcral para a compreensão da religião em ambiente periférico aos grandes centros urbanos no extremo ocidente do Império Romano e das possibilidades de integração de tradições religiosas distintas na origem, neste caso sob a intervenção de um forasteiro, ainda que com o estatuto e a capacidade financeira necessários à intervenção. As inscrições conservadas apresentam-se como parte do todo monumental, ganhando sentido em função das características de natureza edificatória do espaço religioso que, no estado atual dos conhecimentos, se afigura sem leitura espacial unitária, mas onde assumem relevância os cultos de Serápis e Ísis.

Referred by several authors as an important rock sanctuary, the site of Mogueira stands
like a paradigm of the difficulties that we have to deal with, when studying this type of places. Its archaeological excavation in 2009 allowed no only to deny the roman chronology for
what was supposed to be a rock sanctuary, but also to identify the real cult place that really
existed, not in the summit of the hill, but down in the valley, next to a water spring, where
are located several rock engravings and rock inscriptions. Through a rigorous presentation
of the archaeological data, we intend with this work, to tell what could have been the true
story of Mogueira.

This text briefly presents suggested by us rock sanctuary at the neck of the cape near Ordu, associated with ancient Kotyora. This sanctuary has steps, a sacred spring and it is connected to the Thracian beliefs, which were spread among the local population of Tibareni and Paphlagonians.

This paper aims to underline the special divine relationship between Aphrodite and Apollo in Cyprus. Cypriot mythology and religion provide numerous examples of the obvious interactions between those two divinities. The goal of the submitted essay is, therefore, to show the nature of those specific ties through some significant instances. Firstly, this topic is examined basing on the literary sources. Then, the cultic complementarities visible in different kinds of rites are studied. Finally, a particular attention is given to the parallel evolution of the name of those divine figures provided by the epigraphic material.
This study shows the filiation of Aphrodite and Apollo with some autochthonous, preexisting goddess and god whose origins date back to the beginnings of the religious belief in Cyprus.

Surface and sub-surface research on rock-cut features and related mobile finds at Kastro, a hilly peninsula that delimits the present main port of Myrina (Lemnos Island, North Aegean Sea), has revealed vestiges dating from various phases, at least since the Bronze Age to the Hellenistic period, in several extended areas.
During these stages, human action has influenced the landscape, which, at the same time, has guided choices of natural forms and spaces and triggered ways of action. A variety of combined artificial rock-cut features and rock-art appear to have both symbolic and utilitarian components, concerns and purposes. They reveal a complex rocky landscape, entailing an elaborate artificial system of space occupation, including intercommunicating carved features.
According to the current stage of ongoing research, besides other aspects, the Kastro rock-cut site would have also implicated intricate maritime facets and connections, as well as a possible female factor, congregating at a transitional place, where sea and rocks meet.

Physical environment and landscape are instrumental for the selection of a place, both for human practical needs and symbolic behaviors. Coastal features, important for early seafaring, are also symbolically charged. At Myrina Kastro, artificial, carved complexes are combined to natural rock formations diachronically (late prehistory – antiquity). Besides having obvious maritime associations, its rocky coasts are transition zones, which also constitute a component of the uncommonly rugged topography and a facet of the anthropogenic seascape, integrating both material and intangible inferences.

The rocky coasts of the Aegean include remains of human activities, often concrete and utilitarian, but also traces that cannot only have a rational interpretation. The zones between different geological regions, such as meeting points between sea and land, or zones between rocky heights and more regular expanses, constitute liminal spaces, that mark the passage between different worlds, both in reality and in imagination, already since prehistory. At the same time, in such regions one may observe unusual features of the environment, such as rocks with a particular morphology, while sometimes selected natural elements are enhanced with deliberate interventions and/or combined with artificially modified structures. Dating difficulties are inherent in similar megalithic formations, within a natural and at the same time transformed landscape.
In the framework of an anthropological approach, the study of such archaeological sites belongs to the so-called archaeology of natural places, focusing on symbolic human behaviours. Symbolic behaviours connected to rocky landscapes, sometimes also maritime, in the larger Aegean region, remain difficult to interpret. However, they indicate the variety of ritual and more generally symbolic human practices, with configurations that cannot yet be completely explored and even less incontestably interpreted.
Long-standing research, with the permit of the Archaeological Service and the Local Council for the Monuments of the Islands, on the Myrina Kastro, a rocky hill within an omnipresent sea, offers diachronic evidence about human presence in prehistory and antiquity and shows the multifaceted connections of such evidence and symbolic behaviours with other sites and cultures of the Aegean.

