Rural Settlements

Aydın Türk, Y., & Çifci, A. (2017). The Effects of Landscape Characters on Rural Settlement Patterns. In I. Koleva, Ü. Duman Yüksel, & L. Benaabidate (Eds.), Ecology, Planning and Design (pp.349-359). Sofia: St. Kliment Ohridski University.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION:
The most important factor in the settlement patterns of villages are transportation. Except for one village, the “transportation factor” comes to the forefront in the land choice for buildings and in the formation of the settlement patterns in all villages. Within this context, it is an absolute necessity to take into consideration the fact that transportation is an important component in the planning works for the rural areas.The second most important factor in the settlement patterns of villages is ownership. In general, settlements patterns overlap with ownership patterns. Ownership in villages has a multipartite structure and the sizes of the lots are too small. The ownership pattern that was created by complex and small lots in different shapes resulted in the formation of mixed and scattered settlement patterns. The results of the analyses that were made according to the predetermined criteria of the study, it was found that the elevation factor, especially with the effects of location and agricultural production, has important eff ects on the rural settlement patterns. In villages where the main means of living are hazelnut and tea production, the settlements are usually below the maximum elevation at which these products can grow. Again, according to the findings regarding the dispersion of settlements in terms of elevation levels, it was found that 7 of the 10 village settlements (Aksu, Başar, Kestanelik, Karaağaçlı, Mataracı, Şahinkaya ve Yeşilköy) are concentrated on the mid or higher parts of the slopes.Because in the rural settlements in Trabzon, the buildings are ususally concentrated on the mid or higher parts of the slopes, which are the suitable locations in the moderate-humid climate zones. Based on the predetermined criteria of the study, it was found that the slope factor has a moderate eff ect on the settlements. Due to the topographic structure of the city, the average slope angle is high. Therefore, the eff ect of slope on rural settlement patterns is moderate or low. The reason why the eff ect level of the slope factor is not high may be that the  topography of the city is quite sloping. The study has found that the aspect factor has the least eff ect on village settlement patterns. The city has a mountainous structure starting from the coast extending to the inner parts through valleys in the east-west aspect. For this reason, the aspect factor mostly have a low eff ect on land choice and settlement pattern. Because the slopes of some villages generally face north or west, there is no chance of selecting a suitable aspect in these villages. In some villages, although there are areas that face south or east, the number of buildings in these areas is very few. Due to the view factor, the buildings in the villages in coastal areas face north and therefore the eff ect of aspect factor is low.According to the findings of the study in villages where tea and hazelnut productions are predominant, the settlement pattern is very scattered or scattered depending on the type of agricultural managements. On the other hand, in villages at high altitudes where there is no agricultural production but where stock farming is predominant, there are more compact settlement patterns. Depending on the eff ects of the aforementioned factors, it was found that the settlement patterns of the sample villages are mostly scattered or linear. Due to the highly sloping topography of the sample villages, the amount of lands that are suitable for settlement and agriculture is very limited. In this case, the landowners build their houses anywhere in their lands regardless of the land structure and ground quality. Due to the fact that each landowner built his own house in his own land and the ownership patterns stemming from inheritance created ownership patterns that are complex and that contain small parcels of land and this led to the creation of scattered settlement patterns. It is important fi rst and foremost to identify in the planning works for the rural settlements the factors that shape the rural settlements. Before any planning works regarding the rural areas, ownership patterns in the rural settlements must be reorganized and the land parcels in the villages must be redesigned according to the requirements of agricultural production. Within this context, creating a ‘land arrangement model’ for the rural settlements in Trabzon is of top priority for the reorganization of the ownership patterns. The findings of the study have shown that the elevation factor, especially with the effects of agricultural production, have important eff ects on the rural settlement patterns. Consequently, in the works of land arrangement and settlements planning for the rural settlements, the lands to be allotted to settlement and agriculture can be planned according to the elevations of lands depending on the growth conditions of such products as tea and hazelnut.In addition to all these, it is also important that in the planning works, thelandscape characters that aff ect the rural settlement patterns be evaluated for the protection of the original characteristics of the rural areas. The relationships between the landscape charactersand the way of living in the rural areas, architectural characteristics, rural landscape characteristics, use of suitable materials, and natural texture of the area are important. For physical characteristics, natural characteristics, and socio-cultural characteristics are the basic values that set the character of rural areas, and all these characteristics and relationships must be defined and handled as a whole in the planning and design works.

Resumo: O presente trabalho pretende discutir a espacialização do latifúndio e os desdobramentos socioambientais e políticos desse processo bem como as tensões de classe entre o latifúndio e o campesinato enquanto portadores de objetivos conflitantes no campo. Para tanto, parte-se da teoria da renda da terra e da função social da terra para a compreensão da constituição do latifúndio produtivo e suas características, o que supõe reposicionar o uso do termo agronegócio. Dessa forma, o objetivo do trabalho é evidenciar como a concentração fundiária provoca efeitos devastadores para a sociedade, ao mesmo tempo em que a unidade de produção camponesa se apresenta como portadora da capacidade de cumprimento da função social da terra. Os estudos que o comprovam estão baseados no recorte espacial do município de Ivinhema, localizado no sudoeste de Mato Grosso do Sul. A metodologia utilizada consistiu em levantamento bibliográfico em livros, periódicos e jornais sobre os temas, levantamento de dados nos censos agropecuários e da produção agrícola municipal do IBGE, informações sobre a estrutura agrária de Ivinhema junto ao INCRA e obtenção de informações por meio de entrevistas realizadas com servidores públicos, proprietários capitalistas e camponeses no município. Após a análise dos dados à luz da base teórica utilizada, constatou-se a prevalência do caráter rentista da propriedade privada capitalista da terra, aqui caracterizada como latifúndio improdutivo e latifúndio produtivo, em vista das distinções entre ambos, aos quais confrontou-se a agricultura camponesa, qualitativamente oposta a ambos em vista do uso produtivo da terra.

