PLANT MANAGEMENT

( HINDUSTAN AERONAUTICS LIMITED)

A training report Submitted

in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements

for the award of Degree of

Bachelor of Technology
In

Electrical & Electronics Engineering

By

MRIDUL KUMAR VERMA

UNIVERSITY ROLL NUMBER: 0705621037
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

First of all, I would like to thank my friends for assisting and helping me in my research. I

would like to thank my research teacher and respected H.O.D. for helping me how to do

my study.

I would like to thank my parents for their financial and never ending support, for the help

in my study and for its success. And it would not be successful without God who guides

me in my everyday life and activities. I thank Him for the good health he has given to me,

and for the success of my study. For all the people who helped me a lot, thank you very

much and may god bless you all...

 INTRODUCTION

Hindustan Aeronautics Limited(HAL) came into existence on 1st October 1964.voltage

regulator 12310-31(aircraft jaguar) is used in the regulation and protection of output voltage and

frequency of AC supply generated by jaguar alternator if a completely electronic unit.

A set of trim/force feel system (FFS) consists of four actuators, namely collective, pitch, roll and

yaw actuators corresponding to the four body axes of helicopter. These actuators are

electromechanical units interfaced with the mechanical as well as with automatic Flight control

system (AFCS).

D.C. master box(2246.00.000)AIRCRAFT-LC has been designed as a distribution box for use

with the DC power generation system of LCA as load bus management system. It consists of two

250 Amps TRU’s operating in parallel, a 45 KW DC Generator as standby DC source, two 45 AH

batteries as the emergency power source and ground power as an External power. It also acts as

an external power. It also acts as an protection device and provides protection for Reverse current,

over voltage, under voltage and TRU thermal protection

Fuel booster pump(1029) AIRCRAFT-MIG-27 is a centrifugal pump which is driven electrically

by a DC motor. The Motor used is a compound wound, Double speed and four poles. It is fed

with single wire from Aircraft mains and earthing of negative terminal is done together with

pump at the bottom of fuel tank.

