PRACTICAL HYDRAULICS,

PRACTICAL HYDEAULICS:
A SEEIES
OF

EULES AND TABLES

FOR

THE USE OF ENGINEERS,

ETC.,

ETC.

BY

THOMAS BOX,
Of 'PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HEAT-'
'

MILL-GEARING,' ETC.

SECOND EDITION.

E.

&

F.

N.

LONDON: SPON, 48, CHAKING

1870.

CEOSS.

LONDON: PRINTED BT w. CLOWES AND SONS, STAJIFOUD STREET AND CHARING CROSS.

PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION.

IN preparing a Second Edition of Practical Hydraulics considerable alterations and additions have been made. To facilitate
'

'

work has been divided into Chapters ; additional Rules for Culverts and other subjects have been given, including several new Tables, and an increased number of Illustrations.
reference, the

These alterations were so considerable, that

introduce

it

was found neces-

sary to re-write the whole, and thus opportunity was given to

much new and

valuable information, which,

it

is

hoped, will increase the usefulness of the work.

BATH,

July, 1870.

PEEFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.

THE
leave

reader must not expect, in this

little

book, an exhaustive
written,

treatise

on Hydraulics

many such have been

and they

little

or nothing to be desired.

This work consists of

a series of Kules and Tables, giving unusual facility for the solution of questions which occur in the daily practice of
Engineers.

For the two leading questions

of

the Discharge of Pipes, and

Open Channels

two

sets of

Tables are given, the reason for

VI

PREFACE.

which may not be obvious

but

it is

impossible to give Tables

combining extreme facility with extreme accuracy for low heads, and the author has therefore given two Tables, one giving accurate results in all ordinary cases with the least possible labour,

and the other giving, with more labour, exact

results in extreme

For the most part the Rules and Tables have been long used
in an extensive practice, and the principal reason for publishing

them

is

the author's desire that the profession from which he

has retired

may have

the benefit of Tables, &c., which for

many

years have been very useful to himself.

EASEDALE, GRASMERE,
July, 1867.

CONTENTS.

CHAPTER

I.

ON THE DISCHARGE

OF APERTURES, PIPES, &c.

PAGE
1 1

Velocity of Efflux

Discharge by an Orifice in a Thin Plate by Short Tubes

Friction of

3 4
18 19

Long Pipes

for Velocity of Entry Bends, loss of Head by

Head

Compound Water-mains, Discharge

Effect of Contour of Section

of

22 24 27 28 29

Special Cases,

Examples

of

Delivery and Suction-pipes to

Service-pipes in

Pumps

Towns
Pipes
Velocities,

General Laws

for

30

Head

for

very

Low

by Prony's Formula
..

31

Square and Eectangular Pipes Effect of Corrosion or Bust in Pipes

34 35

CHAPTER
Discharge of Jets
Jets at the

II.

ON FOUNTAINS,

JETS, &c.
37 40 40 43

Height of Jets with given Heads

End

of

Long Mains

Path of Fountain Jets Ornamental Jets

. .

47

CHAPTER
Head'due
to

III.

ON CANALS, CULVERTS, AND WATER-COURSES.

48 49 50 54 55

Open Water-courses Open Channels overcome Friction in Long Channels

to Velocity in

River Channels of irregular Cross-section Openings of Bridges

Vlll

CONTENTS.

Submerged Openings
Discharge of Oval Culverts

55
57
Eytelwein's Formula

Head

for very

Low

Velocities
. .

57
61

Case of a Mill-stream

CHAPTER
Weirs, Discharge and

IV.

ON WEIRS, OVERFLOW-PIPES,
of

&c.
63 66
67

Form

Effect of Thickness of Crest on the Discharge of Velocity of Approach on

Correction for Short Weirs

Overflow-pipes to Tanks
to Fountains

/f.

..

..

67 69
71

Common

..

..71

CHAPTER

V. ON THE STRENGTH AND PROPORTIONS OF WATER-PIPES RAINFALL, &c., &c.

72 73 75 76 78 78 79
80

Strength of Thick Pipes by Barlow's Eule, &c

Thin Proportions and Weights

Strength of Lead Pipes

of Cast-iron Socket-pipes

of Flange-pipes

Power

of Horses, &c., in raising

Water

Rainfall

Heavy Rains
of

Rain-water Tanks

Weight and Pressure

Water

PEACTICAL HYDKAULICS.

CHAPTEK
"
(1.)

I.

DISCHARGE OF APERTURES, PIPES, &C.

Velocity of Efflux"

The

velocity with

issues

from the side of a

vessel, as at

A, Fig.

1, is

which water the same as

that of a

body falling freely by gravity from the height H, or the distance from the centre of the orifice to the surface of the
water.

This velocity

is

given by the rule

V
In which

VH X

8
feet,

the height or head of water in

and

the

From this we may obtain another velocity in feet per second. rule giving the discharge in gallons, which becomes
:

#X
In which

16-3

the head of water in feet, d

the diameter of

= gallons discharged per minute. the orifice in inches, and Table 1 has been calculated by this rule. These rules give the theoretical velocity and discharge ; for

application to practice, they may require some modification to adapt them to the particular form of the orifice.
it has been (2.) "Discharge ~by an Orifice in a Thin Plate" found by experiment that, when the discharging orifice is made in a thin plate, the converging currents of water approaching

the aperture cause a contraction in the issuing stream, so that instead of a parallel or cylindrical jet, it becomes a conical one
of the form

shown by Fig.

2,

the greatest contraction being at

THEORETICAL DISCHARGE OF APERTURES.

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CO 1><N CO <M CXI t^ :O GO r-i HH 00 CO rH rH rH CN

<

CN GO OS IO IO

rHCOO

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<N CO GO <M

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r-HOOOlOO

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DISCHARGE BY SHORT TUBES.

the point C, whoso distance from the plate is half the diameter of the orifice, and its diameter '784, that of the orifice being 1. The form from B to C may be taken as a curve, whose radius is
1

22 times the diameter of the

orifice.

rule gives the maximum velocity, or that at the point of greatest contraction C, and if the diameter be taken there, the rules would give the true velocity and dis-

Now, the foregoing

charge without correction.

But

it is

obvious that the velocity

at the aperture itself (or at B) would be less than at C in the 2 s ratio of the respective areas at the two points, or as 1 to 784

the velocity there would become

or 1 to *615, and in that case, the diameter being taken at B, = </H X 8 x 615 and the

discharge

G=

VH X

16'3

'615.
:

From

this

we

get

for apertures in a thin plate, the rules

G=

VI X

dz
_

10

Y xio; G
Thus, with 3 inches diameter and 16 feet head, the discharge VT6 X 32 x 10, or 4 x 9 x 10 = 360 gallons per

would be
minute.

The head

for

150 gallons per minute with 2 inches

diameter

= (-

=14-06

feet;

and the diameter for 200

gallons per minute with 20 feet head would be

2 ll inches, &c., &c.
f

(777^ xy:' *! X
1

JLv//

)*

When the aperture is of (3.) "Discharge by Short Tubes" considerable thickness, or has the form of a short tube, not less in length than twice the diameter, the amount of contraction is
found to be
less, and the discharge greater, than with a thin plate. 3 a tube 1 inch diameter and 2 inches long; the shows Fig. greatest contraction is in that case 9 inch diameter, and its proB 2

FRICTION OF LONG PIPES.

portional area 9 = 81, or say 8 of the area of the tube. short tubes therefore the rules become
2
:

For

VHX

13
;

Table 2 has been calculated by these rules thus, for a 7-inch pipe discharging 450 gallons, the Table shows that the head
necessary to generate the velocity at entry is 6 inches ; this is irrespective of friction, which, in fact, for so short a tube as the rule supposes, would be practically nothing. This Table applies to all cases of pipes ; for instance, Fig. 4 shows the inlet end of
a main from a reservoir, which will require for the velocity at entry alone the amount of head shown by the Table. When, as
is

usually the case, the pipe

to friction

is

of considerable length, the head

due

must

also be allowed for.

" Friction of Long Pipes" With a long pipe there is not the loss of head due to the velocity at entry, but also only another loss due simply to the friction of the water against the
(4.)

sides of the pipe, so that in all cases the head

:

consumed may be

considered as composed of two portions one, the amount due to velocity of entry, irrespective of friction and the other, the
;

amount due

Thus, in Fig. 8 the head li gives a certain velocity of discharge by the short pipe A but to give the same velocity in the long main B C, the head H' is necessary, of which Ji is consumed in generating the velocity at entry,
to friction alone.
;

being the same as for A, and the rest, or H, in the friction of the long pipe the total head is, of course, the sum of the two. The loss of head by friction may be calculated by the (5.)
:

following rules

/
\

DISCHARGE BY SHORT TUBES.

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tO 05 rH -H

1-HrHrH

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-r<

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**<

l^

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O
IO rH

O
?N 35

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HH ?l I- CO -H

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fo -O

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(M CO

1O CO

CO 'O

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rH

t-'O rH O

'Op' CO t>

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i-l

O CN O O CO tO O to
CN CN CO CO
T*H

<N * GO <N l> CO rH

W5 tO

X (N

O CO CO t> -H
^

tO tO O5 O5 tO CO <M Th HH tO CO

'

O O

COOOCOC5 * (N O CO-1-"-H-HC5 CO COOOCOrH rHl

rHfMIMCO'*
lO

93

SS82S

Thl

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H-l

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rH GO GO (N rH GO GO tO CQ <N GO tO (N C5 tO (N rH C5

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tO

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O 'O CM rH
OO O (N tO rH
CO tO
!>

(N tN rH CO -f GO C^ CO tO tO CO to rH

<NiO"H-fb- tOOSCOtO lOHH(Mt> <M rH 10 rHCN<N<MCO

i
i

OSOtOOOOO
.

ICTH ~

JbCOCOOOl CM-^COCOrH tOOfHCN T^C5<MO(N C5GOt^-O5

rHr-l^NCMCO
COTtllOQO

O tO HH lO <M

GO

'tl

CM O5 T^

GO rH (N GO

-HHCO C5 tO CN rH <M

<MOO^t>O
COCO
tO tO
.
.

lOCOO'OrH OtMCiO CNOt^tOCO GOlOCTiCO (M

CO CO

rHr-H<MCN<MCOTHlOCO

O CO Ci

tO

(M

TfH
.

OO CO rH
i

10 t-

rH GO rH CO CO TH 10 tO GO

OO

(N tO CO rH rH rH rH CXI

O
rtH

t>

^ ^ QQ (MCOrHtOt^
10 co

OCOrHO5(N

rH GO rH rH rH rH <N

TH CO GO O5 O5
rH rH rH (N

(M CO

(N CO CO <N to en co rH (N CO "* 1C

oO
i
i

.a -a

o a

FRICTION OF LONG PIPES.

L=
G
L =

In these rules d = diameter of the pipe in inches.

H
G

length in yards.

= head of water in feet. = gallons per minute.

:

thus, to find the discharge 45 feet head, we have

:

These rules require the use of logarithms to work them easily by a 7-inch pipe 3797 yards long with
7

= 21 = 1-322219
5

6-611095

X 45 = 1-653213
8-264308
-f-3797:= 3-579441

2)4-684867

2-342433 = 220 gallons per minute.

Again, to find the head necessary to discharge 320 gallons per

minute by an 8-inch pipe 3457 yards long, we have

320 = 2-505150
o

5-010300

X 3457 = 3-538699
8-548999
8 x 3

= 24 = 1-380211 x

= 6-901055
1-647944

= 44 -46

feet head.

And again,

to find the diameter for 110 gallons per minute with 56 feet head, the length being 273 yards, we have
:

FRICTION OF LONG PIPES.

110 = 2-041393
2

4-082786

X 273 = 2-436163
6-518949
-5-56

= 1-748188
5)4-770761
g and - = 3 inches diameter,

954152 =

9,

o
rules,

Table 3 has been calculated by these

and will greatly

facilitate the calculation of pipe questions, it also

has the great of rules of arithmetic. the advantage simple requiring only In the Table (6.) 1st. Having G, L, and d given, to find H.

number of gallons, and under the given diameter, is found the head due to a length of one yard, and multiplying that number by the given length in yards, gives 'the Thus, taking our former illusrequired head of water in feet.
opposite the given

head to deliver 320 gallons per minute by an 8-inch pipe 3457 yards long opposite 320 gallons in the Table, and under 8 inches diameter, is -01286 feet, and -01286 x
tration in (5), the

3457 = 44-46
(7.)

feet,

the head sought.

2nd.

given head the nearest number thereto in the Table opposite the given number of gallons will be found under the required diameter.

Divide the find d, having H, L, and given. of water in feet by the given length in yards, and

To

Thus, to

find,

the diameter for 110 gallons per minute with 56

H
/

feet head, the length being

273 yards, we have ^=^- = 2ii o

205, look-

ing for which in the Table opposite 110 gallons we find it under 3 inches, the diameter sought (see 5). Again, to find the dia-

meter for 320 gallons, 20 feet head, and 1600 yards long, we 20 = -0125, the nearest number to which, in the Table have Ibuu In is found under 8 inches, the diameter sought.

(01286)

most cases the tabular number will not be the exact number

HEAD FOR FRICTION OF LONG

PIPES.

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I

O OOOOOO
I

00 OS CO rH CO 1C 31 rH IO CO -* IO CO CM -+l O GO rH r-l
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i
I

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HEAD FOB FRICTION OF LONG

-H

PIPES.

t-~

CO

CO 00 rH IO rH

gS-CO
O5
rH

2S!