Abstract: The present work intends to discuss the spatialization of the latifundio and the implications social, environmental and political of this process as well as the class tensions between the latifúndio and the peasantry as bearers of conflicting objectives in the field. Therefore, it is based on the theory of income of the land and the social function of the land for the understanding of the constitution of productive latifundia and its characteristics, which supposes to reposition the use of the term agribusiness. In this way, the objective of the work is to show how land concentration has a devastating effect on society, at the same time as the peasant production unit presents itself as a carrier of the social function of the land. The studies that prove this are based on the spatial clipping of the municipality of Ivinhema, located in the southwest of Mato Grosso do Sul. The methodology used consisted of a bibliographical survey in books, periodicals and newspapers on the subjects, data collection in agricultural and production censuses IBGE municipal information, information on Ivinhema's agrarian structure with INCRA, and obtaining information through interviews with public servants, capitalist owners and peasants in the municipality. After analyzing the data in light of the theoretical basis used, the prevalence of the rentier character of the capitalist private property of the land, here characterized as unproductive latifúndio and productive latifundio, in view of the distinctions between both, to which agriculture was confronted, in view of the productive use of land.

A municipal district refers to several settlements (rural and/or urban) and intersettlement territories combined by joint area with local government. In territory organization of local self-government in Russia, municipal districts include urban regions (urban okrug) and settlements (urban and rural). Improvement of settlement system formation and organization in these districts is crucial for empowering local self-government in rural municipal districts and increasing efficiency of local management processes. Forming municipal districts with very different economic and social potentials leads to division of the municipal territory into strong and week settlements. This results in uneven socio-economic development and creates inevitably population migration from depressed territories to stronger ones. This paper proposes a new scientific methodological approach to optimize territorial organization of municipal districts in Russia. It enumerates the territorial requirements that have to be met when forming a new municipal
settlement system. Formation of a settlement system within a district should be performed with due consideration to different social (e.g. access to social infrastructure and services), economic (e.g. equal distribution of labor and production assets) and spatial (e.g. balanced land use) requirements. Proposed scientific methodological approach comprises the creation of a scheme of territorial planning of a municipal district. Ongoing reforms in Russia show the value of this scheme that encompasses the following components: analysis of population settlement on the district’s territory (cf. population number and dynamics); zoning of the district’s territory against different indicators (e.g. population density, cadastre value of agricultural land in inhabited localities); determining number and size of rural settlements; delimitation of rural settlements; demographic forecasting to determine formed system sustainability. The proposed methodological approach contributes not only to economically and socially balanced territorial organization of municipal districts but also, consequently, to achieving many sustainable development objectives such as economic sustainability and easy access to education and medical services.

In the process of restitution of iberian society in the NorthEast part of the iberian peninsula, interest for rural population has recently grown. Most of all, during the last years, rescue archaeology has put in light a large documentation which regularly increases and displays a very diversified typology of scattered settlements. It reveals this people's internal complexity, with an essential economic role not only focused on the production of subsistence resources, but also with their concentration and management by the elites of political entities raised to a state level.

Resumo: Nos dias atuais, a projeção do campo brasileiro se dá pelo destaque do setor que representa a agricultura capitalista, em grande parte responsável pelo volume da produção de grãos exportada para o mundo. Não obstante, inúmeras crises indicam haver forte correlação da questão alimentar e da questão ambiental com a agricultura capitalista e sua forma peculiar de ocupação de grandes extensões de terras. Após analisar algumas expressões desta correlação no campo brasileiro, foram priorizadas experiências de agroecologia pretensamente capazes de promover o resgate de práticas mais sustentáveis e ecológicas dos agroecossistemas. Com base em vários estudos que tem demonstrado sua relevância como alternativa de reprodução camponesa, pela capacidade de dinamizar a produção de alimentos de forma ecologicamente justa, socialmente sustentável e economicamente viável, o objetivo da pesquisa foi estudar como ela tem se apresentado como estratégia de reprodução para famílias camponesas. Para tanto, foram selecionadas duas experiências em projetos da reforma agrária: o primeiro é o Eli Vive II, situado no município de Londrina, estado do Paraná, onde a produção de grãos se sobressai no espaço agrário. O outro é o 20 de Março, situado em Três Lagoas, Mato Grosso do Sul, onde se expande o monocultivo do eucalipto. Ambos os modelos predominantes são foram forjados sobre uma estrutura fundiária altamente concentrada, razão pela qual os sujeitos dessa pesquisa trazem as marcas da histórica luta contra a opressão e a violência. São testemunhas vivas dos processos de expulsão da terra, mas também da saga vitoriosa que lhes permitiu conquistar um lugar de reprodução social. O chão da reforma agrária comporta diversas estratégias de recriação, dentre elas a transição dos espaços produtivos para uma agricultura mais sustentável articulada a mercados locais. Conclui-se que tais iniciativas têm conquistado gradativa visibilidade pelo caminho da produção de alimentos, pavimentando um caminho possível para a conquista da autonomia.