TABLE OF CONTENTS

TOPICS PAGE

NUMBER

List of tables 6

List of figures 7

ABOUT THE COMPANY 8

WORK STRUCTURE IN HAL

DIVISIONS OF HAL 10

ACCESSORIES DIVISIONS LUCKNOW

11-13

VOLTAGE REGULATOR 13-14

TRIM ACTUATORS 14-15

DC MASTER BOX 15

FUEL BOOSTER PUMP

16

ROTARY CONVERTER

16-17
STARTER GENERATOR

17-18

LINEAR ACTUATOR

18-19

VARIO ALTERNATOR20210-23 19-20

VARIO ALTERNATOR12210-41 20-21

Products in current manufacturing range 21-27

Potential for overhaul and repair 27-32

Products for aerospace and division 32-34

Aviation fuel 34-40

References 41
 LIST OF TABLES

i. Table 1 specification of jaguar 13-14

ii. Table 2 specification of DC master box 15

iii. Table 3 specification of fuel booster pump 16

iv. Table 4 specification of rotary converter 17

v. Table 5 specification of starter generator 18

vi. Table 6 specification of linear actuator 19

vii. Table 7 specification of vario alternator aircraft mirage 20

viii. Table 8 specification of vario alternator aircraft jaguar 20-21

ix. Table 9 features of R11 Mfg,R25Mfg,R29B and RD33O/H 23-24

x. Table 10 features of ADOURMK-811 24-25

xi. Table 11 featuresof GARRETT331-5 26-26

xii. Table 12 features of ARTOUSTE IIIB 27-28

xiii. Table 13 features of DART 33-2 and 536-2T 27-28

xiv. Table 14 features of ORPHEUS 70-105 28-29

xv. Table 15 features of AVON 29-30

 xvi. Table 16 features of ADOUR MK804E 30-31

xvii. Table 17 features of GNOME 1400 IT 31

xviii. Table 18 dyes for fuel 39

 LIST OF FIGURES

i. Figure 1.1 Divisions of HAL 10

ii. Figure 2.1 accessories division lucknow 11

iii. Figure 13.1 AL-31FP engine 22

iv. Figure 13.2 R25 engine 22

v. Figure 13.3 R29B engine 23

vi. Figure 13.4 ADOURMK811 25

vii. Figure 13.5 GARETT311-5 26

viii. Figure 13.6 ARTOUSTEIII-B 27

ix. Figure 14.1 DART533-2 and 536-2T 28

x. Figure 14.2 ORPHEUS 70105 29

xi. Figure 14.3 AVON 30

xii. Figure 14.4 ADOUR MK 804E 31

xiii. Figure 14.5 GNOME 1400 IT 32

xiv. Figure 15.1 GSLV 32

xv. Figure 16.1 an aviation fuel truck 34

xvi. Figure 16.2 underground fuel pipes 35

xvii. Figure 16.3 aviation fuel storage tank 36

xviii. Figure 16.4 British airways airbus A321 being refuelled 38

xix. Figure 16.5 A Carson Helicopters S-61N Fire King being refuelled 40
 INTRODUCTION

• Hindustan Aeronautics Limited(HAL) came into existence on 1st October 1964

• The company was formed by the merger of Hindustan Aircraft Limited with

Aeronautics India Limited and aircraft manufacturing Depot Kanpur.

• The Government of India became a share holder in March 1941 and took over the

Management
WORK STRUCTURE IN HAL

ORDER FROM THE CUSTOMER

PRODUCT SUPPORT DEPARTMENT

PROGRAMMING DEPARTMENT

PRODUCTION CONTROL

MANUFACTURING FACTORY

ASSEMBLY AND TESTING

TESTING WITH EXTERNAL AGENCY

1.DIVISIONS OF HAL

Fig.1.1
2.ACCESSORIES DIVISIONS LUCKNOW

Fig.2.1
3.REPAIRS, MAJOR SERVICING AND SUPPLY OF SPARES

The Division carries out Repair and Overhaul of Accessories, with minimum turn-

around-time. Site Repair facilities are offered by the Division by deputing team of expert

Engineers / Technicians.

Services provided for:

3.1.Military Aircraft

MiG Series

Jaguar

Mirage-2000

Sea - Harrier

AN-32

Kiran MK- I / MK- II

HPT - 32

SU-30 MKI

3.2.Civil Aircraft

Dornier-22B

AVRO HS-748

3.3.Helicopters

Chetak (Alouette)

Cheetah (Lama)

ALH (IAF / NAVY / COAST GUARD  / CIVIL)

3.4.Sub-contract Capabilities
The Division has comprehensive manufacturing capabilities forvarious Hi-tech

components, Equipment and Systems to customer's specifications and ensures high

quality, reliability and costeffectiveness.The Division has over 25 years of experience in

producing aeronautical accessories making it an ideal partner for the International Aero

Engineering IndustryThe Division also manufactures and supplies complete range of

components of Cheetah (Lama) & Chetak (Alouette) Helicopters, Jaguar and MiG series

Aircraft to Domestic and International Customers to support their fleet.

4.VOLTAGE REGULATOR

12310-31

AIRCRAFT-JAGUAR

The main function of this unit is the regulation and protection of output voltage and

frequency of AC supply generated by jaguar alternator if a completely electronic unit.

This unit forms a closed loop feedback system with the alternator output voltage and

frequency and automatically regulates the various control signals to maintain the voltage

and frequency in the specified range. It also generates the error signals to protect the

system against various electrical faults.

SPECIFICATIONS

Voltage Regulation 115/200v +/-2%

Frequency Regulation 400 Hz +/- 1%

PROTECTION
Over Voltage >= 130 Volt

Under Voltage <= 100 Volt

Over Frequency <= 420 Hz

Under Frequency <= 380 Hz

Phase Sequence RYB

5.TRIM ACTUATORS

AIRCRAFT-ALH
A set of trim/force feel system (FFS) consists of four actuators, namely collective, pitch,

roll and yaw actuators corresponding to the four body axes of helicopter. These actuators

are electromechanical units interfaced with the mechanical as well as with automatic

Flight control system (AFCS). The conventional mechanical control linkages in pitch,

roll, collective, yaw axis are fitted with one corresponding trim/FFS.

FUNCTIONS

 Engagement/Disengagement of anchor point by means of an electricity

operated clutch. This anchor point can be displayed either automatically or

mechanically.