Research on the Kastro peninsula, at the western edge of the town of Myrina, Lemnos island, has focused on the study of rock-cut features, omnipresent in the area of the rocky peninsula. Such carved features had already been noticed by various travellers in the 19th century, while a number of ancient structures were noted on the spot at least since the 16th century. Study is ongoing and includes mobile material found in connection with rock-cut structures, on or under the present surface. The carved rocks (dacites) are identified mostly in areas that have not been covered by later structures, that is, mainly by the Medieval, Venetian and Ottoman castle at its northern and highest part, but also by more recent buildings towards the eastern edge of the peninsula. The structures are complex and may be isolated or combined in smaller or larger ensembles. They are visible on the surface, when not covered by earth, depending on their state of conservation, as they are heavily eroded and/or partly destroyed by man. Carved features include platforms, walls, cavities, steps, channels and niches; flattened surfaces may sometimes be covered by rock art (petroglyphs, engravings). Current research showed that possible functions might be varied, either concrete and practical, or symbolic, or both. Symbolic meanings may be proposed particularly concerning elements, which are not understandable, since too small, too inaccessible, or too invisible. There are, however, structures, which may have been used for habitation, others for liquid/water management or technological activities and still others for inter-communication among different sectors of the site or between the slopes and the sea. Although most features have been noticed at mid-height of the Kastro hill, they also occur at lower, as well as higher, altitudes, including traces that survived inside the castle walls. There are strong trends permitting interpretation hypotheses, to be proved by further study, that include relations of the features with the sea, navigation and pilotage, but also overseas trade, as well as cult, ritual, symbolic and industrial activities. According to the mobile finds, dating should extend from at least the Bronze Age (if not earlier) and the Iron Age to the Archaic, Classical and Hellenistic, probably also Roman, periods. Similar rock-cut structures from neighbouring areas also point to dates from at least late prehistory to late antiquity.

Chichkhituri is one of the rock-cut monasteries of Gareji wildeness, Georgia. The Chichkhituri hermitage is a three-room complex. Graffito of a monk who dwelt in the hermitage in the 13th century is found on the east wall. It is executed in Georgian Mkhedruli script and reads the following: “With Lord's grace, this cave belongs to Zosime-Pimen”.
East and north walls of the main room are decorated with murals on Christological themes. They date to the 12th century. Of special note is the scene of St. Jacob the Persian’s (St. James the Intercisus’) martyrdom on the south portion of the east wall of the room. It is a unique theme for Georgian monumental painting. The mural dates to the first half of the 13th century.

Thaumaturgical wonders and stunning landscapes provide an arresting backdrop for the early medieval Iberian foundation of San Millán de la Cogolla, Suso (La Rioja). Although scholars have noted that the mountain site of the cave-church was probably long considered a holy place, or locus sanctus, this designation does not go far enough to describe what appears to be an enduring belief in earth magic evident at this and other frontier rural sanctuaries built or renovated during the turbulent period known as the Reconquest. While it is well known that pre-Christian devotion to natural elements prompted some to build churches adjacent to caves, rocks, springs, trees, and other sanctuaries in order to benefit from lingering veneration, the material and topographical evidence pointing to Christian leaders throughout the Middle Ages actively promoting select magical beliefs and practices is often overlooked. At San Millán, anchorites used architecture, rock-cut tombs, sculpture, and scintillating hagiographies to reinforce the larger narrative that supernatural marvels, healing magic, and heavenly visions were dependent upon the caves, tombs, and rock to which the hermitage church of Suso was wedded. Indeed, it would require a deft rewriting of the story to persuade pilgrims and patrons that the relics of its titular saint, San Millán, were the greater attraction. With the translation of these and other cult objects to the newly constructed valley monastery of Yuso, royal and ecclesiastical authorities eventually diverted pilgrims and resources away from the rocky sanctuary.

Surface and sub-surface research in extended areas of the hilly peninsula of Myrina Kastro focuses on rock-cut and rock-carved features and related mobile finds. Till now, the attested occupation periods include phases from late prehistory to antiquity. Natural rocks and artificial features, including rock-art, would have had both symbolic and practical elements, purposes and functions and constitute a composite rocky landscape. This involves complex maritime associations and facets, including nautical representations, as well as a female bias, located in a place of transition between sea and land. The paper focuses on Iron- and Bronze Age rock-cut features.

Ритуалното преминаване през отвор в скалата е част от традиционни лечителски практики в различни части на света. Провирането през камък се разглежда, като акт на преминаване от едно измерение в друго и опит на човек да се отърве от заболяванията. Символиката на провирането е отъждествявана и с обред на повторно раждане или промяна в социалния и жизнен статус. До неотдавна тези лечебни камъни, са съхранявали статута си, като места на почит сред местните общности, от които са почитани и поддържани. Сблъсъка с новото време се отразява на тази паметници събрали в себе си комбинацията от природен феномен, материални артефакти и нематериално културно наследство. Както може да се очаква, най-застрашено от сблъсъка с модерното е именно нематериалното културно наследство, в случая лечебната обредност.

" Apollo is one of the most popular gods in the island of Cyprus. So, this paper aims to analyze the personality and characteristics of this deity at Nea Paphos. In order to do so, the sanctuary of Apollo Hylates of the new Paphos will be the main element of this study, both in its political function related to the founding of the city and its religious function and symbolism. Moreover, emphasis is put on the interactions between this sacred place and the surrounding sanctuaries of Apollo Melanthios at Amargetti, Apollo Myrtates at Marathounda and at Dhrymou, where Hylates is also present.
Thus, based on these results, this Paper is going to show how Apollo appears as the major male deity of Nea Paphos and its surrounding area."

At Myrina Kastro, natural rock formations are combined to artificial, carved complexes diachronically (late prehistory – antiquity). Physical environment and landscape are instrumental in selecting a place, both for human practical needs and symbolic behaviours. Besides having obvious maritime associations, coasts are transition zones, which may also constitute a feature of uncommonly rugged topography, both then merging material and intangible inferences.