Abstract: These days, the projection of Brazilian field is highlighted by the sector which represents the capitalist agriculture, responsible for the volume of the production of grains exported to the world. Notwithstanding, there are numerous crisis that indicate a strong correlation of the feeding and environmental situations with the capitalist agriculture and its peculiar form of occupation of large extensions of land. After analyzing some expressions of this correlation in the Brazilian field, it was prioritized agroecological experiences intended to be capable to promote the rescue of more sustainable and ecological practices of the agroecosystems. Based on several studies that have demonstrated their relevance as alternative to peasantry reproduction, by their capacity to dynamize the production of food in an ecologically and fair way, socially sustainable and economically feasible, the aim of this research was to study how it has been presented as a strategy to the reproduction for the peasantry families. To that end, it was selected two experiences in agrarian reform projects: the first is the ?Eli Vive II?, located in the municipality of Londrina, in the estate of Paraná, where the production of grains distinguishes itself in the agrarian space. The other is the ?20 de Março?, situated in Três Lagoas, Mato Grosso do Sul, where the monoculture of eucalyptus has been expanding. Both prominent models were forged over a highly concentrated land-based structure, the reason why the subjects of this research bring with themselves the marks of such historical fight against the oppression and violence. They are live witnesses to the land banishment processes, but also to the victorious saga that have allowed them to conquer a place for social reproduction. The agrarian reform land has several recreation strategies, among those the transition from productive spaces to a more sustainable agriculture articulated for local markets. The one concludes that such initiatives have been achieving gradual visibility among the ways of food production, smoothing the way for a possible conquest of the autonomy.

Through the history of mankind, development and change have been an inevitable process, under the influence of both compelling factors, and facilitating and motivating factors. But this change, together with the agrarian and industrial revolutions, has magnified its influence and scale.

Resumo: Diante do desmonte das políticas sociais, sobretudo as agrárias, bem como a massiva propaganda veiculada pela mídia subserviente aos interesses da agricultura capitalista e da sua suposta contribuição econômica e alimentar ao país, entendemos ser fundamental refletir o processo de reprodução do campesinato e a relevância das políticas de assentamentos rurais para a sociedade em geral. Assim, concebendo o território como categoria geográfica e ancorado no arcabouço teórico da questão agrária e recriação do campesinato, estabelecimentos como objetivo central investigar os desdobramentos territoriais produzidos pela implantação dos projetos de assentamentos rurais na Região de Andradina (SP), do ponto de vista social, econômico e político. No contexto da “Marcha para Oeste”, concretizada pela construção das ferrovias em meados do século XX, a apropriação capitalista das terras moveu-se pelo interesse na renda fundiária e teve na grilagem o principal mecanismo de usurpação das terras públicas, privando homens e mulheres de reproduzirem-se mediante o trabalho na terra. Marcada historicamente pela pastagem e, no limiar do século XXI, pela expansão da lavoura de cana-de-açúcar, a região viria a ser palco da luta de classes travada no e pelo território, o que possibilitou a reprodução social de outra lógica no campo. A luta pela terra, fator de recriação camponesa, pressionou a desapropriação do latifúndio, tendo sido assentadas milhares de famílias que, na luta para permanecer na terra, vem desenvolvendo o modo de vida centrado no grupo familiar. Com o domínio de pequena fração do território, os camponeses assentados garantem sua existência social na terra de trabalho e, para além disso, são responsáveis pela produção de gêneros alimentícios de primeira necessidade que alcançam as mesas dos citadinos, fortalecendo, a partir da produção variada, o vínculo campo-cidade. Somamos a isso, o fato de que o acesso à terra, via política de assentamentos rurais, possibilitou a transformação dos próprios sujeitos antes excluídos socialmente, agora ocupado gerando renda que circula no mercado local e regional. Mesmo perante os limites impostos pela monopolização do território pelo capital, esses camponeses mostraram potencialidade produtiva e capacidade reiterada de cumprimento dos preceitos da função social da terra, estabelecida na Constituição Federal de 1988. Reveladas estão dinâmicas virtuosas da Reforma Agrária na escala local e a importância da eliminação do latifúndio.