 Artificial Force feel about the anchor point generating a predetermined feel

force. The artificial feel is proportional to the displacement in pitch, roll and

collective trim actuators as they are spring based. The force feel is a constant

friction in the yaw axis.

  Pilot controlled displacement of the anchor point by means of an electrical

motor (manual trim function) or by declutching to the artificial feels.

 Automatic displacement of the anchor point so as to maintain the series

actuators around their centre position (auto trim).

6.D.C. MASTER BOX

2246.00.000

AIRCRAFT-LCA

It has been designed as a distribution box for use with the DC power generation system of

LCA as load bus management system. It consists of two 250 Amps TRU’s operating in

parallel, a 45 KW DC Generator as standby DC source, two 45 AH batteries as the

emergency power source and ground power as an External power. It also acts as an

external power. It also acts as an protection device and provides protection for Reverse

current, over voltage, under voltage and TRU thermal protection.

SPECIFICATIONS

Rated Input Voltage 28 V

Rated Output Voltage 28 V

Rated Load Current 250A

Power Capacity 7K

7.FUEL BOOSTER PUMP

1029

AIRCRAFT-MIG-27
This unit is a centrifugal pump which is driven electrically by a DC motor. The Motor

used is a compound wound, Double speed and four poles. It is fed with single wire from

Aircraft mains and earthing of negative terminal is done together with pump at the bottom

of fuel tank.

SPECIFICATIONS

PUMP

Operating voltage 27 V D.C.

FLOW RATE

Rated 24000 Lit./Hr.

Augmented 29000 lit./Hr.

Current 74 Amps Max

Torque 13.2 Kg/Cm to21.8 Kg/Cm

Rotational Speed 4900 to 6200 Rpm

8.ROTARY CONVERTER

PT0400/750M

AIRCRAFT- MiG-27

The PTO-400/750M inverter is intended to change direct current characterized by the 27

V voltage into single phase alternating current characterized by the 115 V voltage and

1000 H frequency. It comprises of a DC Electric motor and a single phase AC contact

less generator sharing a common casing. The three phase permanent magnet AC

generator is also located in one of the end frames.

SPECIFICATIONS
Rated input voltage 27 V

Rotational speed 12000 Rpm

Input current 50 Amps.

OUTPUT PHASE SINGLE PHASE THREE PHASE

Voltage 115 V 37 V

Frequency 1000 V 1000 Hz

Power 240 V. A 380 V.A

9.STARTER GENERATOR

GSR 1240D

AIRCRAFT-MiG-27

This unit is fitted in the aero engine drive box. It is designed to operate in two modes. In

generator mode, it operates for feeding D.C. power to the aircraft and in motor mode it

operates as a series motor for starting the engine.

SPECIFICATIONS

GENERATOR MODE

Operating voltage 28.5 V D.C.

Output Power 12000 Watt

Current load 400 Amps.

Speed Range 4000 to 9000 RPM

MOTOR MODE

Voltage 24 +/- 1.5 Volt

Rotation Torque 5 kgf. m.

Consumption Current 750 Amps Max.

Rotation Speed 850 +/- 50 RPM

10.LINEAR ACTUATOR

VL13A4

AIRCRAFT-JAGUAR

The linear actuator VL13A4 is destined to operate the elevators trim. This actuator is

assembled with two motors and a differential planet gear arrangement which converts the

rotary motion of motor to linear motion. As the motors are bidirectional it assures a

progressive working in both the directions. For normal working of the unit only one

motor is energized at a time. The second motor is called the sub motor which works in

case of failure of main motor.

SPECIFICATIONS

Nominal Load 20 DaN

Maximum Load 40 DaN

Operating Voltage 18 V to 29 V
Stroke Length 44 +/-1.25 m

Motor RPM 25000

Rated Current 0.85 Amps

Power 5.2 Watt

11.VARIO ALTERNATOR

20210-23

AIRCRAFT-MIRAGE

This unit is meant for AC supply in the Mirage aircraft. The unit is coupled to the engine

through gear box. It has an inbuilt electro-mechanical speed drive mechanism that

maintains a constant Alternator rotational speed irrespective of gear box RPM thus

maintaining a constant output frequency and voltage. Functionally the unit is similar to

the Alternator for Jaguar but it has improved design features and better performance

parameters.