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rH IO CO I> CO

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I

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GO CO >O rH cb cb 05 CM CO CO CO rH

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rH l> CM

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CM

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3<l

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'

'

O O rH CM
CM CM

10

HEAD FOR FRICTION OF LONG

CO OS "O CO CO
i

PIPES.

l>t^COCOOS OO O O OOOOO r-I'MtN ppppp O ppppp ppppp pppp pop

i
I

CD O 1C rH (OOiOO O O CD rH t> rH rH Oi
"+l

"H

r-H

rH

OS 00 OS rH -H <M CO -H r-i r^ <M CM CO T* -H rH ,-H rH rH rH

OS 1C CO <M CO I- -H CD CD t^ rH rH r-< rH

-fl

COCOOO
CO rH

<M

rHl>O5COt>

-*l

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rH rH rH 00 OS

CO CO CO CO
i

O
rH

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12

HEAD FOB FRICTION OF LONG

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14

HEAD FOR FRICTION OF LONG

PIPES.

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16
desired,

FRICTION OF LONG PIPES.

which will only show that the exact diameter is an odd But by the former rule in (6), this can be easily checked thus, in our case, the true head for an 8-inch pipe would be -01286 x 1600 = 20-57 feet instead of 20 feet but, of course, in most cases 8 inches is
size between the standard ones in the Table.
;

near enough for practice.

(8.)

3rd.

To

given head of water in

nearest
will be

find G, having H, L, and d given. Divide the feet by the given length in yards, and the

number thereto in the Table, under the given diameter, found opposite the required number of gallons. Thus, to find the discharge of a 7-inch pipe 3797 yards long with 45
feet head, see (5),

we have
oi y
i

= 01185; and looking for this

under 7 inches diameter, we find

discharge sought.

it opposite 220 gallons, the Again, for the discharge of a 10-inch pipe

3000 yards long with 40

feet head,

we have

40

= -01333;

and the nearest number to that we 580 gallons, the discharge sought.
(9.) 4th.

find to be

01384 opposite

To find L, having H, G, and d given. Divide the head by the head for one yard found in the Table under given the given diameter, and opposite the given number of gallons,
and the
result is the required length. Thus, to determine the length of 4-inch pipe to consume 12 feet head with 130 gallons per minute, we find under 4 inches and opposite 130 gallons 12 = 176 yards, the 0679 the head for one yard, and hence
*

Ub7y

length sought.
a needless extension of the Table, we have (10.) To avoid given only the principal numbers from 1 to 90, and from 1000 to 100,000 gallons, leaving the intervening numbers to be supIn order to do this, plied from the body of the general Table.
it

should be observed that the head varies as the square of the

discharge, so that, for instance, ten times any given discharge will require 100 times the head, &c., &c. Thus, with 100 gala 5-inch that shows the Table lons, pipe requires -01317 foot

FEICTION OF LONG PIPES.

17

head per yard,

tlien

01317

x 100=
foot.

1000 gallons the head would be 01317 1-317 foot; and with 10 gallons T-- =
with
.

10(J

0001317

in practice is

application of this principle to any case very simple say we require the head for 33
:

The

Not finding 33 gallons with a 2|-inch pipe 600 yards long. in take for is 4 '589, the we the head which Table, 330, gallons
therefore for 33 gallons
it

will be -

-04589.

This may

be checked by the skeleton Table, which shows that 30 gallons require '03792, and 40 gallons -06742 foot; so that -04589 looks about right for 33 gallons. Then the head required in our case is -04589 x 600 = 27-534 feet.
Again, say we required the head for 2800 gallons with a 15-inch pipe 500 yards long. Here we must take the head for 280 gallons from the Table, which is -0004248: for 2800
gallons, therefore, or 10

times the quantity, we should have -0004248 x 100 = -04248 foot. Checking this by the skeleton Table we find -0487 foot for 3000 gallons, showing that -04248 foot for 2800 gallons is about right. Hence the head sought = 21-24 feet. is, in our case, -04248 x 500 The same principle may be applied when the discharge is the

unknown quantity

thus, to find the discharge of a 2 J-inch pipe,

feet head,

700 yards long with 17

we have

-^ 700

-02428,

gallons
the

which, by the skeleton Table, is somewhere between 20 and 30 now, looking in the body of the Table between 200
:

and 300 gallons for the same figures (neglecting altogether for

moment the position of the decimal place) we find that the nearest to 2428 is 2427, which is opposite 240 gallons ; 24 gallons is therefore the true discharge. Again, to find the discharge
of a pipe 1^-inch diameter, 200 yards long, with 4 5 feet head,

we have - - = -0225, which, by Table, ^500

is

between 6 and 7

gallons ; now, looking between 600 and 700 gallons, we find the nearest to be 222 opposite 640 gallons, and as we know that o

18

HEAD FOR VELOCITY OF ENTRY IN

PIPES.

the true discharge is between 6 and 7 gallons, exact quantity is 6 4 gallons, &c., &c.

we

infer that the

(11.) The 3rd illustration in (8) for finding G may be extended so as to give a useful general view of the discharge of different sized pipes with the same length and head. Thus, we found the tabular number for 3000 yards long and 40 feet head
*

40 ke O f\r\f\ ~ '01333, and looking for this successively under ouUU

different diameters

we

find that

A
53
33

6-inch pipe discharges 160 gallons per minute 235 7 35 33

35

8 Q **

53

33

330 440 1-XV

580 900

,,

,,10 ,,12
(12.)

&c.

"Head for

Velocity of Entry."

To

the head thus found

to velocity of entry has in all cases to be added, as explained in (4). When the pipe is of the common form, with square edges, as in Figs. 3 and 4, Table 2 gives the head for velocity direct. For very long pipes

by the preceding

rules

and Table, that due

this is so small in proportion to the

head due to

friction, that it

may in such cases be neglected, and we have omitted it for that reason in the preceding illustrations ; thus, we found in (5) and in (6) that with 320 gallons, by an 8-inch pipe 3457 yards long,
the head due to friction alone was 44 46 feet.
will be seen that the

By Table 2 it head for velocity at entry is rather less than 2 inches, so that in such a case it may be neglected. But when a pipe is very short, the head due to velocity may be much greater than that due to friction, and the most serious errors may be made by neglecting it. Say we had an 18-inch 3000 20 gallons. By Table 3 the yards long, discharging pipe, friction is '0196 x 20 = -392 foot; and the head due to velocity by Table 2 is 6 inches, or 5 foot, being more than that due to *5 = -892 foot. friction; so that the total head is '392 a short the head is given and with pipe, very (13.) When, the discharge has to be calculated, the case does not admit of a

LOSS OF

HEAD BY BENDS.

10
tell

simple direct solution, because

we cannot

beforehand in

what proportions the total head at disposal has to be divided between overcoming friction and generating velocity. We must for such cases, apply a useful general law (27), which may be " The stated as follows discharge by any pipe, or series of pipes, " and conversely, is proportional to the square root of the head ; " The head is proportional to the square of the discharge ;" and
:

these laws are true in pipes with bends, jets, contractions, &c. Thus, say we require the discharge of a 12-inch pipe 5 yards

long with 10 feet head. Assume a discharge, it is unimportant whether the assumed discharge is near the true quantity or not, or whether it is too much or too little. Say, in our case, we

1000 gallons per minute, then by Table 3 the head is -01653 x 5 = '08265 foot, and the head for velocity is, by Table 2, about 4 inches, or 333 foot, making a total of -08265 -j- -333 = -41565 foot, instead of 10 feet, the head at disposal. Then applying the law just given, we have
take
it

at

for friction

1000
,

x VTO

_ __ V- 41565
this case the

1000x3-162 = 4905

gallons.

Now,

if

head due to velocity had been neglected, the

dis-

-charge by Table 3 would be o

is

2'

11,000 gallons, which

more than double the true discharge. The Table 2 gives the due greatest possible facility for making the calculations of head to velocity, which should never be overlooked in cases where
the pipe
"
is short.

Loss of Head by Bends" There is another source of loss (14.) of head in pipes namely, change of direction, or bends. The best formula for calculating this loss is that of Weisbach,

which may be modified into the following

..{. and V

20

LOSS OF

HEAD BY BENDS.

In which

= = E= = V=
r
</>

the head due to change of direction, in inches. radius of the bore of the pipe, in inches.
radius of the centre line of the bend, in inches. angle of bend, in degrees.
velocity of discharge, in feet per second.

Thus, say we require the loss of head by a bend of 9 inches radius in a 6-inch pipe, discharging 800 gallons per minute, with

an angle of 55.

62

6-inch pipe containing roughly

1 2

oU
I
*

gallon per foot run, the velocity of discharge will be

2t

x oU

11 1 feet per second. 3

J

To

find f

V,

or in our case

we have

-3333.

Then

the log. of -3333

=T- 522835
7

2)4-659845

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71

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IQl^-OCOOC<IOOO(7<I
r-lr-((M CO CO -H CO

<N

O 00 CO (M

OiC5C5-fl
<M -H -H

OO O 'fr (COC5
<?3

HH CO QO CO

CO^IOCO
7-1

JT!^ -;=! rH rH Ci
-" Ci

HH CO CM HH QO CO rH CO CO HI CO IQ CM TK CO Ci CM Ci

OOO

rHCit^l>CO CNTjHGOCOO
Oit^CO(M |>-OrH(M
rH-^Ht^rH

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l>

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hI

CO rH CO CO -H

rHCOHHOi

^GOt-Oi

-ti

COt^-OCO rH CO Ci O5(MI>rH
i

OO

Ci Ci CO CO CM Ci "O CO CO CO CM t^ rH CO TH CO CO rH CO

OO

rH rH (M

rHO-*t> HH(MO<MO t>OC<lCD lO'tlt^COCO CO HH O n COCDOHH Ci 1O rH CO "f COt-"OO rH

rH CM CO CO IQ CO CM <M CO <M CO CO rH rH CO Ci CO rH

OO

CM Th CO CO

O CM

CO HH CO QO (M

t> <M CO
i

(CMCMCOr^

"*t

Ci

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t>
t> GO Ci CO

HH t> CO O CM HH CO O Ci "f CM rH CM rH CM CO O t> Ci rH

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CD CO -H CO CO

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i
I

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l> O co co 1O HH 1O

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HH t> CO rfH rH l> CO rH rH IO CO rH *H t> HH

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rH CM CO HH IO CO

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Ci HH

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t--

CO TH CM CO

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t>

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OrHOCM rH CM CO
CO CO

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rHOOrHCO

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t> t^ t> "O
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i
I

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!l!l

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22

DISCHARGE OF COMPOUND WATER-MAINS.

head when passing nearly the same quantity, or 1950 gallons, and these, it should be observed, are the heads due simply to change of direction, and do not include the head due to velocity or to friction. Thus, for instance, if the quick 8-inch bend had a length of one yard, the head for friction by Table 3 (say for 2000 gallons) would be '5 foot, and the head for
velocity at entry

by the rule in
feet.

(3),

namely

=
J

H is

1950
(

\2
J

= 5-48

Thus we have a

total for

such a

bend of

. j Q feet for

change of direction,

for friction,
for velocity at entry,
total.

5-48
6-98,,
that each

Again, in a 6-inch pipe carrying 800 gallons, the Table shows

common bend causes a loss of 1^ inches head, and each quick bend a loss of 5 inches, &c. The Table is arranged for bends of 90, or quarter bends, as they are technically named, but it is applicable to any other angle, for the loss of
head same
is
;

simply proportional to the angle, the radius being the

thus, a half-quarter

circle,

bend of 45, or one-eighth part of a consumes half the head of a bend of 90, and a bend of
circle, takes double, &c., &c.

180, or half a
"
(15.)

Discharge of Compound Water-mains." When a long main is composed of pipes of different sizes, as is very frequently the case, the head for each must be separately calculated, and
the

sum total taken. Thus, if we required 300 gallons per minute through a main 1200 yards long, composed of 800 yards of 7-inch, 300 yards of 6-inch, and 100 yards of 5-inch pipe, the head would be
By Table
3.

300 gaUons 7-inch = -022

6

= =

x 800 = 17 -Q feet head x 300 = 14-28 -1185 X 100 = 11-85

-0476

43-73
If there were bends in the pipes

total.

we must add

the head for

DISCHARGE OF COMPOUND WATER-MAINS.

23

them from Table

4,

but

it

will be found, as in the case of head

for velocity, see (12), that with long very small. Say we had

mains the

effect

of bends

is

4 common bends in the 7-inch, each |-inch head =

3 quick 2 common 2 quick 7
6

inch
li
1

= = =

4 common
3 quick

5 5

-J.

=2
= 4
Total 10^ inches.

1^

is

Thus, even for such a large number of bends, the loss of head only 1CKV inches, or 875 of a foot so that the total loss is 43-73+ :875 = 44 -605 feet.
* ;

(16.) When, with such a series of pipes the head is given, and the discharge has to be determined, the case does not admit of a direct solution, because we cannot tell beforehand in what

proportions the given head must be divided among the different must in that case follow the course explained in (13) pipes.

We

the discharge with 30 feet head by a main thus, 2000 yards long, composed of 1200 yards of 8-inch pipe with four common bends in it ; 700 yards of 6-inch pipe and three

say we required

bends

and 100 yards of 5-inch pipe, with two common and two The first thing to be done is to assume a disand the head for that, as was done in the last calculate charge, example it is unimportant whether the assumed discharge is
;

quick bends.

near the true quantity or not.

Say in our case we take

it at

400

gallons.

Then
By
Table
3.

Length.

Feet

400 gallons 8-inch pipe = -02

6

-085
-21

x 1200 = 24-0 head x 700 = 59-5 x 100 = 2^0

,
,

Carried forward

104 '5

24

EFFECT OF CONTOUR OF SECTION ON WATER-MAINS.

Brought forward
Inch.

..

104 '5

feet

Inch.

Inch.

4
3 2

common bends

in 8 each
6

B
5

2 quick

x 4 = % head 3 = X i f X 2 = If 3 x 2 = 6
$

9J-

-8 foot
feet.

Total 105 -3

Thus we

find that for

instead of 30 feet,

we have

<tM
V105-3
sought.
II.

400 gallons we require 105 3 feet head then by the rule in (13) the head given
;

or

= 213 $^400 10-26

the real

discharge

Further illustrations will be found in

Chapter
(17.)