Abstract: Given the current social policies dismantling, especially the agrarian ones, as well as the massive propaganda broadcasted by the the capitalist agriculture obsequiously media and its supposed economic and dietary contribution to the country, it has become fundamentally important to think the process of the peasantry reproduction and the importance of policies for the rural settlements to the society in general. Therefore, conceiving the territory as a geographic category and based at the theoretical framework of the agrarian situation and the peasantry recreation, we have established as main objective the investigation of the territorial splitting produced by the deployment of rural settlement projects at the region of Andradina (SP), considering the social, economics and political aspects. In the context of the “March to the West”, accomplished by the railway lines construction in the middle of the XX century, the capitalist appropriation of lands happened due to the interest in the land earnings and had in the land grabbing the main mechanism to usurp public lands, obstructing men and women to live from the farming working. Historically marked by the pasture and, in the beginning of the XXI century, by the sugar cane plantation, the region would turn to be a place for the land dispute engaged at and by the territory, which have allowed the social reproduction of another logic in the fields. The land dispute, a peasantry recreation factor, has pushed the estate expropriation, have being settled thousands of families that, through the fight to stay at the lands, have developed a way of living based on family communities. By dominating a small fraction of the territory, the settled peasants safeguard their social existence at the land they work and, besides that, they are responsible by the production of first necessities dietary sort that reach the citizens, strengthening, through a diverse production, the field-city ties. Furthermore, the access to the land, throughout rural settlement policies, has allowed the transformation of socially segregated individuals, that now works on the revenue generation for the local and regional markets. Although facing the territory monopolization limits imposed by the capital, those peasants have shown productive potentialities and a reiterated capacity to comply with the social land function requirements, established by the Federal Constitution of 1988.The virtuous dynamics of the agrarian reform in a local scale and the importance of the estate expropriation are revealed.

Kırsal yerleşmeler, yöre insanının ihtiyaçlarını karşılayan doğal çevre, arazi formuna uygun, iklim ile uyumlu, kültürel değerleri önemseyen yerleşmelerdir. Tarımsal faaliyetleri, rekreasyon etkinlikleri, sosyal yapısı, doğal çevresi, konutu ve diğer birimleri ile bir bütün olarak, doğal çevre ve tarihi süreç içerisinde mimari kültürümüzün oluşumunda etkilidir. Değişen teknoloji ve ekonomik şartlar ile beraber birbirine benzer ve çarpık kentler oluşmakta; bütün bunlar karşısında yerel kültürünü kaybetmemiş, doğa ile uyum içerisindeki kırsal yerleşmeler gündeme gelmektedir. Ülkemizde kırsal yerleşmelere ilişkin tasarım ve planlama çalışmaları daha çok üst ölçeklerde yapıldığı için özgün yerleşme karakterleri göz ardı edilmektedir. Her bölge için yapılan standart tasarım ve planlama çalışmaları yerleşmelerin özgün yapısına zarar verebileceği gibi turizmin kaynağı olan çekiciliğini de yok edecektir. Bu noktada gündeme gelen köy tasarım rehberleri köyün ve çevresinin bölgesel karakterini tanımlamak, yeni gelişmelerde yöresel karakterin nasıl korunabileceğini ve artırılabileceğini göstermek açısında önemlidir. Bu çalışmada bu rehberlerin amacı ve içeriğini anlatmakta, bu konuda yurt dışında yapılan örnekler irdelenmektedir.
ABSTRACT
Rural settlements are the settlements that meet the requirements of local people considering cultural values important, combining them with nature, being harmonious with land form and local climate. They are important for the creation of architectural culture amalgamating natural environment with the agricultural activities, recreational activities, social forms and houses and their related buildings within historical process. Together with the changing technology and economic conditions, urban areas are becoming more and more similar and chaotic. Consequently, rural dwellings are gaining importance and attracting attention, which is attributable to their authenticity, naturalness, and peacefulness. Original settlement characters and diversity in Turkey are ignored in as much as design and planning Works concerning rural settlements are often conducted at higher scales. The regional design and planning Works may not only harm the original structure of the settlements but also degrade the touristic attractiveness as a major source for tourist development. At this point village design guidelines serve to describe the local characteristic of the village and its surroundings as well as to show how to protect and strengthen the local characteristics. In this study the aim and context of these design guidelines are explained and same samples done in foreign countries are scrutinized.

The increasing human need for water, on the one hand, and its scarcity, on the other, have increased the exploitation of this vital resource. Today, with more attention to groundwater resources and the vertical movement of these reservoirs to deeper layers, numerous problems are threatening life in rural habitats. The main purpose of the present study is to identify the causes of groundwater resource drawdown and its effect on the physical structure of rural areas. Crucially, it has doubled as population growth and demand increase to meet the needs of rural communities, excessive exploitation and pressure on these vital reserves. Documentary analysis and field study were used to collect the required data. The statistical population of the study included 89831 people in the rural population of Lordegan, out of which 115 were selected by purposive sampling method using the G-Power software. The data were analyzed by descriptive-analytical and causal-comparative methods on the SPSS and GIS software programs. The findings showed that increasing number of farmers, expanding irrigated areas and drilling deep wells during the period 1961-2016 are correlated with unnecessary exploitation and drop in groundwater level in the research area. The results further showed that the fragmentation of agricultural parts, granting permits for digging and breaking wells and the prevalence of aquacultural crops in interaction with population growth were the most important factors for double harvesting and reduction of groundwater levels to-22 meters in the plains. It has manifested itself in the form of the disappearance of wetlands and pastures, land subsidence of 85 cm, deep divisions in settlements and farms, changes in the appearance of plains, and, ultimately, the instability of rural settlements.