SPECIFICATIONS

Rated Power O/P 15 KW

O/P Power Factor 0.75 To 1

Output Voltage 200V (L-L), 115 V (L- N)

Output Frequency 400 Hz

Working RPM 4700 to 12000

12.VARIO ALTERNATOR
 12210-41

AIRCRAFT-JAGUAR

This unit meant for AC power supply in the Jaguar aircraft. The unit is coupled to the

engine through gear box. It has an inbuilt electromechanical speed drive mechanism that

maintains that maintains a constant Alternator rotational speed irrespective of gear box

RPM thus maintaining a constant output frequency and voltage. The unit is one of the

complicated units of the division as it. Comprises of 10 windings sub assemblies and 13

mechanical sub assemblies involving a total 543 components.

SPECIFICATIONS

Rated Power O/P 12KW

O/P Power Factor 0.75 To 1

Output Voltage 200 V (L-L), 115 V(L-N)

Output Frequency 400 Hz

Working RPM 3800 to 8000

13.Products in Current Manufacturing Range

The Engine Division at Koraput , a unit of HAL's vast network, has the unique

distinction of being one amongst the few Aero Engine manufacturers in the world.
The spectrum of manufacturing facilities extends literally from the production of nuts

and bolts to discs, shafts, blades, forgings and castings - all that are required to make an

Aero Engine right from the Raw materials.

This spectrum is further enlarged to include overhaul of Aero Engines for the MiG

family and supply of spares required during service.

13.1..AL-31 FP ENGINE

AL-31FP is a high temperature turbojet by-pass engine of mA specific feature of AL-

31FP is an axi-symmetric vectoring nozzle with a thrust vector angle of ±15° in the

vertical plane providing super maneuverability of the aircraft. The vectoring nozzle

control is integrated with the engine control system. AL-31FP engines ensure stable

operation in all available evolutions of the aircraft in super maneuverability modes. AL-

31FP engines power advanced multi-purpose Su-30 MKI fighters of the 4+ generation.

Fig13.1(AL-31 FP engine)

13.2.R25 engine
This is a Twin Spool, Axial Flow, Turbojet Engine fitted with After burner and a variable

area Jet nozzle. It powers the MiG-21 BiS multi-role Fighter Aircraft. The Engine has
provision for an emergency after burner thrust

boost which can be selected below 4.5km altitude

Fig.13.2(R25 engine)

13.3.R-29B engine
This Engine is a Twin spool, Axial flow Turbojet Engine incorporating After-burner

system and variable area Jet nozzle of convergent-divergent type. The Engine is equipped

with automatic Fuel regulation system, Turbo-starter, Anti-surge system, Temperature

controller, Constant speed drive for AC Generator and Two speed drive for Hydraulic

Pump. R-29B Engine powers MiG-27 M, a Multi-role Ground attack / Air combat

Aircraft.

Fig.13.3(R-29B engine)

13.4.Precision Components
The Division also produces precision components like: total gamut of Blades ranging

from Compressor Rotors and Stators to Turbine Blades and Nozzle Guide Vanes, intricate

Cored Magnesium Alloy Gear Casings, Compressor and Turbine Discs and Shafts, JIS

class-l/DlN 5 Spur, Helical Gears and DIN 6 straight and Hypoid / Spiral Bevel Gears

ranging from module 1 to 6.

Salient features

FEATURE R11Mfg R25Mfg R29B RD33O/H

Maximum dia. Mm 906 907 986 990

Length, mm 4600 4615 4992 4260

Dry Weight, kg 1126 1210 1772 1050

Max Reheat Thrust 6175 7100 11500 8300

Specific Fuel .99 .96 .94 .77

Fuel Reheat Mode 2.37 2.25 1.80 2.05

13.5.MANUFACTURING CAPABILITY

ADOUR MK 811 Jaguar Aircraft is powered by two Adour MK 804 / MK 811

Engines. MK 811 Engines are manufactured from 1981 under license from

RR/TM [ Rolls Royce Turbomeca ].

Adour MK 804 Engines are also overhauled and repaired under the above license.
 Adour Engine is a bypass Jet Engine of modular construction. The Adour has

two-stage low pressure and five-stage high pressure axial flow Compressors

which are driven by separate, single stage high pressure and low pressure

Turbines connected through co-axial shafts, with low pressure shaft passing

through high pressure shaft.