" The contour of the secEffect of Contour of Section tion of the line of pipes is a matter of some importance. The best

"

when the pipe is of uniform diameter from end to end, of course, a uniform slope throughout. This, however, can is, rarely be obtained, the pipe having to follow the contour of the
condition,

If a number of open-topped pipes were in9. serted anywhere along the main, as at A, B, C, D, &c., the water would rise in them to the level of the oblique line J K, which

ground, as in Fig

in the case of a pipe of the same bore from end to end, would be a straight line as shown ; this line is termed the hydraulic mean
vertical distance from any point in that line E) to the level line K M, will give the head for friction between E and K, and the vertical distance from the same point to the level line J L will give the friction between E and J we have here supposed, of course, that the figure is correctly drawn to scale.
gradient.

Now, the

(say the top of

(18.)

When,

as in Fig. 11, the pipes are of different diameters,

then each would have

its own gradient, showing at every point the loss of head due to that particular pipe as in the figure. No loss of effect will arise from the pipe following the section of

the ground, so long as the contour of the pipe does not anywhere Thus, in along the line rise above the hydraulic mean gradient.

EFFECT OF CONTOUR OF SECTION ON WATER-MAINS.

25

Fig. 9, where the ground is much broken, but does not anywhere rise above the gradient, the discharge will be the same as by a

pipe with a uniform slope.

if, as in Fig. 10, a hill, as at B, rises higher than the the pipe from C to D will be in a state of partial then gradient, vacuum, air will be given out by the water, and will accumulate

(19.)

But

at the

summit, and being driven forward by the water from

to G, occupyto B, will remain permanently in the pipe from ing the upper part of the pipe while the water trickles down the

lower part as in a trough or open channel, and the vertical head

from

to

is

lost,

the hydraulic gradient being

now from

A to B,
The

to B, or at the same angle with the horizon. discharge at F will therefore be, not the amount due to the head E, F on the length A, F, but that due to the head E, B on the length A, B.

from to that from

to G,

and from

to F, this last being parallel

uniform (20.) In this case the size of the pipe should not be from end to end from A to B it should be of large diameter, so as to deliver at B the required quantity with the head E, B ; and the pipe from B to F may be of smaller diameter, so as to deliver the same quantity at F with the head H, F. Say we take a case with the length A, F = 5000 yards, and head E, F = 90 feet, and that the length A, B = 2400 yards, and the head E, B = 10 feet, and that 500 gallons were required at F. With 90 = 018, which, by Table 3, uniform slope we should have oOOO is a 9-inch pipe, or rather less, for a 9-inch pipe would deliver 500 But for the delivery gallons with -01742 x 5000 = 87-1 feet.
:

at

B with 10 feet head, and a 9-inch pipe, we have

= 004167,
*

which by Table = 245 gallons only, instead of 500 and, of course, this is all we should get at F with such an arrangement, for whatever the size of the rest t)f the pipe from B to F might
;

be, it could not deliver

more than
should be

it

received

by the pipe A, B.

The pipe from A

to

~- =

004167, by Table 3

26

EFFECT OF CONTOUR OF SECTION ON WATER-MAINS.

a 12-inch pipe

and the pipe from

to

F may

80
be

03077 = an 8-inch pipe by Table.

results thus
:

We may
Length.

check these
Head.

By Table 3.

12-inch pipe, 500 gallons 8 500

= -00413 x 2400 = 9-912 = -0314 x 2600 - 81-64

Total 91-552

feet

Thus we
practice.

find the exact

at disposal, but in

head to be a little more than the head most cases the agreement is near enough for

When a long main is composed of different sizes of and pipes passes over uneven ground, the best course is to draw the gradients on the section of the pipes so as to see at a glance that none of the hill-tops rise above them. Fig. 11 is a case in which, with a fall of 232 feet, we have a 10-inch main 4000 yards long, an 8-inch main 3000 yards long, and a 6-inch main 2000
(21.)

yards long. To divide the given fall in the proper proportion between the different pipes and so find the gradients, let us

assume that 100 gallons are delivered

By Table
3.

then
A.

Length.

100 gallons 10-inch

8
6

= -000411 x 4000 =

1-644 =-001256x3000= 3-768 = -005292 x 2000 = 10-584

15-996

feet

head

total head.

Now, whatever the real head may be, it would have divided among the several pipes in the same proportions
100 gallons in Col. A, and as the head in our case
is

to be

as for

232
15* 99o

14-504 times the total head for 100 gallons, it follows that the head for each pipe will be 14 504 times the head for the same pipe in Col. A thus the true head
real
;

E,
F,

for

the 10-inch pipe will be 1 644 x 14 504 = 8 3-768x14-504=

23 84 feet 54-65

G,

10-584

x 14-504 = 153-51
232-00

DISCHARGE IN SPECIAL CASES.

27

We

can

and then
all is

the gradients on the section as in Fig. 11, the contour of the ground is below them throughout, The discharge at well.* may be calculated from any
if

now draw

one of the pipes

say we take the 8-inch

then

= 01822 =
oOOO

about 380 gallons by Table 3. " There are Special Cases" (22.)
tion of

many

cases for the solu-

they require The following cases reasoning, with the assistance of rules. may be useful Say that with pipes, arranged as in Fig. 12,
:

which no general rules can be given

we

require 50 gallons at B, and 100 gallons at A, and have to determine the sizes of the mains. If we assume 3 inches for E,

the head for that size would be -0423 the level at B, and as that point
level at C, we = 14 * 77 feet to deliver
is

x 160 = 6-77

feet

above

8 feet (or 18 10) above the have at this last point the head of 6 77 -}- 8

50 gallons

at B.

Now,

as

is

25

will be 14-77 7 feet below C, the head on 7 = 21 77 feet, and to find the size of pipe with that head for 100

18

gallons,

we have

21-77
J5U

= 0871 =

a 3 J-inch pipe by Table

3.

now only to fix the size of the pipe D to carry 50 -|100 = 150 gallons we found the head at C necessary for the pipes E and F to be 14*77 feet, leaving therefore only 18 14-77 = 3-23 feet for the friction of D, and from this we find 3*23 - = -01077 = a 6-inch pipe by Table 3.

We have

(23.) Take another case shown by Fig. 13, and say that we to deliver 600 gallons at E by the single require the head at and double line of pipes ; also to find what proportion of the 600 gallons passes by the two branches A, C, B and A, B. Let

us assume that the pipe A, C, B carries 1000 gallons; then the head at A for that quantity would be

1000 gallons 12-inch pipe

9

= -01653 x 1100 = 18 -18 feet head -0697 x 800 = 55-76

73-94
due

principle of this method of calculating a series of gradients is to C. E. Anios, Esq., of The Grove, Southwark.

The

28

DELIVERY AND SUCTION-PIPES TO PUMPS.

with that head at A, the pipe A, B would at the same time 73 '94 = -0778 = 790 gallons by Table 3 ; so that the deliver

And

-^-

two sets of pipes deliver at B 1790 gallons with a head of 73 94 feet at A, and therefore (13) to deliver the 600 gallons 73* 94 * v 600 2 = 8-3 feet. Then, the 12required would take
J.
i

*7 \J

inch pipe from

1100 = 6-545 02509 x 400 6 545 -f 8 3

carry
J. t

600 gallons 00595 x and the 9-inch pipe from B to E, = 10-036 feet; thus the total head at D will be 10 036 = 24 881 feet. The pipe A, C, B will
feet head,

D to A would require for

= 336
u\)

gallons, therefore the pipe A,

must

take the rest, or 264 gallons.

(24.) If the head had been given, and the discharge due thereto had to be determined, we must have calculated the head

for an assumed discharge, and then applied the rule in (13) to find the real discharge with the true head. Thus, say that with the same arrangement of pipes, we require the discharge at

with 45 feet head at D.

If

we assume 600

gallons,

we
or

should find 24-881 feet head as in (23); then -

600

x V45 -

A/24 -881

~~A.QQQ

807 gallons, the discharge

at

with 45 feet

head at D, &c.
Delivery and Suction-pipes to Pumps" In calculating (25.) the sizes of pipes to pumps, it should be remembered that the
action of a pump is intermittent, especially where there is no air-vessel to equalize the velocity of supply and discharge. Say we have a single-acting pump 2 feet diameter and 2 feet stroke,

"

worked by a crank,
area of the

&c.,

pump

being 3-1416

making 16 revolutions per minute. The feet, we should have 3*1416 x

16

= 100
is

bucket

gallons discharged per minute; but while the descending the delivery is nothing, and it rises to a
the bucket is at the centre of
its

maximum when

up-stroke,

where

SERVICE-PIPES IN TOWNS.

29

thus in our case the crankit has the velocity of the crank-pin path being 2 feet diameter, or 6 -28 feet circumference, the maximum discharge at that moment is 6 28 x 16 X 3*1416 = 314 gallons, and the pipes must be calculated for that quantity instead of 100 gallons, the mean discharge. In most cases, an
;
!

which more or less effectively regulates and : where the suction-pipe is equalizes the velocity of discharge be should air-vessel an a long one, provided for that also. Table 5 gives the variation in velocity in different kinds of
air-vessel is used,

pumps without
TABLE
5.

air-vessels.

Of the VELOCITY of DISCHARGE by PUMPS WITHOUT

AIR-VESSELS.

One

single-acting

& crank

pump, worked by j
/

30

GENERAL LAWS FOR

PIPES.
'

2 5 = pipes varies, as the 2-5 power of the diameter (28), thus 4 and shall we therefore require 32 1-inch pipes to deliver 32,

with the same head and length the same quantity of water as a 4-inch pipe, and we may admit that a 4-inch main would supply

32 1-inch lead
principles.

services, &c.

Table 6

is

calculated on these

TABLE

6.

SERVICE MAINS

for

WATER-SUPPLY

in

TOWNS.

PIPES

SPECIAL FORMULAE FOR LOHV VELOCITIES.

2

31
1,

2 diameter will vary in the ratio ^l", >y2^and

'^ or

1-32,

and

55, &c.

and are constant, the head will be inversely (29.) When so that for diameters in the as the 5th power of the diameter
;

ratio 1, 2, 4, the

heads will be in the ratio 4 5 2 5 and I 5 or 1024,

,

32,

and

1.

Conversely, the diameter will be inversely as the 5th root of the head ; thus for heads in the ratio 1, 2, 4, the diameters

would be in the
1-0, &c.

ratio

^4, V^,

an(l

Vl

or 1'32, 1*15, and

and d are constant, the discharge will be (30.) When inversely as the square root of the length ; thus for lengths in the ratio 1, 2, 4, the discharge would be in the ratio V^, V2, an<i Jl, or 2-0, 1-414, and 1-0, &o.
Conversely, the length varies inversely as the square of the discharge ; thus for discharges in the ratio 1, 2, 4, the lengths would be in the ratio 42 2 2 and I 2 or 16, 4, and 1, &c.
,
,

(31.)

When G

and d are constant, the head

is

directly
1, 2, 3,

and
the

simply as the length ; thus for lengths in the ratio heads would also be in the ratio 1, 2, 3, &c.

Table 3 gives the (32.) "Head for very Low Velocities" greatest possible facility for the calculation of pipe questions, as may be seen by the examples we have given, and for all ordinary cases the results are correct ; but for very small
velocities with

low heads, say under one

foot, &c.,

experiment has

shown that the discharges are less than that Table would give, and for such cases Prony's more difficult and laborious rule
seems to give the most correct based on that of Prony
:

results.

The

following rule

is

Let d = diameter of the pipe in inches. = head of water in inches.

L = G =
Then
(l6-353

length of pipe in feet. gallons per minute.

5*J? + -00665^-

-0816)

&X

2-04 = G.

32

PIPES

SPECIAL RULES FOR

LOW

VELOCITIES.

feet long

Thus, say we required the discharge by a 12-inch pipe 3000 with 36 inches head then
:

86

12

3^ QQ (l6-353 427-4 gallons.

00665)*- -0816)

x 144 x 2-04 =

We may compare
by the
rule
t

this result

with that by Table

(5),

3,

or rather
dis-

F =

G, given in

by which the

charge comes out 426 gallons, or practically the same as by Prony's rule. With a very small head, however, the two rules do not agree thus, with only one inch head, this same pipe
;

gives 54*87 gallons

by Prony's

rule,

whereas the other rule

gives 70 98 gallons, or 29 per cent. more. With a large head, on the contrary, Prony's rule gives a rather larger discharge than the other. The general comparison of the two rules may

be shown by the case of a 10-inch pipe, 1000 yards long, the calculated discharge of which, with different heads, is given by the following Table
:

Head

of Water.

the Kule in (5) Prony's Kule Difference per cent.

By By

. .

PIPES

SPECIAL RULES FOR

LOW

VELOCITIES.

33

Say wo require the head for a 10-inch pipe 4000 feet long, discharging only 20 gallons per minute then
:

0816

4000

J- 00665) x -i?-=

16-353

-626 inch head.

Now, by Table 3, the head comes out -00001646 x 1333 = 02194 foot, or -263 inch only; so that in this very extreme
fi9fi
'

case Prony's rule gives in (5) or Table 3.

(34.)

2bo

2 38 times the head by the rule

Table 29 has been calculated by the following modifi:

cation of Prony's rule

(V-J..Q816) - -00665 _ 196-24

2

Hx<?
L
'

In which d

= diameter of pipe in inches. = velocity of discharge in feet H = head of water in inches. L = length of pipe in inches.

per second.

Table 29 has been calculated for small velocities only, because Table 3 gives results sufficiently correct for practical purposes, We with higher velocities, and is more facile in application. have added opposite each velocity in Table 29 the corresponding discharge of pipes, from 1 inch to 24 inches diameter, in order
to abridge the labour as

much

as possible.
:

For the use of

this

Table we have the following rules

(35.) 1st. To find the discharge, having H, L, and d given. Multiply the given head in inches by the diameter in inches, and

divide

by the length in
1.

inches,

and find the nearest number

opposite that number, and under the given diameter will be found the discharge in gallons per minute. Say, we take the case in (32) to find the discharge of a 12-inch
thereto in Col.