One of the symptoms of urbanization processes in post-war period was the spatial development of large Polish cities, with mainly small towns and neighboring rural settlements being incorporated into their borders. In the course of time most of the incorporated settlements became integral parts of the city, yet some of them, in spite of the passage of several dozen years since the incorporation, retain their rural character. The problem of rural settlements functioning in administrative borders of a large city was presented on the case study of Wroclaw city, to which 3 towns and 54 rural settlements were incorporated in post-war and interwar period. The main objects of this paper are to identify rural settlements functioning in Wroclaw city borders, to define the main reasons of their durability in the spatial structure of a large city and to evaluate the consequences of their incorporation.

Study of rural settlements of the Asian part of the Bosporos is crucial to the understanding
of economic relationships between cities and rural countryside, and for the recovery of
the historical process of the Taman peninsula colonization. Even at present, the rural sites of
Taman are irregularly studied. With regard to the nineteenth century, throughout its duration,
the mounds were of the main interest to researches. Ancient settlements, especially rural
settlements, were not correctly localized at the time, not to mention they should have been the
object of independent research. Before the mid-nineteenth century excavations on the territory
of the rural districts were random and fragmented. After the founding of the Imperial archaeological
Commission in 1859, the researchers were first officially tasked with excavation of
ancient rural settlements. Excavations were conducted in the area of Fontalovskiy peninsula,
near Chora of Phanagoria and Hermonassa and in the vicinity of Korokondame. However,
the complexity of their localization, the lack of material resources and human resources failed
to accomplish the Commission tasks. No purely scientific objectives were implemented; however,
the question was raised about the necessity of learning the rural territory adjacent to the
cities of the Asian Bosporos.

The article presents a study of fish remains from the Bagaevka settlement with the involvement of the results of identifications of fish remains from other settlements in the region of the Golden Horde city Ukek, functioning in the second half of the 13th – 14th century. The purpose of the work was a comprehensive analysis of the remains of fishes from the Bagaevka settlement, as a large Golden Horde rural settlement of Ukek region, including species, quantitative, dimensional and age composition of the fishes on the basis of the archaeoichthyological collection and interpretation of the obtained results taking into account archaeological data. The 19 species of fishes were determined from bone remains and scales, the main species of which were large-sized: Russian sturgeon, Beluga, Starred sturgeon, Catfish and Zander. The predominance of large-sized species indicates that fishing was carried out on the Volga. The identified dimensional-species composition of fishes (large species with a large body weight), as well as the discovered fishing equipment, directly indicate the presence of collective fishing of the inhabitants of the Bagaevka settlement. Cutting and processing of all incoming fish was carried out on the territory of the settlement. Fishing in this settlement, as well as throughout the Saratov Volga region, has already acquired the features of a specialized subsidiary farming.

At present; determination, registration and conservation of historical assets, which are counted as the shared heritage of mankind, is essential in order to pass them on the next generations by preserving their originality. Certainly, Anatolian settlements occupy an important position within this heritage with its historical stages. The late development of the conservation concept, and also the lack of protection approaches to the national policies are the main reasons of the late discovery of historical places as well as ignorance of those places’ potential. This study will indicate the great value of the architectural heritage and will present the significance of those places. Moreover this paper, which investigates a small scaled model of Anatolia, contains the current challenges of Hanönü, considering qualitative analysis and suggestions for this interventions; also creates a suggestion for the protection of historical values.

Civil architecture examples, which are one of the components of cultural heritage, the traditional textures created by these structures and the activities taken in these areas shape the memory of the society and add value to the future of humanity. For this reason, it is of great importance to document the rapidly disappearing traditional houses and transmit them to future generations. Altınyayla (Dirmil), a province of Burdur in the Mediterranean region, is a settlement worth preserving, offering richness to cultural heritage with its traditional building stock. In this study, Altınyayla (Dirmil) rural area, which is losing its traditional housing texture, is discussed and an analysis study has been carried out on the facades of traditional houses that have reached to the present day by preserving their authenticity to a large extent.

El trabajo pasa revista a los datos provistos por recientes excavaciones, en su mayoría inéditas, concernientes a tipos de arquitectura doméstica altomedieval documentadas en la región de Madrid. El empleo de materiales de construcción disponibles en el entorno inmediato de los asentamientos marca importantes diferencias entre territorios a veces muy próximos. Pero incluso en contextos como éstos, caracterizados por una significativa autosuficiencia y el «recurso a ciclos productivos simplificados» (AZKARATE, QUIRÓS, 2001: 53), se advierte un acceso y utilización diferencial de materiales que podría constituir un cierto indicador de formas de desigualdad en el seno de las comunidades.

Findings in burial complexes discovered on the chora of the European part of Bosporos include a specific group of materials of natural origin – layers of mollusk shells at the bottom of graves and at the entrance to tombs, offerings of single shells of sea and river mollusks. Such objects, when placed into the sacred space of the necropolis, were endowed with new meanings and included in the system of the funeral rite. Marine attributes were included in the context of ritual actions determined by the archaic ideas about the world model, which sustained among the rural population during the centuries. According to a three-part model of the world, the sea/water was the equivalent of a chthonic lower sphere. Aquatic mollusk shells, on the one hand, symbolized abundance, fecundity, and in this meaning belonged to the circle of symbols of fertility gods. On the other hand, they marked the lower cosmic zone, comparable to the chthonic world, were applied in the rites of passage, which set up the connection between the levels of the universe in accordance with the archaic model of the world. In this aspect, the shells associated with the water element carried the idea of transformation and were endowed with the functions of mediators. This effect made shells important in rituals that accompanied the burial of children (especially newborns), which, in the ancients' views, had the status of a
liminal entity, embodied the idea of life, and were placed in the sacred space on the border of the earthly and extramundane worlds and required special treatment after death.