Main Characteristics

Intake Diameter (m) .564

Length (m) 2.90

Weight (kg) 794

Thrust 2500(dry) 3737(wet)

Specific fuel consumption (kg/kg-hr) .80

Fig.13.4.(ADOUR MK 811)

13.6.GARRETT 331 – 5
The Garrett TPE 331-5 Turbo prop Engine is being manufactured, overhauled and

repaired for various Customers under license from Garrett Engine Division of Honey

Well Company [earlier Allied Signal Aerospace Company, USA] since 1988 and belongs

to one of the most popular series of small Turbo prop Engines powering a large number

of Commuter and Corporate Aircraft such as Dornier DO-228.

It has a single shaft Centrifugal Compressor Engine rated at 715 shaft horse power at

1591 RPM output speed. Being a reverse flow Gas Turbine with a small frontal area, it

has better dry specifics and easier airframe integration. Apart from its simplicity of design

and superior performance, the engine features a propeller control system, anti-icing and

foreign object damage resistance, reverse thrust and negative torque sensing facilities.

The division is also an authorized service centre for Garrett TPE 331-5 series engines up

to - 12.
 Main Characteristics

Maximum diameter(m) 0.7

Length (m) 1.11

Weight (kg) 164

Power 715

Specific fuel consumption (kg/shp-hr) .268

Fig.13.5.(GARRETT331-5)

13.7.Artouste III B

Artouste III B Engine powers both Cheetah and Chetak Helicopters. Manufacture of the

Engine commenced in 1962 under license from Turbomeca, France.

The Engine has side air intake, one axial and one centrifugal compressor connected to a

three-stage Turbine. The power output is 550 SHP at 33500 RPM. The reduction Gearbox

in the front transfers the power to Helicopter. More than 665 Engines have been

manufactured and 2950 Engines overhauled and repaired for various Customers.

Main Characteristics
Maximum diameter (m) 0.50

Length (m) 1.815

Weight (kg) 182

Power 550

Specific fuel consumption (kg/shp-hr) 0.346

Fig13.6.(ARTOUSTEIIIB)

14.Potential for Overhaul and Repair

14.1.DART533 - 2 AND 536 - 2T

The Dart series of Engines were manufactured since 1966 under license from Rolls

Royce, UK. At present, these Engines are being repaired andoverhauled. Two Dart

Engines power HS-748 aircraft.

This engine has two-stage Centrifugal Compressors, three- stage Turbine and utilizes

water methanol injection to increase the shaft Horse Power.

Main Characteristics

Maximum Diameter (m) .960

Length (m) 2.490

Weight (kg) 628.6

Power (shp)

533-2 1835(dry)

1990(wet)

536-2T 1835(dry)

2040(wet)

Specific fuel consumption(kg/shp-hr) .348

Fig.14.1.(DART533-2 and 536-2T)

14.2.ORPHEUS 70105

Orpheus 70105, indigenously modified by HAL, is a derivative of Orpheus 701 at lower

rating and is the Power Plant for Kiran MK II Aircraftindigenously designed by HAL.

Main Characteristics

Maximum Diameter (m) 0.822

Length (m) 2.290

Weight (kg) 420

Thrust (kg) 1875

Specific fuel consumption (kg/shp-hr) 0.348

Fig.14.2.(ORPHEUS 70105)

14.3.AVON

Avon is a Turbo Jet Engine designed and developed by Rolls Royce and is being

overhauled / repaired under license at HAL from 1959. Avon MK 1 is used in Canberra

Trainer Aircraft. Avon MK 109 is used in Canberra Bomber and Avon MK 203 / 207

power the Hunter Fighter.

Main Characteristics

AVONMK_1 AVONMK-109 AVONMK203/207

Maximum diameter (m) 1.07 1.09 1.05

Length (m) 2.58 3.53 3.12

Weight (kg) 1006 1180 1310

Thrust (kg) 2955 3363 4613

Specific fuel consumption 0.94 0.95 0.98

(kg/kg-hr)

14.3.(AVON)

14.4.ADOUR MK 804 E

The Adour MK 804 Engine is being repaired and overhauled under license from Rolls

Royce, UK. This is similar in construction to the MK 811 engine.