Then

pipe 3000 feet or 36,000 inches long, with 36 inches head. ?

or
Ju

Then

0/. A oolKJU

'012, the

nearest

number

to

which in

34
Col,
1
is

SQUARE AND RECTANGULAR PIPES.

*01192, opposite to which, and under 427 gallons, the discharge sought.

12 inches

diameter,

is

2nd. To find the head, having G, L,and d given. In Tahle 29, under the given diameter, find the nearest number of gallons, and take from Col. 1 the number opposite to it, which number,
multiplied by the length in inches, and divided by the diameter in inches, will give the required head in inches. Thus, taking
the extreme case in (33) to find the head for a 10-inch pipe 4000 feet long, with 20 gallons per minute The nearest discharge
:

under 10 inches diameter

Col. 1 is

is

20*45

gallons, opposite

which in

0001341, and from this we obtain

:

^^
we
calculated in

643 inch head

the exact head for 20 gallons

(33) to be -626 inch. It should be observed that Prony's formula does not include
the head due to velocity of entry (12), which for short pipes becomes important. It has been omitted in the preceding illustrations, because with such long pipes as were given in our
cases
it is too small to affect the result sensibly for instance, in the last case, the head for velocity with 20 gallons per minute
:

and a 10-inch pipe by the rule in

foot, or

(3) is

(-^ \100 X

I"/

'000237

-^nd
"

of an inch only.

Square and Rectangular Pipes" The case of square (36.) or rectangular pipes may be assimilated to that of round ones, and the head or discharge may then be calculated by the same
rules and Tables that

we have given

for the latter.

The

velocity

the form of the pipe or channel, is proportional to the hydraulic radius (57) or the sectional area, divided by the circumference or perimeter in round pipes this

of discharge, whatever

may be

is

always equal to one-fourth of the diameter. Say we have a rectangular channel 3 ft. x 1 '5
feet,

the area is 4*5 feet; the perimeter 9

radius -^ y

foot, Fig. 39 and the hydraulic

;

5 foot, which

is

the same as that of a round pipe

to find the

5x4

2 feet diameter.

Then

head for friction

EFFECT OF CORROSION OR RUST IN PIPES.

35

with such a channel, say 100 yards long, discharging 270 cubic
feet per

minute

we have a

270
velocity of

j^
592

= 60 feet per minute,

or 1 foot per second, which by Table 29 is equal to 1178 gallons per minute with a 24-inch pipe, and by Col. 1 of the same Table

3^ =
ij

'

-005928, therefore
*

X L

'

f a

or

m our case
We

005928 x (100 x 36) -=

<jj--

889 inch, the head required.

might have obtained the head approximately by Table 3, say for 1200 gallons = -000744 x (100 x 12) = '8928 inch. We might also have calculated the head more directly by Table 30 Opposite 5 the given hydraulic radius, the nearest velocity to that given, or 60 feet per minute, is 61 feet, which is under 15 inches fall per mile, or 00852 inch per yard hence for 100 yards the head is -00852 x 100 = '852 inch. The head for velocity at entry must be added to that for fric:

tion,

inlet,

and may be found by Table 15 thus, with a square-edged the head for a velocity of 1 foot per second is given by Col. C at |th of an inch ; the total head is therefore 889 -f25 = 1-139 inch. By the application of the same principles, the head, or discharge of a channel of any sectional form whatever may be
:

determined.
" The rules and Effect of Corrosion or Rust in Pipes" (37.) Tables for calculating the discharge of pipes are adapted only to clean and even surfaces, such as are commonly met with in new

cast-iron pipes.

But some

soft waters contain a great deal of

is

oxygen, which rapidly decomposes iron, forming rust, which deposited, not in an even layer, but in nodules or carbuncles.

These retard the

as

flow, not so

much by the reduction

of diameter

by the

alteration of the character of the surface.

A notable

case of this kind occurred at Torquay, where a main about 14 miles long, composed of 14,267 yards of 10-inch, 10,085 yards

of 9-inch, and 170 yards of 8-inch pipe, delivered only 317 gallons per minute, with 465 feet head. may calculate the

We

D 2

36

EFFECT OF COKEOSION OK BUST IN PIPES.

discharge by the method explained in (13): gallons, we have by Table 3

:

Assuming 1000
feet

Friction of 10-inch

= -04115 x 14267 =687-1 = -0697 x 10085 = 702-9 = -1256 x 170= 21-3

1311-3

head

total.

And from this, the discharge with the real head

or

is

V1311-3

-QfiToi

"

^5 gallons.
=

But by Prony's rule

(32) the

discharge comes out 616 gallons.

The experimental

discharge

317

was therefore only

51 or 51 per cent, of the theoretical,

or in round numbers the discharge was that due to Jth of the head, so that Jths of the head was lost in undue friction. An

ingenious scraper, suggested by the late Mr. Appold, and worked by the pressure of the water, was passed through the entire

length of the pipes

W.

and subsequently an improved one by ; Froude, Esq., was used with remarkable results, the discharge

being increased to 564, and eventually, by repeated scraping, to 634 gallons, which is 18 gallons, or 3 per cent, more than the
theoretical quantity. Errors of observation, or in the reputed sizes of the pipes, may account for the discrepancy.

Dr. Angus Smith's process, by which pipes are coated all over with a black enamel, seems to be an effective remedy against such pipes have been used with Torquay water for rusting
;

years without being affected. The process only about 5s. per ton for medium pipes
;

is
it

very cheap, being can be effectively

applied only in the process of casting, while the pipes are new and hot. With such a smooth surface as this process produces,
the discharging power must be increased in a higher ratio than the cost, so that such pipes must really be more economical than

any

other,

FOUNTAINS

HEIGHT OF JETS WITH GIVEN HEADS.

37

CHAPTEE
.

II.

ON FOUNTAINS,

JETS, &0.

Height of Jets with given Heads" When water issues (38.) vertically from a nozzle, as at J in Fig. 5, it should theoretically attain the height of the head, and h should be equal to but ; it has been found by experiment that the height of the jet is

"

always less than the head, a loss arising from the resistance of the air. The difference, or h', is found to increase with the absolute height of the jet, and to diminish with an increase in the diameter. There are very few reliable experiments on this subject,

and the laws indicated by those we have are very

intricate.

best experiments we have are given in Table 7, and from them we find that h' increases nearly in the ratio of the square

The

of the head, so that if

we draw

to scale the successive heights

found by experiment, as in Fig. 14, we obtain a curve which approximates to a parabola. Thus, for a J-inch jet, as in the Figure, with 160 feet head, the jet would have attained the height B, or 160 feet, if there had been no resistance from the air ; but it is found by experiment that it only reaches 80 feet as at D, therefore h' = 80 feet is lost. Again, with 80 feet head the jet should have reached C = 80 feet, but the experimental height is
and, in that case, h = 20 feet. Thus with heads 2 2 in the ratio of 1, 2, the loss is in the ratio I , 2 , or 1 to 4, being

only 60

feet,

in fact 20 and 80 feet.

(39.) Experiment also shows, that the head being constant, h' varies nearly in inverse ratio to the diameter of the jet ; for instance, we have just seen that with 80 feet head on the J-inch
jet,

loss

20 feet head is lost. Then with a jet 1 inch diameter the would be about 10 feet, and the height attained 70 feet ; but with a J-inch jet the loss would be about 40 feet, and the height attained 40 feet, &c. Thus we have the elements for calculating approximately the loss of head for any particular case, not perfectly agreeing, perhaps, with the true law, but the best

38

FOUNTAINS
7.

EXPERIMENTS ON HEIGHT OF JETS.

of

TABLE

Of EXPERIMENTS on the HEIGHT HEADS.

JETS

with.

DIFFERENT

JMam.
of Jet
in

Inches.

FOUNTAINS

HEIGHT OF JETS WITH DIFFERENT HEADS.

of

39

TABLE

8.

Of the HEIGHT

JETS with DIFFERENT HEADS.

Head
on
Jet
in Feet.

40

FOUNTAINS

DISCHARGE OF JETS.
feet

= 309 feet, and hence the height of jet is 445 - 309 = 136 The error of 27 feet is considerable, but perhaps not more
might be expected in such an extreme
case.

than

" Discharge of Jets" The quantity of water discharged (41.) The form will vary considerably with the form of the nozzle.

a matter of importance, as affecting the solidity of fhe issuing stream, and thereby the height of the jet. Fig. 15 shcjws the best iorm ol nozzle, and Table y gives the general proporti<
is also

TABLE

9.

Of the PKOPOKTIONS

of

NOZZLES

for

JETS.

FOUNTAINS

DISCHARGE OF JETS.
-H CO CO CO
-ti
1

41
I

CO CO
.-.
:-.
(

I>

i-

l-"fi -f rH C^ CO CO

(M CO <N *o Ci IM
> 1

O o
CO rH O5 CO O L^ I-H -f O5 rH CO ^^ S^-HHI^T
I

I-H

i^

:-.

GO CO

T
t> CO O CO O O CO

t C.

rH GO rH hCO O5 CO l^
t^-

COCOCOrHCO
CO
<M

CO rH CO CO rH

rH CO -H 1^

GOCOC5

O rH'Ot>
i-H

IOOOG<IOIO

O-^GOi

ICO rH rH rH <M CN

H?!

-t(

-H

Ol-- (MCO^rH

t^CO

O O O CO l> 00
CO Cl

l>O5-Hrt<CO

t^OCOOt

O5

GOOrHCO^

^ CO <M *
CNJ

COCO C^CM

t> C5

CO
-fi

(M CO *f O5 CO

CO

COI^-CiOCN

COCOCO'^^

CN O4 <M C^

CN <M CM (M CN

s I - C5 CS rH CO l> rH CO CO IO -f

rH IO rH CO CO rH CO O5 CO CO

rH O5 rH rH

CO-^lOCOt^
CO rH

00050500 rHCOCO^O
T^ CO CO l> Ci
rH -H

O b- CO OS

OS O5 l>

CO

rH CO IO rH CO

COCOt>-COCO

t^-CO rH-jH

O CO CO
T*H

CO CO

CO CO

CO

i-H

CO

i-H

05 CO CO

OT^

cpcpip

O5 t^ CO CO CO rH CO CO CO

TtlOiOOCO
CO

OrH-H/ICOrH

CO CO t~ CO CO CO t> I- CO GO

islsg
O5l>T^OO
TH CO CO

TH O5 (M CO

O CO

-HH

-^li-l

O rH CO CO CO O t> t>CO rH
CO CO rH

t> rH CO -*

-HH

OO5

rH CO *<& IO I> CO CO CO CO CO

O5 (?q * CO CO (M CO CO CO CO

O I>TH O O CO CO IO l>
CO

rHT^COlMCO COlOCOCS'*!

05 CO 10 CO

O
IO rH

COOrHCO
GO CO CO CO CO

CO CO CO CO CO

CO CO CO W3 <M

l>rHCOOCO

CO CO CO

O Tfl

tfi

IOCOCOO5O iOCOt^-T^O5 THCOCOO rH

rH

O l> CN CO
t^O
5n

<N CO

O TH t-

rH

O tO

CO

(>l

CO CO rH 4n

O CO CO CO

I>COCOO5O5

rH O O5 CO l> O O O rH rH

t* IO rH CO
CO CO IO CO

CO

rH rH CO CO CO CO IO CO

CO CO CO CO CO

rH rH rH IO

IO

CO CO CO

t> t> CO OS

^^

?o^
i-l

g^c^| ^?^S
CO CO CO CO CO CO CO CO rH

CO CO CO CO

42

EFFECT OF LONG MAINS TO FOUNTAIN JETS.

calculation

must be made of the

loss of

head by friction in such

pipes, so as to obtain the actual head on the jet, for which alone the rules and Table apply. Say, for illustration, we take the case, shown by Fig. 16, of a jet 1 inch diameter, 70 feet high,

end of a long main 6 inches, 5 inches, and 4 inches diameter, of the respective lengths given by the Figure, and that we have to calculate the head necessary. Table 8 shows that a and jet 1 inch diameter, 70 feet high, requires 80 feet head Table 10 gives the discharge of the same jet, with 80 feet head, at 137 gallons. Then, by Table 3, we calculate the friction of the mains, and we have the following results
at the
;
:

Feet.

Head

to play 1-inch jet 70 feet

high

Friction 6-inch main, say 140 gallons

-01037
-0258 -0788

X X 300= X 100=
Total

= 600 =

80-00
6 -22

7'74 7-88
10 1-84

(43.) In other cases we may have the head and diameter of pipes and nozzle given, and have to determine the discharge. This case is illustrated by Fig. 17, and in dealing with it, we must follow the course indicated in (13). Say we assume the

discharge at 300 gallons Table 10 shows that a jet 1J inch diameter requires about 75 feet head for that quantity. Then,
;

by Table

3,

we

find the friction of the

mains as follows

Feet.

Head

to play 1 J-inch jet, 300 gallons Friction 7-inch main, 300 gallons '022 6 -0476

= = x400=
800

75-00
17 '60 19-04 9-48
121 -12

-1185

X 80=
Total

assumed discharge of 300 gallons we require only So 121 12 feet, instead of 150, the head at disposal. Then by the rule in (13) the true discharge with 150 feet head will be
that for our

= 334
V121-12

gallons.

In such cases as

this,

where the

height of a jet is involved, the discharge assumed should be pretty near the true one.

FOUNTAINS

PATH DESCRIBED BY JETS.

43

(44.) In another case we might require to find the diameter of one of the main pipes, having all the rest given. Thus, say that we have to find the diameter of the pipe P, in Fig. 18.

Table 8 gives 90 feet as the head for 1 jet 80 feet high and Table 10 gives 227 gallons as the discharge of the same jet with 90 feet head.
;

Then, 1 J

jet

Friction of 6-inch

80 feet high, by Table 8 main = -028 x 400

. .

..