Представлена интерпретация специфической группы материалов природного происхождения из погребальных комплексов, открытых на территории боспорской хоры. Эта группа так называемых экофактов включает подсыпки из морских раковин на уровне дна могил и у входа в гробницы, приношения в виде единичных раковин морских и речных моллюсков. В погребально-обрядовой сфере раковины водных моллюсков были включены в контекст ритуальных действий, обусловленных устойчивыми среди сельского населения архаическими представлениями о трёхчленной модели мира, где море выступало эквивалентом хтонической, нижней сферы. Раковины моллюсков, с одной стороны, выражали идеи изобилия, плодовитости и в этом смысле принадлежали кругу символов богов, воплощавших плодоносные силы природы. С другой стороны, они маркировали нижнюю космическую зону, сопоставимую с хтоническим миром, применялись в обрядах перехода, в которых конституировалась взаимосвязь между уровнями мироздания в соответствии с архаической картиной мира. Экофакты, связанные с водной стихией, несли идею преобразования, в сакральной сфере выступали символами-медиаторами. В этом смысле раковины применялись в ритуалах погребения детей (особенно новорожденных), имеющих у древних статус лиминальных существ, воплощавших жизненное начало. Они помещались в сакральном пространстве на границе земного и потустороннего миров и требовали особого обхождения после смерти.

The early medieval barrow cemetery at Kleczanów (Lesser Poland) reflects the oldest episodes of the history of the 9th century rural settlement dating back to the pre-state period. Since years it became the subject of discussion based on the phenomenon of survival, for over 1000 years, dozen burials placed in a small wood, on the deforested loess Uppland. The author believes that the cemetery for a long time became a place of remembrance of ancestors and unknown rituals.  Even in modern times, the grove at Kleczanów, where the burial mounds are placed,  played an important role in celebrations of Pentecost. The author suggests a possible correlation between some abandoned cemeteries and medieval holy groves.

Maternal mortality is a priority issue worldwide, most cases occur in underdeveloped countries with illiteracy, poorly accessible rural areas and with poor access and insufficient trained health personnel. Objectives. This study explores the perceptions of health personnel and the community in relation to cultural appropriateness of maternal perinatal services in the Huánuco Region, observing critical aspects of proposal offer and

Building remains from the Renaissance at Onsoy prestegård, Østfold, Norway. The Renaissance is archaeologically a highly neglected period in Norway, especially outside the towns. This is mostly due to the fact that the Cultural
Heritage Act does not automatically protect remains younger than the Reformation of 1536, excepting standing buildings which are automatically protected until AD 1650. However, the change from Catholic to Protestant religious conviction is no more a factor in the material artefact
development than was the change from Viking Age belief to Medieval Catholic Christianity. In both cases, the change in artefacts was gradual and cannot be pinpointed to an exact year. In 1995, the safeguarding of a Bronze Age rock
carving site (ID 40265) at Raahaugen, Onsøy Vicarage, caused a minor excavation at its edge with finds of burnt clay and charcoal. In 1997, a research excavation of 5 square metres was carried out within the protected area, about 9 m south of the carvings. A 10 m long and 0,5 m wide east west oriented ditch was hand dug across a raised plateau. The aim was to see if there was any connection between finds of burnt clay and the rock carvings. However, the results proved completely different and rather surprising. The remarkable number of more than 250 artefacts were found
within 5 m~ burnt clay, burnt bone, iron nails, iron tools, fragments of window glass, fragments of soapstone pots, a bronze finger ring and lots of pottery. This is very unusual for a Norwegian agrarian settlement All the finds could be dated between AD 1500 and 1650, that is to the late
Medieval (—1536) and the Renaissance (1537 - a. 1650). Most of the pottery concentrated to the early Renaissance, around 1550. There were no finds of clay pipes, nor any modern artefacts such as capsules or coins, neither were
there any artefacts which with certainty could be dated earlier than 1500. The excavation trench cut through a building with sill stones and a clay floor According to our
observations in the trench and of sill stones on the surface, the
building could have been about 8 m wide and possibly up to 20 m long.
In 2001, a further research excavation was carried out immediately connected to the part of the rock carving site which had been secured in 1995. The aim was to see If the finds indicated cult continuity from the Bronze Age to the Middle Ages. Only 3 square metres were excavated, as the artefact finds of burnt clay, flint, soapstone, and pottery
clearly belonged to the same period as those of the excavation of 1997 and probably were from a disposal layer related to that farm building.
The building remains from Onsøy Vicarage constitute one of very few agrarian settlements that exhibit continuity between the medieval and post reformation periods in Eastern Norway