Main Characteristics

Maximum diameter (m) 1.278

Length (m) 2.990

Weight (kg) 733

Thrust kg) 2343(dry) 3347(wet)

Specific fuel consumption(kg/kg-hr) 0.79

 Fig14.4.(ADOUR MK 804E)

14.5.Gnome 1400 – IT

The Gnome 1400 - IT engines being repaired and overhauled under license from Rolls

Royce, UK and is the Power Plant for Seaking Helicopter.

It is a Turbo shaft single spool with 10-stage Axial Compressor, two-stage turbine and

free power turbine.

Main Characteristics

Maximum diameter (m) 0.574

Length (m) 1.376

Weight (kg) 168

Power (shp) 1535

Specific fuel consumption(kg/shp-hr) 0.276

Figure 14.5.(GNOME 1400 IT)

15.PRODUCTS OF AEROSPACE DIVISION :

Aerospace Division is engaged in the manufacture of Aluminum alloy riveted structures

and welded tankages of conical, cylindrical and other shapes with different types of

detailed parts such as sheets, rings, brackets, stiffeners, bulkheads, panel bolts, nuts, rivets

etc. Some of the important structures manufactured are Heat Shield Assembly, Nose

Cone Assembly and Tank and Shrouds used in Satellites.

Fig15.1

15.1.PSLV:(Polar satellite launch vehicle)

No.of stages 4 stage rocket two solid and liquid stages with 6strap-on

motors

Orbit low earth polar orbit 900km

Mission inject 1000-1200kg class satellite(IRS) in polar orbit

15.2.GSLV:(geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle)-MKII

No. of stages 3 stage rocket with solid,liquid and cryo stages with four strap on

motors

Orbit geostationary orbit 36000km

Mission inject 2500kg satellite INSAT series in geosynchronous orbit

15.3.GSLV:(geosynchronous satellite launch vehicle)-MKIII

No. of stages Two stages with liquid and cryo stages and two strap on motors

Orbit geosynchronous orbit 36000km

Mission inject 4500-5000kg INSAT class satellite in geo synchronous orbit

15.4.INDIAN REMOTE SENSING SATELLITE

Mission Resource survey and management in the area of agriculture,

forestry, hydrology and snow melting.

Launch vehicle PSLV

Orbit Low earth polar orbit 900km

Life 5 years

15.5.INDIAN NATIONAL SATELLITE

Mission National telecommunication, TV Broadcasting and radio

Networking, meteorological observation satellite aided research

and rescue

launch vehicle GSLV

Orbit geostationary orbit 36000km

Life 7 years

16.Aviation fuel

Fig.16.1.(An aviation fuel truck)

Fig.16.2(underground fuel pipes)

At some airports, underground fuel pipes allow refueling without the need for tank trucks.

Trucks just carry the necessary hoses and pressure apparatus, but no fuel.
Aviation fuel is a specialized type of petroleum-based fuel used to power aircraft. It is

generally of a higher quality than fuels used in less critical applications such as heating or

road transport, and often contains additives to reduce the risk of icing or explosion due to

high temperatures, amongst other properties.

Most aviation fuels available for aircraft are kinds of petroleum spirit used in engines

with spark plugs i.e. piston engines and Wankel rotaries or fuel for jet turbine engines

which is also used in diesel aircraft engines. Alcohol, alcohol mixtures and other

alternative fuels may be used experimentally but are not generally available.

Avgas is sold in much lower volumes, but to many more individual aircraft, whereas Jet

fuel is sold in high volumes to large aircraft operated typically by airlines, military and

large corporate aircraft.

The Convention on International Civil Aviation, which came into effect in 1947,

exempted air fuels from tax. Australia and the USA oppose a worldwide levy on aviation

fuel, but a number of other countries have expressed interest.

Avgas

Avgas is a high-octane fuel used for aircraft and racing cars. The term Avgas is a

portmanteau for aviation gasoline, as distinguished from mogas (motor gasoline), which

is the everyday petroleum spirit used in cars. Avgas is typically used in aircraft that use

reciprocating or wankel engines.

Jet fuel

Jet fuel is a clear to straw colored fuel, based on either an unleadedparaffin oil (Jet A-1),

or a naphtha-kerosene blend (Jet B). It is similar to diesel fuel, and can be used in either

compression ignition engines or turbine engines.