90 11-2

feet

head

We have
by Table 3

therefore 115

101-2 = 13-8
.

feet of

head

left for

10 Q
the friction of the pipe P, or
is

=
200

'069 foot per yard; which

equal to a 5-inch pipe with say 230 gallons, and

this is the required diameter of the pipe P.

When the discharge takes (45.) "Path of Fountain Jets" place obliquely, or out of the perpendicular, the path of the jet is a parabola, and may be conveniently described by the method shown in Fig. 23, in which we have a jet discharging upward at
an angle of 45, and with a head of 14 feet, which by Table 11 will give a velocity of 30 feet per second, or 3 feet per tenth of
If we mark on the line S, a series of points A, B, 0, &c., 3 feet apart, they would show the position of a particle of water at each tenth of a second if gravity did not act but of

a second.

course gravity does act simultaneously, and Table 12 gives the space fallen through each tenth of a second, which, being plotted

on the perpendiculars drawn through each of the points A, B, C,

&c., will give the true position of the particle of water at each 3 tenth of a second. Thus, in T ^ths of a second it would have

arrived at C, if uninfluenced by gravity, but the Table shows that in that time a body falls 1 foot 5 J inches ; therefore F is

the true position at that moment, and so of the rest, as in the The lower Figure, which gives the path for two seconds.

curve

S, T in Fig. 23, shows the path of a jet with the same head and velocity projected downwards at the same angle of 45. Fig. 19 gives the path for a horizontal projection, and also

44

FOUNTAINS

TABLES OF VELOCITIES.

TABLE

11.

FALLING BODIES, giving the SPACE

acquire certain VELOCITIES.

fallen

through to

Velocity in Feet per Second.

FOUNTAINS

LAWS OF JET PATHS.

45

illustrates another method of drawing the parabolic curve, which into the consists in dividing tho total space fallen through J, same number of equal parts as the line H, J, and drawing radial

lines

from the point H, as shown. The path of the jet is through the intersections of the radial lines with the perpendiculars, as
in the figure
(46.)
:

the two methods give the same result precisely.

There are some general laws governing the parabolic Let Fig. of jets which it will be well to state explicitly. paths 20 be a jet playing obliquely from a nozzle at J, and striking the horizontal plane at G.
1st. If the line of direction of the pipe or axis of the jet be prolonged, it cuts the axis of the parabola at a point C, whose distance from the base is always double the height of the

N. This gives a useful is equal to twice parabola, or C rule for finding the proper angle of the jet pipe when the path
of the jet has been determined.

2nd. If we find the focus of the parabola by the ordinary method, namely, by bisecting the radius of the base at A, D, drawing the line A D, and making A L perpendicular to then the point L is the focus of the parabola and the distance

NL

is

the extra head

Ji

or the difference between the

necessary to play the jet horizontally, maximum height of the jet and the
the total head H'

head upon

it

at J.

Thus

may be

considered

as divided into two portions, namely, H, which is equal to the N, and A, which is equal to the distance height of the parabola

of the focus of the parabola from the base.

3rd. If, therefore, with the

play vertically, instead of H.

it

would

same head the jet were made to (theoretically) attain the height of H',

4th. In all cases, h bears a certain proportion to the height of the parabola (H), and to the length of its base B, and may be

calculated from those particulars

by the rule h =

r
;

Ji

thus, to

play a jet 32 feet horizontally (B), and 16 feet high (H), as in

Q2

Fig. 21,

we

shall have h

= 4

feet,

which, added to the

46

FOUNTAINS

LAWS OP JET PATHS.

feet),

height of the jet path (16 on the jet.

5th.

gives 20 feet for the total head

The

horizontal distance from the nozzle at

at G,

to the point

on the plane

where the jet strikes it, may be calculated are when the total head H' and the height of the parabola = h, and knowing h, we may find given for obviously H'

B by the rule H' = 20, and

6th.

*Jh

x
16

H
;

x 4 =

B.
7*

therefore,

Thus, in Fig. 21, we have = 20 16 = 4, and then

V4~X~16 X 4 = 32

feet.

the jet issues horizontally, as in Fig. 25, its path is half a parabola, following the same laws as before, namely,

When

F, also A

^4 H
N

and

VA x

P, &c.

(47.) In some cases, the two half parabolas are unequal, as in Fig. 24, where we have a jet 20 feet high at its maxi= 15 feet high, and 24 feet distant horimum, delivering at

zontally from the nozzle at J, and we require to find h = the extra head, and to describe the path of the jet. Here we

have

first to

find the position of the centre line dividing the

semi-parabolas, and to do this

we have

K. which

24
in our case becomes

x 4-472
QTOQA

^^

eet<

Then
and

the focus
it

of the two semi-parabolas

may be found

as before,

will be

found that

and F' are equal.

Thus, in our case

F =

("J =
A\J

3-2

feet,

and

F=
-j-

= 3-2

feet also.

being equal to

ft,

we thus

find h to

be 3-2
3 -2

feet,

and the

total

head

at

will

therefore be 20

feet (H'). direction of the jet, placing the nozzle at

= 23 '2

If

we

reverse the
at J,

N, instead of

then, with a head of5-f-3'2 would be the same as before.

= 8'2

feet,

the path of the jet

FOUNTAINS

ORNAMENTAL

JETS.

47

have followed throughout the investigation of the of jets, the theoretical law that the height of the oblique paths to the head, and we have done this to avoid complijet is equal
(48.)

We

cating the matter unnecessarily ; but obviously, we must apply to oblique jets the correction we found necessary for perpendicular ones. Thus, if we had a jet J-inch diameter, with 80
feet head,

Table 8 shows that the height attained vertically would be only 60 feet, and if this jet played obliquely, its path
should be calculated for the latter height, but the quantity of water expended, and the value of h must be calculated for 80 feet.

Oblique jets of great height and range, deviate considerably from the true parabolic path assigned by the rules the curve becomes in such cases like A, D, E in Fig. 22, the true parabolic path being A, B, C. But for moderate heights and ranges, such
;

as usually occur in practice, the deviation is not considerable. There are many kinds of orna(49.) "Ornamental Jets."

mental jets which

&c.

may

be used with pleasing

effect

in very

sheltered situations, especially in the interior of conservatories,

One

of these, called the " Convolvulus," from the form of

its

The pressure display, is shown in half-size section by Fig. 26. of a very small head of water (2 or 3 feet) raises the valve B, and allows a thin sheet of water to escape, forming a sheet jet of
the form given in Fig. 27, and (with the size given by Fig. 26) about 3 feet diameter, with an expenditure of about 6 gallons

per minute.
Fig. 28
is

a half-size section of the "

Dome"

or " Globe"

jet,

which produces a display of the form shown by Fig. 29, with a head of about 2 feet, the globe being about 14 inches diameter, and the expenditure about 3 gallons per minute. With a greater head, say 3 or 4 feet, the display has the form of an umbrella about 21 inches diameter, expending about 4 gallons per
minute.

The
basket

"

Basket and Ball" jet

is
it

when
return

is another pleasing variety; the of fancy wire-work, large enough to catch the ball escapes from the jet of water, and formed so as to

it

back to

its place.

The

ball is formed of light

wood

(lime-tree is

the best), painted or gilded, and well varnished.

48

CANALS, CULVERTS, AND WATER-COURSES.

ball

There should be a certain proportion between the size of the and the diameter of the jet. As an approximation we may
:

give the following rule

Vd a X 1-3 = D;
In which d = the diameter of the

D
tions

jet in |ths of an inch. the diameter of the ball in inches.

Table 13 has been calculated by this rule ; it gives the proporup to 1-inch jets, but the f-inch jet, with 3^-inch ball is

usually the

maximum

size in practice.

TABLE 13.
Diameter of
Jet.

For BALL JETS.

CANALS

HEAD DUE TO VELOCITY.

49

throughout the section at 84 per cent, of the maximum central surface velocity, which is usually the velocity observed, being easily obtained by a float on the surface of the stream (68). Table 14 gives the mean velocity corresponding to observed maximum velocities thus, if a channel whose area is 24 squarefeet, has by observation a central surface velocity of 35 feet
;

per minute, the mean velocity by the Table is 29 4 feet, and the discharge will be 29 '4 x 24 = 705' 6 cubic feet, or 705 -G x 6 -23 = 4396 gallons per minute.

TABLE 14.
observed
Surface
Velocity.

MEAN VELOCITY

For OPEN CHANNELS, CANALS, and RIVERS, giving the

throughout
the

SECTION,

CENTRAL SURFACE VELOCITIES.

corresponding

to

50

CANALS

HEAD TO OVERCOME FRICTION.

at a given velocity, there will be a certain loss of head to genemust be lower rate that velocity, that is to say, the stream at in order to create the velocity required than the still water at

G. In a case like the Figure, the bottom of the channel at F being at the same level as the bottom of the reservoir at E, and with a well-rounded entrance, the velocity would be '96 of that
at

due to gravity, and the same

co-efficient

would apply to the water-

way of a sluice-gate, like Fig. 31, if the gate is drawn up completely out of the water, and to the openings of a bridge with
pointed piers, as at Fig. 32, the conditions being evidently similar in all the three cases. With similar conditions, but with square

bottom of the channel being

corners at the sides of the inlet opening, as in Fig. 34, the still at the same level as that of the

would be '86 of that due to gravity, reservoir, the velocity at and F, and the same coor to the difference of level between

efficient applies to

the openings of a bridge with square piers as

in Fig. 33.

With an opening in a sluice-gate of small thickness, as at Fig. 35, the head of water being above the lower edge of the gate, the velocity is only '635 of that due to gravity, a contracIf the tion (2) occurring on all the four sides of the aperture. gate be fully drawn up, the opening becomes a weir, as at Fig. 36 } then contraction occurs on three sides only, and the co-efficient
rises to -667.

These co-efficients are given by Eytelwein, and Table 15 gives the velocities for different heads calculated by
"

them.
(52.)

Head

to

overcome Friction of Channel."

When

the

a long one, there is not only a loss of head due to the velocity, but also a further loss by friction against the sides and bottom. Where the channel is of equal cross-sectional area

channel

is

from end to end, the loss of head increases uniformly from end to end, and the surface of water has a certain slope or fall per Fig. 37 shows the section of a water-course yard, or per mile. in which the fall from the still water in the reservoir at A to the point B is due to the velocity at B, and this would be the same whatever the length of the channel its amount varies with the form of the entrance as explained in (51). From B to
;

CANALS

HEAD TO OVERCOME

FRICTION.

51

C there will be a regular slope when the area of the channel is is due to friction for the uniform, and the fall C length B C.

TABLE 15.
iri
in

Of the VELOCITIES

in FI;KT per

SECOND, due to given HEADS.

Inches. Coef. 1-0.

52

CANALS

DISCHARGE WITH GIVEN HEADS.

:

discharge 1105 cubic feet per minute

then by the rule we

have in our case

---

8 inches

fall.

(54.)

To

this has to be

added the head for the velocity

at

entry, or

AB

in Fig. 37.

The mean
(50) will be

velocity being
rrq
. /?

=
lo
feet per

73-66

feet,

the

maximum

-^j-

= 87*7

minute, or 1-46 foot per second, the head for which, with square Then corners, is given by Col. C of Table 15 at about i-inch.
for a channel one mile long, the total head will be 8 -f- % = 8% inches ; for -Jth of a mile, or 220 yards, 1 -f- -J- = !} inch, and = 1 inch. In the last case the head for for 110 yards, 4-

velocity is equal to the head for friction. (55.) When the fall is given, and the discharge has to be calculated the rule becomes
:

c=

/ 874520

x F x

/ 874520 *ii 4MQ-u / a- -u -h tall 01 12 inches, the discharge would be

(

Thus, with the same channel as before, 1760 yards long, and a x 12 x 15 \i
J*

cubic feet per minute. have omitted in this case to allow for the head due to velocity, and where the channel
is

15

= 1353

We

a long one, the omission will not cause a serious error

with

short channels, however, it must not be neglected. (56.) When, with a given total head, we have to calculate the

discharge by a channel so short that the head for velocity has to be, considered as well as that due to friction, the question does

not admit of a direct solution, because we cannot tell beforehand in what proportions the head at disposal has to be divided

between the two. The best course in that case is to assume a discharge, and calculate, as in (53) and (54), the head for
friction

and the head

for velocity with that discharge.

Then

CANALS

DISCHARGE WITH GIVEN HEADS.

53

applying the law (27) that the discharges are directly proportional to the square roots of the respective heads, we may obtain the true discharge with the given head. Thus say that with the channel (Fig. 38) 50 yards long, the total head at disposal was
2 inches, and that

assume

it

at

we have to calculate the discharge. Say we 1000 cubic feet then the head for friction would be
;

Kn 50

n
- = 66 '7, the maximum
will be

874520 x 15

The mean
(* (*

velocity being

*7

= 79-3
for

feet per minute, or 1

32 foot per second, the head

total

which by Col. C in Table 15 is about -^ or '437 inch; the head for 1000 cubic feet is, therefore, -186-f- -437 = 623 inch hence the discharge with 2 inches head would be
:

1000
.

xV2

or

lOOOxl'414 = 1791
-7893

cubic feet per minute.

V'623

Checking this result by the rule in (53) &c., we find that the head for friction is about 6 inch, and for velocity 1 4 inch. If in this case the head for velocity had been neglected, and the full head of 2 inches had been allowed for friction alone, the dis8745 X 15 x 15 = 3276 charge would have come out ( <-| )*

This will serve instead of 1791, the true discharge. to show the importance of considering the head for velocity with short channels.
cubic
feet,

(57.) Table 30 has been calculated cation of the rule

:

by the following modifi-

V
In which

V
K

= mean =

F =

velocity in feet per minute. the fall in inches per mile. hydraulic radius, or area in square feet, divided by border in feet.

54

RIVER-CHANNELS OF IRREGULAR CROSS-SECTIONS.