Le changement climatique en Afrique tropicale expose de nombreux établissements ruraux à des précipitations intenses. La dégradation des bassins versants transforme ces précipitations en inondations catastrophiques. Mais les impacts des précipitations intenses dépendent également de l'expansion du bati dans les zones inondables, sur laquelle les connaissances sont encore rares. L'objectif de ce chapitre est de réaliser une évaluation détaillée du risque, qui identifie les biens exposés aux inondations pluviales, estime l'impact et l'efficacité des mesures de réduction du risque. L'évaluation est réalisée dans quatre petites villes du Niger rural en plein essor, qui ont été inondées à plusieurs reprises au cours des dernières années. Les zones inondables suite à des pluies avec période de retour de 3 et 20 ans sont identifiées à l'aide d'un modèle hydrologique bidimensionnel selon que le bassin versant reste dans son état actuel ou est traité avec des mesures de réduction du risque. Les biens exposés sont identifiés par photointerprétation visuelle d'images à très haute résolution et leur valeur de remplacement est estimée. Les mesures de réduction des risques sont identifiées par des discussions avec les communautés. Le risque résiduel et le rapport bénéfice/coût du traitement du risque sont estimés. Le résultat est qu'au cours des 10 dernières années, l'expansion des 4 petites villes est plus rapide dans la zone inondable. Il reste peu de zones sûres pour permettre une expansion future. La cartographie des zones et des éléments exposés aux inondations est donc essentielle pour réduire l'exposition future aux inondations. La rétention d'eau, les toits en tôle ondulée, les barrières anti-inondation, les latrines surélevées et les puits sont des mesures efficaces pour réduire le risque, surtout en cas de précipitations intenses et fréquentes.

Complex of metallic objects from Bagaevka settlement, rural settlement of the Golden Horde of the second half of 13th – 14th century, situated in periphery of the Golden Horde city Ukek in Saratov area of Saratov region is analysed by the authors. The settlement was studied by expedition of Kazan University under supervision of L.F. Nedashkovsky in 1995, 2002–2003, 2006–2012 and 2014–2016. Numismatic finds from the site, which covered area 5.1 ha and has the cultural layer in some places with more than 90 cm width, belong to the Golden Horde mintage of the end of 13th – beginning of 60s of 14th century. Metallic vessels (fragments of copper forged vessels, rivet, cup, fragments of cast-iron cauldrons) were characterized in the article. Other objects are represented by mirrors, bronze couplings of knives, ware with lion figure, ingot, splashes of lead and bronze, lead weight-seal, bronze and iron locks, iron keys. Morphological features of wares are examined on the basis of typology with involvement of the comparative background of materials of synchronous monuments. Сomplex under study characterizes material culture of the Golden Horde village of the Low Volga region, which, judging by the published materials, differed from material culture of city and town, situated nearby.

The work publishes the results of an archaeozoological study of a collection of bone remains from the excavations of the settlement Zhemchuzhina-I, located in the steppe foothill part of southeastern Crimea. A representative collection of 164 objects with a volume of 5795 fragments was studied. The taxonomic set is represented mainly by the remains of mammals; there are bones of birds, fish, and shells of the Black Sea mollusks. For a rural monument, the low index of fragmentation of bone residues looks unusual, that is, meat carcasses were cut in large pieces, as in cities. Beef prevails in the spectrum of meat consumption – 85%, the share of lamb and horse meat is much less, the share of pork is insignificant. A hypothesis was expressed about the cattle-breeding nature of the occupations of the inhabitants of the Zhemchuzhina settlement and a number of other settlements of the steppe zone of the southeast and central Crimea, from which there are representative archaeozoological collections and the share of beef more than 80% is recorded for all. It is assumed that the inhabitants of the settlements mainly raised cattle for hiding, and the meat was sent to the Solkhat ulus center and partially remained on the settlements themselves. The political decline of the main recipient of cattle-breeding products – Solkhat, in the late 1380s, a decrease in its area and number of inhabitants, and the lack of a port led to a reduction in the cattle-breeding settlements of its okrug at the turn of the 14th and 15th centuries, among which the settlement Zhemchuzhina-I, purposefully abandoned by residents. The question is raised during the search for archaeological research markers of craft industries for processing animal skins, the export of which was famous for the Golden Horde.

Bangladesh is a country beset by climate-driven natural disasters. One such disaster is the regular flooding that seizes the nation, destroying not only food and livestock, but also the habitation of much of the population. The main victims of these more or less annual events are the economically disadvantaged people, living both in rural as well as urban areas. Whereas the urban low-income populace, living in close proximity to the socially affluent, have much of their problems taken care of, almost as a by product of services offered to the rich, the same cannot be said of the rural poor. Conditions in rural areas become unliveable during the rainy season. Architects at present, as problem solvers, concentrate almost wholly on serving urban dwellers. However, their expertise can go a long way in alleviating the misery of villagers, within their economic means, from such vagaries of climate.
This paper focuses on problems that beset village settlements during the rains and resulting floods, and on points for Architects to ponder in the endeavor towards mitigating the brunt of this disaster and in increasing overall livability of rural settlements. Along with making roads incommunicable, not only is the homestead inundated by the floods, ie by water from below, but being made of relatively permeable materials, the homestead itself becomes threatened by the inclement weather, ie by water from above.  The paper examines existing village housing from this perspective and suggests affordable solutions, with notes of caution regarding sustainability issues, which is extremely sensitive, especially in environments that are relatively pristine and untouched. Sustainability aspects of rural lifestyles are therefore discussed in the paper, and it is seen that villagers by virtue of their ability to exist on very little, have a lot to contribute towards sustainable solutions. The objective of the discussions is to instill awareness among Architects, of issues that are of prime importance in rural settlements and of the need to exercise caution when intervening in the rural environment.