In use

Fig.16.3.(Aviation fuel storage tanks)

Aviation fuel is often dispensed from a tanker or bowser which is driven up to parked

aeroplanes and helicopters. Some airports have pumps similar to filling stations that

aircraft must taxi up to. Some airports also have permanent piping to parking areas for

large aircraft.

Regardless of the method, aviation fuel is transferred to an aircraft via one of two

methods: overwing and underwing. Overwing fuelling is used on smaller planes,

helicopters, and all piston-engine aircraft. Overwing fuelling is similar to car fuelling —

one or more fuel ports are opened and fuel is pumped in with a conventional pump.

Underwing fuelling, also called single-point, is used on larger aircraft and for jet fuel

exclusively. For single-point fuelling, a high-pressure hose is attached and fuel is pumped

in at 40 PSI and a max of 45 PSI. Anything higher needs to be stopped for it can cause

damage to the wings. Since there is only one attachment point, fuel distribution between

tanks is either automated or it is controlled from a control panel at the fuelling point or in

the cockpit. As well, a dead man's switch is used to control fuel flow.
Because of the danger of confusing the fuel types, a number of precautions are taken to

distinguish between AvGas and Jet Fuel beyond clearly marking all containers, vehicles,

and piping. AvGas is treated with either a red, green, or blue dye, and is dispensed from

nozzles with a diameter of 40 millimetres (49 millimetres in the USA). The aperture on

fuel tanks of piston-engined aircraft cannot be greater than 60 millimetres in diameter. Jet

Fuel is clear to straw in colour, and is dispensed from a special nozzle called a "J spout"

that has a rectangular opening larger than 60 millimetres in diameter so as not to fit into

AvGas ports. However, some jet and turbine aircraft, such as some models of the Astar

helicopter, have a fuelling port too small for the J spout and thus require a smaller nozzle

to be installed in order to be refuelled efficiently.

Energy content

The net energy content for aviation fuels depends on their composition. Some typical

values are:

 BP Avgas 80, 44.65MJ/kg, density at 15 C is 690 kg/m3

 Kerosene type BP Jet A-1, 43.15MJ/kg, density at 15 C is 804 kg/m3

 Kerosene type BP Jet TS-1, (for lower temperatures) 43.2MJ/kg, density at 15 C

is 787 kg/m3

Chemical composition

Aviation fuels consist of blends of over a thousand chemicals, primarily Hydrocarbons

(paraffins, olefins, naphthenes, and aromatics) as well as additives such as antioxidants

and metal deactivators, and impurities. Principal components include n-octane and
isooctane. Like other fuels, blends of Aviation fuel used in piston engined aircraft are

often described by their Octane rating.

Safety precautions

Fig.16.4.(A British AirwaysAirbus A321 being refuelled.)

Any fuelling operation can be very dangerous, and aviation fuelling has a number of

unique characteristics which must be accommodated. As an aircraft flies through the air,

it can accumulate a charge of static electricity. If this is not dissipated before fuelling, an

electric arc can occur which may ignite fuel vapours. To prevent this, aircraft are

electrically bonded to the fuelling apparatus before fuelling begins, and are not

disconnected until fuelling is complete. Some regions require that the aircraft and/or fuel

truck be grounded as well.

Aviation fuel can cause severe environmental damage, and all fuelling vehicles must

carry equipment to control fuel spills. In addition, fire extinguishers must be present at

any fuelling operation, and airport firefighting forces are specially trained and equipped

to handle aviation fuel fires and spills. Aviation fuel must be checked daily and before

every flight for contaminants such as water or dirt.

Many airlines now require that safety belts be left unfastened should passengers be

aboard when refuelling happens.

Dyes for the fuel are required in some countries:

Country Fuel Dye

Worldwide Aviation gasoline 80/87 red dye

Worldwide Aviation gasoline 82UL purple dye

Worldwide Aviation gasoline 100LL blue dye

Worldwide Aviation gasoline 100/130 green dye

Fig.16.5.(A Carson HelicoptersS-61N Fire King being

refueled during firefighting operations in Southern River, Western Australia)

 REFERENCES

 www.wikipedia.com

 www.hindustanaeronauticslimited.com

 www.ethanolmt.org