The

use of this Table

:

may

examples

Say we calculate by

be illustrated by the following it the discharge of the channel

(Fig. 38) with a fall of 12 inches per mile as in (55).

The

hydraulic radius in our case

to

is

= 1*363

foot, the nearest radii

*

which in the Table we find to be 1*3 and 1 4, and the corresponding velocities under the fall of 12 inches per mile are 88*1 and 91 '4 respectively; interpolating between those numbers for our radius 1*363 we find the mean velocity to be about 90-2 feet, and the discharge 90-2 x 15 = 1353 cubic feet per
minute.

Again, to find the

fall

with the same channel 800 yards long

:

for 1230 cubic feet per minute

The mean

1230
velocity being

lo

= 82

feet per minute,

Table for that 10 inches per mile, or 00568 inch per yard hence the fall in our case is about 00568 x 800 = 4 '54 inches for friction
;

we look between 1 3 and 1 4 radii in the velocity, and we find it to be under the fall of

alone, or

in Fig. 37.

(58.) Take another case, shown by Fig. 40, of an open cutting with sloping banks, and say that we require the discharge with a
fall

of 8 inches per mile.

feet,

The

30 4- 20
area being
2i

x2*5 = 62*5
feet,

square

and the border 5*6

62' 5
is

+ 20 + 5-6

= 31-2

the
of

hydraulic radius

ol 2

2,

which, by Table 30, with a

fall

8 inches per mile will have a velocity of 89-2 feet, and a discharge of 89-2 x 62*5 = 5575 cubic feet per minute.
" River Channels of irregular Cross-section." The appli(59.) cation of the rules to the discharge of a stream of the natural irregular form of section may be illustrated by Fig. 41. found in (68) that the area was 27 74 square feet ; taking say

We

it

2 feet in the compasses, and stepping along the border, we find to measure about 24 5 feet, the hydraulic radius is, therefore,

27-74
.-

24-5

132

foot.

Then, with a

fall of

say 10 inches per

OPENINGS OP BRIDGES
mile, Table

SUBMERGED OPENINGS.
1

55
is

30

gives, opposite the radius of 1

(which
*

the

nearest to the one

we require),

the

mean

minute; hence the discharge is 73 9 x per minute. With a very short channel, allowance should be made for velocity at entry, as explained in (56). Table 30 may also be applied to the calculation of the discharge, &c., of common pipes running full, or to those of a square or other section, for an illustration of which see (36), also
to culverts, &c., partially filled, see (62). " The Openings of Bridges, dc" (60.)

velocity of 73 9 feet per 27 -74 = 2050 cubic feet

head

lost

by a stream

in passing through a bridge is principally that due to velocity alone, the length of the channel being in most cases so short as
to

have

little

influence on the discharge.

:

The head

for velocity

be calculated by Table 15 say we take the case (58) of the stream (Fig. 40) discharging 5575 cubic feet per minute, and passing through an opening at a bridge, say 8 feet wide and

may

3 feet deep.
will be

The area being 8 x 3 = 24 square

feet,

the velocity

5575
JTJ^ ~~TYJ

3 87 feet per second, which, with pointed

head (A,

of Table 15, 3 inches piers (Fig. 32) will require by Col. in Fig. 37). But, the stream approaches the bridge 89 *2 with a mean velocity of 89*2 feet, or a maximum (50) of

= 106 feet per minute, or 1 77 foot per second, the head due to which by the same Table is inch. The head at the bridge is, = 2f inches ; with square piers therefore, reduced to 3 Jthe head Col. is 3| inches, or at the bridge C by (Fig. 33),

3j_| =
(61.)

3^ inches.
Openings."

"Submerged

The

velocity

of

discharge

through a submerged opening A (Fig. 43) is governed by the difference of the level of water at the two sides of it, or by H, and is not affected by the depth below the surface at which it is
placed. Table 15 will give the velocity with small heads thus an aperture 2 feet x 1 5 foot = 3 square feet area, and with = 5 inches, would, by Col. D of Table 15, discharge 3 2893 x 3
:
'

9 87 cubic feet per second.

56

PROPORTIONS, ETC., OF OVAL CULVERTS.

o>

O O
$

OVAL CULVERTS
"
[62.)

HEAD FOE VERY LOW

VELOCITIES.

57

culverts of the

Discharge ly Egg-shaped Culverts." The discharge of common oval or other forms may be calculated by

the preceding rules, or by Table 30. The proportions of culverts are arbitrary. Fig. 44 shows a good form, and Table 16 gives the general sizes, areas, &c., when filled to two different depths,
so as to adapt the Table to the varying requirements of practice. Say we take the case of a 5-feet culvert |ths full of water or

4 feet 2 inches deep, with a fall of 10 inches per mile, then, by Table 16, the hydraulic radius is 1 105, and the area of water-

way 10-82
radius,

feet by Table 30 we find that with 1-1 hydraulic and a fall of 10 inches per mile, the mean velocity is 73-9 feet, and the discharge 73-9 x 10 '82 = 800 cubic feet per
;

minute.
(63.)

With very

short culverts, allowance

must be made for

the velocity at entry by Table 15, &c. ; thus, in the case just given, if the culvert had been only 45 yards long, the fall due to
friction alone

would have been, by Table

;

X 45 =
the

-255 or J inch

the

mean

30, equal to 73 '9

00568

velocity is

= 1'23 and

maximum

1-23

=1*46

foot per second, the

head due to

which by Col. C of Table 15 is about J inch. The total head is To calculate with precision therefore, i -f- i = f- of an inch. the discharge of short culverts, with a given fall, the method explained in (56) should be followed.

In ordinary cases (64.) "Head for very Low Velocities" Table 30 gives results sufficiently correct for practical purposes with great facility, but with very small velocities experiment has shown that the head is considerably greater than that Table In such cases the more laborious and refined would give. formulae of Prony, Saint Venant, and Eytelwein give more A comparison of these three rules with 96 excorrect results.
periments on the discharge of rivers shows that Eytelwein's rule agrees best with 38 experiments, Saint Venant's with 32, and
Prony's with 26.
rule
:

The

following

is

a modification of Eytelwein's

58

CANALS

SPECIAL KULES FOR

LOW

VELOCITIES.

In which

L =

A =
P.=

length of the channel in yards. cross-sectional area of the stream in square feet. the perimeter, or border of the channel in feet.
the
fall,

F =
C =

or difference of level at the

two ends of

the channel in inches.

cubic feet discharged per minute.

(65.) Thus, say that we require the discharge by the channel, = Fig. 40, 1 mile long, with a fall of 1 inch only, then L = 1760, 62 5, P = 31 2, as in (58), and F = 1, and the discharge will be

cubic feet per minute. given by the rule in (55),

We may compare
X
'

this result with that

by which the discharge comes out

62 5 = 19 ^ 2 cubic
feet

per minute

1972

1*21, or 21 per cent, difference.

less,

But with an increased

reduced practically to
17.
Fig. 40,

head, the difference becomes nothing with large heads, as

and

is

shown by Table

TABLE 17.

Of the DISCHARGE of an OPEN CHANNEL, calculated by DIFFERENT RULES.

Fall in

Inches per Mile.

CANALS

SPECIAL RULES FOR

LOW

VELOCTJ

f/J

This shows that in all cases where extreme accuracy is desired, the rule in (64) should be used but that where the full exceeds 8 or 10 inches per mile, Table 30 gives results sufficiently correct for most practical purposes.
;

(66.)

When

the discharge

is

given, to determine the

fall,

the

rule becomes
5-

F=
Thus

+ 6-534j-42-8)xLx
896400 x

the fall for friction with the same channel, Fig. 40, 2000 yards long to deliver 3000 cubic feet per minute would be
(?!
!?

+6-534Y-

42-8)

x 2000 x 31-2
-

=3- 26, or 3J inches. 896400 x 62-5 Adding the head due to velocity at entry (51), the mean velocity 48 8000 -_ = 48, and the maximum -j- = 57 feet per minute, or is
.

62* 5

"4:

95 foot per second, the head for which by Col. C of Table 15 the total head is therefore 3 J -f- J = 3 inches. is about J inch has been calculated by the following modifi18 (67.) Table
;

cation of Eytelwein's rule

(V
In which

+ -1089)
mean

~~
2
_

-- 0118858

V
E

=--

in feet per velocity over the whole area second. area in square feet the hydraulic radius feet, or border in feet

the

m
-.

S = the

slope, or

inches r inches in length

fall in
:

this Table approximately correct results may be obtained with less labour than by the rules. 1st. To find the Velocity. Multiply the area of the channel

By

in square feet by the fall in inches, and divide the product by the border in feet multiplied by the length of the channel in inches
:

find the nearest

number thereto

in Col.

of Table 18,

and oppo-

60

CANALS

SPECIAL RULES FOR

in Col.

LOW

VELOCITIES.

site to that

number

is

the required velocity.

Thus
000316
'

for the case in (65)

we have
36)
to

=
is

the nearest

number

which

'00003043 opposite *425 foot

obtain a nearer approxi2
,

per second.

By

interpolation
.

we may

mation 425 2

R S varies nearly as V we have / 180625 x -316x1 x '0000316X1 ~ = r TQ0003043 ) ) I" "^8043

;

for, as

--

'

second, hence the discharge comes out "4331 x 60 x 62*5 = 1624 cubic feet per minute, or practically the same as by the

rule (65).

TABLE 18.

For the DISCHARGE of CAXALS, RIVERS, &c., by EYTELWEIN'S RULE.

CANALS
;

CASE OF A MILL-STREAM.

Gl

per second find the nearest number to that in Col. A, which, multiplied by the border in feet and by the length of the channel in inches, and divided by the area in square feet will give
QfjAf)

the fall in inches.

Thus, for the case in (GG) we have

=
num-

48

feet

per minute, or
is

~=
;

8 foot per second, the tabular

ber for which

00009072
-2
'

then

00009072 x 31
as before. " Case

(2000
v

36) '-

= 3-26

inches

bA 5

fall,

68. of a Mill-stream." As an example of the practical application of the rules, we will take a case in which it is desired to utilize a stream of water for driving a corn-mill. Say we have a stream 1500 yards long, with a total fall of 6 ft. 6 in.

from the

tail

of the preceding mill.

:

We

have

first to

ascertain

the quantity of water at disposal selecting a spot where the current appears to be tolerably uniform for some 100 feet, and a season when the quantity is an average one according to local
authorities, say we take it at a point 24 feet wide as in Fig. 41. have then to obtain the area of the stream, and to do that, may

We

divide the width into eight equal spaces of 3 feet each, as in the

be done conveniently by stretching a tape then we measure the depths midway between those divisions or at 1-5 foot, 4-5, 7-5 feet, &c., &c., using a measuring rod with a flat board about 7 or 8 inches square at

Figure, which

may
:

across the stream

the end of

it,

to prevent penetrating the soft

bottom

and thus

we obtain the series of measurements given in the figure, the mean of which we find to be 1 156 foot, the area is therefore 1-156 x 24 = 27-74 square feet. To find the velocity, two
lines

may

be stretched across the stream near the surface, and

say a "chain" or 66 feet apart, and a float being placed a few yards above the highest one, and in the centre of the width, or rather where the velocity is observed to be greatest, the exact

time in passing from line to line is carefully noted. This float should be a small piece of thin wood, say only J-inch thick, so

62

CANALS

CASE OF A MILL-STREAM.

as to be almost wholly immersed, and thus expose little surface to the action of the wind. Say that the float travels the 66 feet in

20 seconds, in one minute therefore

198
feet.

it

would be 2iO

This being the maximum velocity, the mean (50) over the whole area would be 198 X '84 = 166 feet per minute, hence the discharge is 166 x 27 '74 = 4600 cubic feet per minute.
(69.)

The

total fall is 6 feet 6 inches

itself,

the fall of the stream

6 feet
;

allowing 6 inches for the net fall at the wheel will be

;
*

a cubic foot of water weighing 62 3

;

Ibs.

the horse-

power being 33,000 foot-pounds and allowing that a breastwheel yields 50 per cent., or 5 of the gross power of the water, 4600 x 62-3 x 6 X '5 -

we have

= 26

ooUUU

horse-power.

pair of

4-feet stones, grinding 4 bushels of corn per hour, requires

if

about 4 horse-power, and a dressing-machine about 6 horse we allow four pairs of stones, we should require 16 -j- 6

= 22 horse-power, leaving 4 horse-power for the mill-gearing The diameter of the water-wheel and small machines, &c. the 25 times about be fall, say 15 feet, and the speed may of its circumference being 4 feet per second, or 240 feet per minute, and the depth of the bucket 1 5 foot, the width of
the wheel would be

- =12-8, ^ J? ^y40 X 1*O

;

say 13

feet.

With

other

kinds of water-wheel the duty would be different a good overshot wheel would give from 70 to 80 per cent., a breast-wheel from 45 to 60, and an undershot, in which the water acts only
:

by

its

impulse, from 27 to 30 per cent.

(70.)

The channel must now be = 7

altered, so as to deliver

4600

cubic feet per minute, with a fall of 6 inches in 1500 yards, or

1500

inches per mile.

I

When
12

altered to

the form

24 A, B, C, D, the area will be

= 54 square feet,
be

the

2i

mean velocity

to discharge

4600 cubic

feet will

=85*2

WEIRS
feet

OVERFLOW-PIPES, ETC.
is

63

per minute; the border

6- 7
2-

+ 12 + 6 -7
feet.

- 25 -4

feet,

and the hydraulic radius

^r =

126

Then by Table 30

between 2 and 2 2 radii, the velocity 85 2 feet is found to be under the fall of 7 inches per mile, the fall we allowed. It should be observed that it is imperative that the slope shall be uniform from end to end, at least where the area of the channel
is

uniform.

CHAPTEE

IV.

ON WEIRS, OVERFLOW-PIPES, &C.