The rural areas cover a significant part of the Montenegrin territory
and play an essential role in its development potential. These areas
have been exposed to various (more spontaneous and less planned)
transformations throughout history, which has been reflected in their
particular characteristics.
The three settlements, one from each region, were treated by analyzing
identity attributes and complex issues of development and
degradation of rural areas. This research aims to determine the reasons
for the extinction of rural settlements and propose measures for preserving the existing and restoration of the missing values of their
natural and cultural heritage. The planning procedures for recognizing
and determining the criteria for the detection (today visible ones)
and assessing the lost values of rural settlements are proposed at
the end of this paper. Future planning and design processes could
acquire the gained knowledge about these values and be employed
through future development, through creating new planning and
economic models for the rural settlements’ revival, protection, and
improvement.

The study posed a question – nomadic steppe or rural settlements provided the cities of the Golden Horde with meat food. In the meat consumption of all the studied cities, the most important place was occupied by beef – the products of mainly rural settlements, lamb and horse meat – the products of steppe cattle breeding, played an auxiliary role. In the cities around which there were unlimited areas for grazing cattle, the proportion of beef in the diet was significantly, 10–20% higher than in steppe and semi-desert cities along the lower reaches of the Volga and Akhtuba, where a narrow strip of azonal landscapes significantly limited grazing. In cities that functioned in the 13th and 14th centuries, the proportion of beef increased significantly in the 14th century. This is due to the formation of rural districts by the 14th century and the establishment of regular supplies of the main meat product from them. The study of archaeozoological collections from five rural settlements of the Volga region and the Crimea revealed a high – 80–85%, the proportion of beef in their meat diet. This means a very high number of cattle kept in rural settlements in relation to other types of domestic ungulates. The villagers of the Golden Horde were engaged in specialized cattle breeding and were the main suppliers of meat products to the Golden Horde cities. In addition, they were important participants in the export of animal skins in the economic system of the state.

Research in scientific fields is mainly a qualitative issue which requires a level of qualitative analysis and involves the discovery of the relationships among research variables. One of the most important issues in the discussion of human topics is demography and, in particular, the recognition of demographic features. In this regard, this study seeks to examine the state of aging in Iranian rural communities in 390 counties of the country by using fuzzy logic. The research is a descriptive-analytic type and applied in terms of purpose. It was carried out through secondary analyses. The required data were derived from the Statistics Center of Iran and covered six indicators including the ratio of aging and youth, the ratio of genders, the ratio of old age, potential support and parental support. The results showed that, according to the designed database, the rural areas in the margins of Iran have a low rate of aging due to desirable conditions in the six indicators. In contrast, the rural areas in the internal parts of Iran are severely aged and are moving toward aging rapidly. The results of this study were also compared with the ethnicity map of Iran. It was indicated that the findings of this study about the aging process strongly overlap the information on the ethnicity map. Due to the broad ethnic distribution in the geographical boundaries of Iran, the, the desire to have children is higher than that in the central parts of the country. This has led to an increase in the desirable values of the six indicators in the marginal areas and the superiority of those areas over the internal parts.

This article proposes the concept of the rational use of agricultural land, which is
the basis of territorial planning in the region. The main measure in the system of
sustainable rural development is the elaboration of projects for the territorial planning
of agricultural enterprises at various levels. The article discusses the possibilities of
locating agricultural production based on agro-ecological potential, as well as
presents ways to improve the allocation of agricultural land uses. In the context of onfarm
land management, it is recommended to optimize land use on the basis of a
landscape-ecological approach. The implementation of this approach is illustrated
through experimental design. Land planning in rural settlements should also be the task
of rational land use in rural areas

En la presente ponencia nos proponemos estudiar los recuerdos y experiencias de un grupo de personas que vivieron su niñez en una colonia agrícola creada en 1952, bautizada como “17 de Octubre” -luego de 1955 conocida como “La Capilla”-, ubicada en la zona rural del partido de Florencio Varela, zona sur del Gran Buenos Aires. La colonia se caracterizó por radicarse en un territorio rural periurbano, con especialización en productos hortícolas y florícolas destinados al abasto de las ciudades cercanas.
Pensamos que el abordaje de los recuerdos permitirá analizar los modos de vida propios de un entorno rural atravesado por un cruce con lo urbano, cuya cercanía e interrelación no podía eludirse, como también la participación de los niños en las producciones familiares, sus roles y su relación con la organización del trabajo familiar. En relación con esto último, consideramos especialmente la refundación de una escuela primaria dentro de la colonia, como eje nodal en la vida de los niños y niñas.
Para el análisis se tomarán los casos de un grupo de personas cuyas edades al momento de la creación de la colonia oscilaban entre los 5 y 8 años, principalmente por medio de entrevistas, complementando con fuentes documentales y gráficas disponibles. Se tendrá en cuenta el contexto general, las políticas, ideas y prácticas relacionadas a la infancia durante las décadas de 1950-1960.