" Weirs." Fig. 36 shows a weir arranged for the pur(71.) the quantity of water passing of experimentally gauging pose is a plate of thin iron with a notch cut out down the stream.

wide enough by estimation to carry off the water with a moderate depth of overfall this is screwed to a thick plank B, to obtain the requisite stiffness for the plate, and the whole is fixed C is a stake with a flat and level top, in the stream as shown.
of
it
;

which
its

is
is

top

driven into the bed of the stream to such a depth that exactly level with the lip of the weir, and the depth of

water flowing over is measured by a common rule held on its summit. The proper distance of the stake from the weir depends on the quantity of water to be dealt with in small weirs
;

it

1 to 2 feet, in very large ones 20 to 25 feet ; the object is to place it far enough away to avoid the curvature of surface which the water suffers as it approaches the weir, as

may be from

shown by the Figure. There is some uncertainty in measuring by a rule in the manner indicated, arising from the capillary attraction causing the water to adhere to the rule and to rise above its true height. A more correct method is to use Francis's hook-gauge, a rough modification of which is shown by Fig. 36. The stake J is, in this case, driven to such a depth that its top
is at

of the lip of the weir

a height convenient to the eye, say 30 inches above the level then a rough hook-gauge D, formed of ;

64

WEIRS

OVERFLOW-PIPES, ETC.

being

form shown, the end E and the length E F made exactly equal to G H or 30 inches. The hook-gauge is held against the stake, and carefully adjusted, by the hook at E being first immersed, and then raised until it just coincides with the surface of the water ; the depth of overflow is then given by the distance from the top of the stake to the top of the gauge at F, measured by a

wood about
flat

1 inch thick, is cut in the

level,

and

rule, &c.

(72.)

water,

With a thin plate, and depths thus measured from we have the following rules
:

still

Zx 2-67
I

=
d

J*

x Vd x

2 67

In which

G =
d
I

= =

gallons discharged per minute. depth of overflow in inches. length of weir in inches.

Thus, with 2 inches overflow, a weir 72 inches long discharges gallons per minute; again, to discharge 694 gallons per minute, with 3 inches overflow, we
2

x 1*4142 x 72 x 2-67 = 543-7

694
should require a length of o

jL'toA

= ^*tn X ^-^=
=

50 inches

and

again, to find the depth of overflow to carry

1282
a length of 60 inches,
2

1282 gallons, with ,_

8,

we have

0.^7

then

V8 =

2,

and 2 = 4 inches, the depth required. Table 19 has been calculated by these rules, and its use may be illustrated by the examples just given thus with 2 inches overflow the Table gives 7-552 gallons per inch, and a weir 72 inches wide will discharge 7 '552 x 72 = 543-7 gallons; a weir with 3 inches overflow discharges 13 -87 gallons per inch of width, and for 694 gallons
;

we

require a length of

_
'

= 50

inches

a weir 60 inches

WEIRS

TABLE OF DISCHARGE.

65

1282
long discharging 1282 gallons
is

equal to
is

- = 21 '36 gallons

per inch wide, which by the Table

due to 4 inches overflow, &c.

1 inch wide,

TABLE 19.

Of the DISCHARGE of WATER over WEIRS, in GALLONS per MINUTE.

Depth.

66
"
(73.)

WEIRS

EFFECT OF THICKNESS OF CREST.

When the lip of the Effect of Thickness of Crest." weir has a considerable thickness, which is frequently a practical
necessity, the discharge will be less than with a thin plate, a loss

Mr. Blackwell's experiments, made on a and with depths of overfall ranging from 1 inch to large scale, 14 inches, give us the following coefficients, by which Table 19 may be adapted to the forms commonly met with in practice
arising from friction.
:

Ratio of
Discharge.

Thin plate, weir 10 feet long Plank, 2 inches thick, square edged, weirs Crest, 3 feet thick, level at the top,

3, 6,

10 feet long

sloped top, slope 1 in 12 to 1 in 18

1-000 845 712 7GO

Thus, say we have a river- weir 30 feet wide, with 6J inches having a slope of 1 in 12, then the discharge will be 44-25 x 360 x '76 = 12,107 gallons per minute, or
overfall, the crest

^-^ b 23
"

= 1943

cubic

feet,

(74.) Table 19 may be applied to rectangular apertures like Fig. 35, for the discharge in such a case is the difference between two weirs, A, B, C, D, and A, E, F, ; say the head to the top of

- 179 = 96 5, 179 gallons the difference is, therefore, 275 5 and the discharge 96 '5 x 20 = 1930 gallons but as contraction occurs on four sides in this case, see (51), the real discharge would be 1930 x '635 -f- '667 = 1837 gallons per minute. The coefficients in (73) do not apply to apertures with large
-

the aperture (A, B) is 16 inches, and to the bottom (A, E) 22 inches, and that the width (E, F) is 20 inches. Then, by Table 19, 22 inches = 275 '5 gallons per inch, and 16 J inches =
;

heads.

Similarly we may determine the discharge of round apertures, or approximately of any regular figures, which will not differ materially from that of a circumscribing rectangular opening,
reduction being

made

charge

is

required.

whose disThus, say we require the discharge of a

for the true area of the figure

WEIRS

EFFECT OF VELOCITY OP APPROACH.

67

circular aperture 12 inches diameter, the head measured from the upper edge of the orifice being 14 inches, therefore, 26 inches above the lower edge. Here we have 354*0 139 '8 = 214*2

gallons per inch wide, and if the aperture were rectangular

it

would discharge 214*2

cular
its

12

= 2570-4

gallons; but being cir-

area is

1*0, and the true discharge is 2570 '4

7854, that of a circumscribing rectangle being x '7854 x '635 -H'667

= 1922

gallons per minute.

(75.) "Effect of Velocity of Approach to Weirs, &c." have so far supposed that the head has been measured from still

We

water, or that the channel

was of very large area in proportion

to the discharging orifices. When the channel is of small area, the water will have a sensible velocity as it approaches the aper-

which will increase the discharge, and correction must be for it by adding to the measured head, that due to the observed velocity of approach. Table 15 gives the head due to a as are of velocities such range likely to be met with in ordinary thus, in the case of a weir 60 inches wide, with practice 3| inches overfall, the discharge = 18'42x60 = 1105*2 gallons, but if the velocity of approach had been 66 feet per minute or 1 1 foot per second, we find the head due to that velocity ii> Col. B = J inch, and the head on the weir becomes 3f- -\- J = 3f More strictly, and the discharge 20 37 x 60 = 1222 gallons. it is the difference between two weirs with the respective overfalls of inch and 3 J, or (20 37 - 3338) x 60 = 1202 gallons, instead of 1105 '2 gallons, as we found it for still water. " Correction for Short Weirs" The rules in (72) assume (76.)
ture,

made

that the discharge of a weir is simply proportional to its length. This is not strictly correct ; in ordinary cases where the weir is

narrower than the channel, the issuing stream suffers contraction at the two ends, by which its length is virtually reduced, and as
this contraction is about the

same with all lengths its effect is short weirs than with long ones. with proportionally greater The experiments of Francis show that the effect of contraction 2 inch for each at both ends is to reduce the effective length inch in depth of overfall, or 1 inch with 5 inches deep, 2 inches with 10 inches deep, &c. With 5 inches overfall, and weirs
*

F 2

68

OVERFLOW-PIPES TO TANKS.

OS

r>-i-(T-( >O iH (N
i
1

r-li CO <7<I

COl^-

O<

CiOO Ot-

I>lO Oit^

GOO

OlOOOlO COCOO-^OO

OS'^D
CO
1

(MOiCOCOO OJOCOt>QO Or-(Or-IO

O-rHrJHt>rt<

COOOOrHiO i-lrH

T)H|>CO(M

OiCOCOCO rH(M(MCO

r^ThiOCOCO

CO<MOO<M COOiOr-l|>-

<MCOOO5O
CO CN
i-l

OOl>iOO lOOltNCDrH rHrH(N<MCO

OCDCO(Mi-l COCCOSCOt^

OSrHOCOI> ^OSTHCOCO COCOrHrUlO

r-ICOCiCNCO

(MCO1OGOO

CO(MOO(M 5O<MOC5CO (MOOCDCO rHCOT3t>OS rHTHt>O5CO COOiCOCOO

C<J<M<NCOCO
CO co

OSCOIOIOCD
rH(NCOTt<
rH CO

OOrHlOOCO Ol>COOrH
OS CO

rH CO

rH l> CO rH rH (N

t> HH

rHi-HiH

rHG<l(M(NC<l

Ha CO COCOCOCO^

OVERFLOW-PIPES TO TANKS.
5, 10, 20, 50,

69

and 100 inches long, Table 19 gives 149, 298, 597, 1492, and 2985 gallons per minute ; but deducting one inch from all those lengths, they are reduced to 4, 9, 19, 49, and
99 inches, and the discharges become 119, 268, 567, 1462, and 2955 gallons. Francis gives a rule for weirs with thin plates,
of which the following
is

a modification
(Z

G=

2-4953 x

-0-1 tid) x

In which n = the number of end contractions (usually two), Where the weir is the full width of and the rest as in (72). the channel, n = 0. By this rule, with the real lengths given above, the discharges come out 112, 251, 530, 1367, and 2762 gallons, which are rather less than with the reduced lengths by Table 19. The rules and Table to Tanks, &c." (77.) "Overflow-pipes for weirs apply also with approximate correctness to an overflowpipe to a tank, as in Fig. 46, which may be considered as a circular weir whose length is equal to the circumference of the trumpet-mouth. The following rules will give the same result more directly
:

G = D x V5 x d x G d = 8-4 x D X G

8-4

In which d = the diameter of the trumpet-mouth in inches, D = depth of water over the lip (measured from still-water) in Table 20 has inches, and G = gallons discharged per minute been calculated by this rule. The size of the discharge-pipe A must be determined by the ordinary rules with short pipes the discharge is governed principally by the head due to velocity, which is given by Table 1 rather than Table 2 for a pipe of this form. For tanks 3 feet deep, and with a discharge-pipe of that Say we had length, Table 21 gives the maximum discharge. Table 21 shows that to provide for 400 gallons per minute
:

70
4 inches

OVERFLOW-PIPES TO TANKS.

is the smallest size of pipe admissible, and allowing for overflow, Table 20 gives 12 inches for the least inches 2J must allow some margin for diameter of trumpet-mouth.

We

contingencies, and in such a case, the lip of the trumpet-mouth should not be less than 3 inches below the top of the tank, and thus 3 inches is practically lost in the useful depth of the tank.

TABLE 21.

Of the

MAXIMUM DISCHARGE
3

of

VERTICAL PIPES

FEET LONG.

OVERFLOWS TO FOUNTAINS.
necessary.
to

71

It is usual to construct the pipe so as to serve as a wash-out valve, the joint at the bottom being turned and bored

water-tight. " In ornamental fountains with Overflows to Fountains" shallow basins it is important that the water-level should fluc(79.)

fit

tuate as little as possible

described

hence the form of overflow-pipe just ; It is generally specially applicable to such cases. desirable that the pipe should be concealed, which may be done
is

by

fixing

it

in a small supplementary cistern

by the

side of the

fountain basin, with a large passage between them. For small fountains with say 100 gallons per minute, an inverted overflowpipe may be used, as in Fig. 42 a short pipe A, which serves
;

also as a waste-pipe to empty the basin when necessary by the cock B, carries the overflow trumpet-mouth C. Say we have 100

gallons ; then with a 6-inch pipe at A, the head for velocity at entry would be about 1 inch, and with a 12-inch trumpet-mouth the head for overflow, by Table 20, is also 1 inch, so that the
water-line would fluctuate 2 inches.

The cock B may be

of

smaller size, say 3 inches, the end of the pipe being reduced to suit it. With care, such an arrangement might be used for a

very large quantity, by adjusting the cock so as to carry rather less than the supply, leaving the trumpet-mouth to carry off the
surplus and regulate the level.
" Common Overflow-pipe" When an overflow takes the (80.) form of a short pipe inserted in the side of a cistern, as in Fig. 45, and the water to be carried off is just sufficient to fill the pipe, the

discharge will be given approximately by the following rule

G =
In which

d*'

x 3-2;

G=

gallons discharged per minute.

d = diameter in inches.
Table 22, which has been calculated by this rule, may also be It sometimes happens that the only useful for another purpose. datum which an engineer obtains as a basis for rough estimates " about as much as a pipe of is, that a spring or stream delivers
a certain size would carry." This, of course, is very indefinite, but in most cases it means the amount which a pipe would dis-

72

STRENGTH OF THICK

PIPES.

an 8-inch pipe just

issuing stream

charge without extra pressure, as in Fig. 45 and Table 22 thus filled delivers about 580 gallons per minute
: :

the pipe in (37) was observed to be nearly filled with the

when discharging 564

Of the DISCHARGE

gallons.

TABLE 22.

of OUTLET-PIPES, Fig. 45.

STRENGTH OF THIN

PIPES.

73

In which S = the cohesive strength of the metal per square

inch.

P=

the internal pressure per square inch, in the same terms as S. the radius of the inside of the pipe in inches. the thickness of metal in inches.

R= T =

For cast-iron S may be taken at 7'142 tons, or 16,000 Ibs. per square inch, and with that strength we obtain the bursting pressure given by Table 23, which shows that with a 10-inch pipe
a thickness of 10 inches gives only four times the strength due to a thickness of 1 inch.

TABLE 23.

Of the STKENGTH of a IO-INCH CAST-IRON PIPE INTERNAL PRESSURE, in Tons per Square Inch.

to RESIST

Thickness in inches

74

THICKNESS AND WEIGHT OF CAST-IRON SOCKET-PIPE.

PROPORTIONS OF SOCKET-PIPES.

75

f ths

at

one side and f ths at the other, and of course the least

thickness governs the strength of the pipe. And again, there are in most cases shocks arising from the closing of cocks, &c.,

In against which it is necessary to provide adequate strength. thin pipes, therefore, the determination of the thickness becomes
a practical question, and we must obtain an empirical rule from The rule may take the following form experience.
:

In which

H
t

= = =

the diameter of the pipe in inches. the safe head of water, in feet. the thickness of metal in inches.

Table 24 has been calculated by this rule, and we have also given the approximate weights, from gas-pipes in which the pressure is practically nothing, up to 1000 feet of water. Engineers usually specify the weight of their pipes rather than the thickness, leaving the founder to fix that for himself, which long

Of practice enables him to do with considerable precision. course absolute correctness cannot be attained, and should not be expected; a margin should be allowed, say one pound to
the inch, either

way

so that, for instance, a 10-inch pipe for

100 feet head, specified to weigh 4 cwt. 2 qrs. 10 Ibs., as per Table 24, should not be rejected if its real weight is between 4 cwt. 2 qrs. Ibs. and 4 cwt. 2 qrs. 20 Ibs., &c. Founders consider this to be a fair allowance for variation in weight.
(83.) "Proportions

of Socket-pipes."

The

joints

of water-

pipes are usually made by sockets lead ; and this is the best mode.

and spigots run with melted Such pipes are easy to cast, and consequently cheap, the joints are more easily made than with flanges, and they admit a considerable departure from the But strictly straight line which is sometimes very convenient.
than

must be made of larger diameter necessary where the line is straight, and for this reason, perhaps, sockets are frequently made larger than they should be for making a good joint. For ordinary cases J inch in thickness
to allow for this the sockets
is

or J inch in diameter will suffice for pipes of 3 inches diameter

76
;

PROPORTIONS OF SOCKET-PIPES.

and under say fV from 3 to 10 inches and f for larger sizes. Table 25 gives the general proportions for socket-joints, weight of
;

TABLE 25.

Of the PROPORTIONS

of JOINTS, &c., for CAST-IRON SOCKET-PIPES.

Diameter

WEIGHT OF STOCK

PIPES, BENDS, ETC.

77

78

STRENGTH OF LEAD PIPES

POWER OF HORSES,

ETC.

TABLE 27.
Diameter of
Pipe.

Of the PROPORTIONS of CAST-IRON FLANGE-PIPES.

RAINFALL

RAIN-WATER TANKS.

79

good high-pressure steam-engine should raise 3300 gallons high per minute per nominal horse-power the friction of the pumps being compensated by the excess of the indicated
1 foot
;

power over the nominal.

" (87).

Rainfall"

The depth

of rain in this country varies

the locality ; the east coast is the driest, the annual rainfall being in Northumberland about 28 67 inches,

very much with

Essex, which

diminishing thence gradually to 23 in Norfolk and to 19 '8 in is the minimum. Thence southward and westward

it gradually increases to 25 '6 in Kent, 30.64 in Sussex, 38*75 in Dorset, 48 3 in Devon, and 50-6 in Cornwall. The midland Middlesex 24 !, Leicester 26 '0, districts have a medium fall
:

Hereford 29 '27, Cheshire 31'3,

"

&c., &c.

Heavy Rains."

For town drainage and other purposes, we

require to know the find that in

maximum
30

fall of rain

during storms.

We

15
the

15
fall

45

60
be

120

180 minutes

maximum
0-75
is at

of rain

may

0-2

1-0

1-8

2-5

3-25

3-6

4 inches,

which
12

the rate per hour of

3-6

3-3

3-25
it is

1-8

1-33 inches.

" Rain-water

Tanks"

Where

desired to utilize as

as possible of the rain falling on a building, the

much minimum size

of tank becomes an important but complicated question. Taking a place with 24 inches annual rainfall, we have evidently an

allowance for a regular consumption of 2 inches per month. But there may be a drought in which for one month no rain

and the tank must have 2 inches in store to supply the There may also be a wet month with 6 inches of deficiency. rain, and as only 2 inches is consumed, 4 inches must be stored. The tank must therefore hold 2 -j- 4 = 6 inches, or th of the annual rainfall. Again, for two months we require 4 inches, but the rainfall varies from 1 to 7 inches, and the tank must For three hold (4 - l) -j- (7* - 4) = 6 inches, as before. months we require 6 inches, but the rainfall varying from 2 4
falls,

to

8-7 inches, the tank should hold

(6

2 -4)

(8-7

6)

80
6 3 inches.
*

WEIGHT AND PRESSURE OF WATER.

From

all this

we

find that a rain-water tank should

rainfall.

hold at least Jth of the annual

Thus, with 24 inches,

or 2 feet per year, a building 1830 square feet in area, collects 1830 X 2 = 3660 cubic feet, allowing a consumption of 10 cubic
or 62-3 gallons per day, and the tank should hold 3660 -f4 = 915 cubic feet. " Weight and Pressure of Water" A gallon of water (88.) at 62 weighs 10 Ibs., and contains 277-274 cubic inches, or 16046 cubic foot hence a cubic foot weighs 62 321 Ibs., and Table 28 gives the contains 6 '2321, or nearly 6J gallons. in inch due to pounds per square given columns of pressure water and mercury.
feet,
:

TABLE 28. Of EQUIVALENT PEESSUEES in POUNDS per SQUAEE INCH, FEET of WATEE, and INCHES of MEECUEY, at a Temperature of
62 Fahr.
Pounds per Square Inch.

KMtf
E
A.

Ml

F.N. Span ,'8 Charing

&ss

London

Pig

.11

Fig.

13

PLAN

& F.N

Spoil ,48 Charing Gross, London

Pi

24.

4ft

JK'M>-

'

-te

Fig. 27

.26.

28

M*B~*r.JM*1 *

iiPH.Spon 48 Channg

Qrai5,Lcadan.

IE JbP.lI.Span.46 Chsnnfi C

Fig.

37

Tig. 40
3O fen

Tig.

4-1

I4P"N Spon48, Charing Cross JLondm.

:,pon

4. Charing

Cross, London.

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON HEAT,

AS APPLIED TO THE USEFUL ARTS.
FOR THE USE OP

ENGINEEKS, ARCHITECTS,
BY
This

ETC.

THOMAS
'

BOX,
illustrated Ly
8*. 6d.

AUTHOR OF

PRACTICAL HYDRAULICS.'

Work

upwards of 90 Tables, and is 14 Lithographic Plates. In Crown Svo, cloth,

contains

" Some books

it is difficult to

condemn

in sufficiently strong terms

;

some books deserve mingled

praise

and blame

impossible to read without pleasure, or to In the latter class we place Mr. Box's little work. It is essentially sui There is nothing like it in the English language. . . generis. The tables alone in this work are invaluable. They supply at a glance information which, without their aid, can only be obtained by reading through many volumes, picking out a bit here and a bit there, and have already favourably noticed then making intricate calculations. ' our author's treatise on Hydraulics,' and the system pursued in the . . Engineers will find preparation of that work is here perfected. . the chapters on combustion and steam-boilers, especially useful. . . The chapter on heating buildings is just the thing required by archi. . The work is illustrated by over 100 beautiful little tects. . cannot lithographs, and the paper and printing are alike excellent. better conclude a notice all too short, than by two words of advice to our readers buy it." Engineer, Dec. 4, 1868. " This work, which may be aptly described as a big book in a small compass, supplies to a very considerable extent a great want in our Doubtless many treatises on heat have been engineering literature. published in the English language, but there are very few of them which . . believe that it would are of general use to a practical man. be impossible for any one to convey the same amount of thoroughly practical information in a less space than Mr. Box has done, and in an engineering manual intended for constant reference this concentration At the same time, of facts, as we term it, is a most valuable feature. clearness has in no case been sacrificed to compactness, and the work bears throughout ample evidence of every division having been treated ' with a conscientious * thoroughness on the part of the author, which It is printed in good type, and is illusdeserves high praise. .

and a few books it is praise without gratification.

We

We

We

trated

by lithographed

tion to detail"

plates, executed with great clearness and attenEngineering, Jan. 22 and Feb. 19, 1869.

A practical treatise upon this subject, comprising the results of the most recent observations and experiments, is very much needed at the present time, and both the author and publishers of the volume before us have conferred a great benefit upon the public by its timely publication. We would be glad to give it an extended review adequate to its merits, but we must content ourselves at this time with an enumeration
of the general conlents of the work. These comprise: general principles and facts in the theory of heat and combustion, the principles and details of steam-boilers, efflux of air, vapour, evaporation, distillation, drying,

"

heating liquids and air, transmission of heat and laws of cooling, laws of cooling at high temperatures, transmission of heat by conduction, ventilation, examples of heating and ventilation, wind and its effects upon It would be hard to perform heating and ventilation, &c., &c. the work which Mr. Box has undertaken in a more creditable manner than he has done it. To be at once brief and exhaustive, is a difficult task for any author, but one in which this writer seems to excel." Scientific American, June 26, 1869. " Many writers have treated on the laws of heat, but few have so uniformly applied them to the purposes of the useful arts. All the observations of Mr. Box have a practical aim. Unlike the ignorant stoker he describes, who delights in a roaring fire and a sharp draught, unconscious of the loss of fuel, he is always striving after the utilization of our resources. quiet perusal of his work will help to unravel many knotty points in the minds of those who are thinking over schemes of heating and ventilation. All owners, besides tenders of furnaces, steamboilers, and stoves used in the different arts, will find matters of moment in his pages. There are few engaged in manufactures or the arts of construction on whom Mr. Box's work is not likely to confer a wrinkle. To the general student it will prove a valuable assistant." Builder, Nov. 14, 1868.

...

" Under the above title we have a valuable little volume, which comIt is bines the scientific and the popular style in a very happy mean. capable of being studied as a text book, and also read as an interesting The question of ventilation, which is one of the most . . treatise. important that can possibly arise, is treated as it undoubtedly deserves, and particular notice made of the best means to effect the adequate
.

There are abundance ventilation of schools, churches, and hospitals. of practical examples adduced as illustrations of the rules laid down, and anyone by due attention and study can thoroughly master them all.

The volume
sional

is

are such as to

recommend

printed in capital type, and its whole style and get-up it to the amateur, the student, and the profes-

The calculations . rendering his subject as attractive as possible. are divested of all mathematical complexity, and the process of arriving This mode of at the correct results made manifest in plain figures.
. .

man." Building News, Nov. 20, 1868. " Mr. Box has in undoubtedly succeeded in the volume on our table

treating the various mechanical

and physical investigations

in

connection

with the effects of heat will be exceedingly valuable to the artisan and mechanic who may not be well aquainted with the rules of algebra or versed in the intricate manipulation of the higher mathematics. We congratulate both the author and the publisher upon their present Mechanics' Magazine, Dec. 18, issue."
.

By

the

same Author,

A PRACTICAL TREATISE ON MILL-GEARING,

WHEELS, SHAFTS, KIGGEKS,
FOB

ETC.,

THE USE OF ENGINEEES.

Containing upwards of 30 Tables, and illustrated by 8 Lithographic
Plates.

In Crown

Svo, cloth,

5.

' " All those of our readers who are possessed of Mr. Box's Practical ' and ' Treatise on Heat (and no engineer should be without those handy little volumes) will gladly note the publication of the work before us. Mr. Box's books are what they profess to be practical treatises, clearly written, and free from all abstruse mathematical formulas The third of the series (at least we hope that there is to be a . It conseries) is in no way inferior to those which have preceded it. tains within the space of some eighty odd octavo pages, five chapters treating respectively of the standard unit of power, of wheels, of shafts, of riggers, and of keys for wheels and riggers; the work being concluded by an Appendix. In the chapter on wheels, Mr. Box gives rules for laying out and calculating the strength of teeth, as well as for proportioning the wheels themselves, these rules being accompanied by
'

Hydraulics

numerous tables, which materially facilitate calculation. Similarly the chapter on shafts comprises rules for calculating the transmitting power of shafts under different conditions, together with descriptions of various methods of coupling, useful notes on plumber-blocks, bearings, &c., and a section devoted to the consideration of crank-shafts for driving pumps and other work. The chapter on riggers or pulleys contains a clear explanation of the action of belts, accompanied by some useful tables, and also rules for the proportions of riggers of various kinds; while the fifth chapter, though brief, is equally good in its way. Finally, the Appendix contains notes on the contraction of wheels in casting, the strength of shafts and gearing for screw-propellers, and the theoretical strength of shafts. have now briefly indicated the

We

enough

contents of Mr. Box's useful little treatise, and we trust we have said to show that it forms a valuable addition to the practical engineer's library." Engineering, July 16, 1869.

" Practical engineers owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. Box for the preone on paration and publication of three valuable little treatises Hydraulics, another on Heat, and now another on Mill-gearing. These are all admirable in their way. Mr. Box's work is essentially practical, and requires little or no knowledge of mathematics to enable it to be mastered. The work is admirably illustrated, beautifully printed, and written in a clear, concise, and precise style which reflects much credit on its author." Engineer, Sept. 10, 1869.
:
.

In

the Press, by the

same Author,

PRACTICAL HYDRAULICS:
A SERIES OF RULES AND TABLES
FOB THE USE OF

ENGINEEBS,
Crown
8vo, cloth, 5s.

ETC.

Second Edition, re-written and enlarged, containing upwards of 30 Tables, and illustrated by 8 Lithographic Plates. In

REVIEW OF FIRST EDITION.

not often met with a more admirable little book than this. Small enough to be carried in the pocket, it yet contains a great mass of information arranged in such a form that the reader can find at a moment's notice what he wants. It is not an exhaustive treatise on hydraulics, but simply a series of rules and tables, accompanied with such explanations as serve to make them perfectly clear. To solve questions in hydraulics according to the methods ordinarily given, requires a very thorough acquaintance with mathematics. Mr. Box, however, by the aid of tables, has succeeded in simplifying formulae to such an extent that a very moderate aquaintance with algebra will enable the engineer to solve difficult questions, if not with the greatest precision, at least with a sufficient approximation to it, to answer most practical purposes. It is well got up, and The book will supply a want long felt. fully illustrated by some of the best engravings we have seen in a work on hydraulics." Engineer, Nov. 22, 1867.
.

"

We have

E,

&

F. N.

SPON, 48, Charing

Cross, London,

S.W,

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