Fluid Flow Fundamentals

Full appreciation of developments in production logging requires an understanding of the complex

mechanics of fluid flow. This article outlines the basics of both monophase and multiphase flow.

Grard Catala Monophase Fluid Flow

Laminar Flow
Bernard Thron How fluids flow in a pipe depends largely
Clamart, France on the pipe diameter D and on the physical
characteristics of the fluid: velocity V, den-
Gilbert Conort sity , and dynamic viscosity .1 Inside pipe, Dye
Montrouge, France monophasic fluid flow is either turbulent or
laminar (right).
John Ferguson In laminar flow, the fluid layers slide Turbulent Flow
Cambridge, England smoothly over each other. Momentum
exchange is at the molecular scale. Instabili-
ties are damped by viscosity, producing vis-
cous shear forces that resist the relative Dye
Researchers have sought for years to under- motion of adjacent fluid layers. The velocity
stand and model the complex flow regimes profile of laminar flow increases uniformly
found within oil wells. The advent of in a parabolic fashion from the pipe wall Laminar and turbulent velocity profiles
visualized using marker dye. Laminar flow
increased high-angle and horizontal wells inward across the pipe. (top) is characterized by unmixed parallel
has only served to make this task harder. Typically, laminar flow is encountered fluid streams of increasing velocity starting
Today, detailed theoretical work coupled only under slow-flowing conditions, for from stationary fluid at the inside surface of
with extensive experimentation has example near the bottom of the borehole. the pipe to the most rapidly moving fluid at
expanded the frontiers of fluid mechanics For a typical well with a 358-in. casing, the center. The velocity profile across the
pipe is parabolic. Turbulent flow (bottom)
knowledge, which in turn has helped in the water would have to flow less than about shows a rapid mixing and exchange of
development of new production logging 8 in./sec [20 cm/sec] to maintain laminar fluid volumes across the pipe. The resulting
sensors and analysis (see Revitalizing Pro- flow. For most flowing wells, turbulent flow velocity profile is relatively uniform across
duction logging, page 44). is the norm.2 In turbulent flow, the fluid the pipe cross section.
Although many key advances have been exhibits erratic motion with a violent
made in understanding multiphase flow, it is exchange of momentum and locally circu-
first necessary to be familiar with the key lating currentsvorticesresulting in a flat- forcesmomentumto its static frictional
elements of monophase flow. ter velocity profile across the pipe. forcesviscosity:
A wellbores fluid-flow character is deter-
For help preparing this article, thanks to Christian VD .
mined by the dimensionless Reynolds num- NRe =
Besson, Ken Stephenson and Colin Whittaker,
ber, N Re, the ratio of the fluids inertial
Schlumberger Cambridge Research (SCR), Cambridge,
England.
1. Dynamic fluid viscosity indicates a fluids resistance If NRe is less than about 2000, the fluid flow
to flow, caused by shear resistance primarily across an
interface. Kinetic viscosity is defined as dynamic vis-
will be laminar, and if NRe is greater than
cosity divided by the density of the fluid. 4000, the flow will be fully turbulent, with
2. Some shallow wells produce low-gravity crudes a transition region between. In the transition
where water-in-oil emulsions occur. The viscosity of region, the flow profile depends on whether
these fluids may exceed 100 to 1000 cp, and in these
situations laminar flow may be expected. the fluid is free of disturbances, especially
in the fluid inlet area.

Winter 1996 61
 Flow structures changing with deviation.
The mixing layer thickness is:
For a given pipe deviation = constant Holdup and velocity profiles are deter-
For a horizontal pipe 0 Velocity mined by the pipe deviation, average
For a vertical pipe water holdup and the size of the mixing
layer. In nearly vertical wells up to 20
(top), the mixing layer is large and extends
across the pipe diameter. There is a

p
smooth varying mix of oil and water across

O
u
ho l
er ca
ld

il
at o
the pipe. As pipe deviation is slightly
w L
Top Bottom

M laye
increased, gravity ensures there is a higher

ixi r
Nearly vertical well

ng
Holdup concentration of oil in the upper section.
Oil and water (mixed) 1
everywhere across the In moderate to highly deviated wells of 20

W
at
section of the pipe.
to 85 (middle), portions of the pipe have

er
Decreasing Smooth velocity
profiles. monophasic fluid flow. The multiphase flu-
average
water holdup Almost linear holdup 0
ids segregate by gravity with the heavy
profiles. Top Bottom fluid at the bottom of the pipe. The mixing
layer moves towards the top of the pipe,
and this domain has the most complex
flow structure with large gradients of veloc-
ity and holdup distributions. At low flow
rates, backflow may occur, where water is
Increasing recirculated. The water velocity will be
average Velocity
negative in the lowest portion of the pipe.
water holdup
In nearly horizontal and horizontal wells,
from 85 to 95, the mixing layer becomes
Multiphase flow structures. Downhole
0 small, almost disappearing at 90 (bottom).
multiphase flow consists of a mixing layer
The flow is monophasic oil at the top of the
of bubbles between two monophase lay- Deviated well Top Bottom pipe and monophasic water at the bottom
ers. The mixing layer thickness ()
Very complex flow of the pipe. As soon as the well deviates
depends on the pipe diameter and inclina- Holdup
structure. 1 slightly from 90, the monophasic oil and
tion. In vertical wells, the mixing layer is Monophasic water water streams flow at different velocities.
infinitely large, and mixing is uniform phase at the bottom
across the pipe. For horizontal wells with of the pipe.
stratified flow, there is essentially no mix- Dispersed oil phase at
ing layer. In deviated wells, as average the uppermost of the
pipe. 0
water holdup increases, the mixing layer
Large velocity and Top Bottom In a system with multiphase flow, buoy-
moves up across the pipe as shown by the holdup gradients. ancy due to pipe deviation causes different
position of the local water holdup profile
density phases to separate with a mixing
(blue line) within the red box.
layer of dispersed bubbles in between.
Separation into at least two different immis-
cible phases with a mixing layer in between
Velocity
Multiphase Flow Dynamics leads to what is called a flow structure.
In general, production logs are used to Multiphase flow structuresat least in
diagnose unwanted water or gas entries at two-phase floware characterized by the
downhole conditons, where: oil and water width of the mixing layer. Under these con-
are immiscible; gas is miscible with water, ditions, another parameter of the flow sys-
Top Bottom
in small quantities; and gas is miscible with tem becomes critical to understanding the
Nearly horizontal well
oil, in large quantities. At a given pressure Holdup flow structure: deviation angle of the pipe
and temperature, oil and water can absorb Almost stratified flows. 1
from vertical. The mixing layer thickness is
Monophasic oil at the
a given amount of gas until they are saturat- top and monophasic fixed for a given pipe diameter and borehole
ed with gas. Above this gas saturation con- water at the bottom. deviation. As the overall fractional volume
Narrow mixing layer.
centration limit, gas cannot mix further and Oil and water streams 0
of water in the pipewater holdup
stays as a separate gas phase. So for a given flow at different Top Bottom changes, the position of the mixing layer
velocities.
pressure and temperature, there can be up moves across the pipe diameter (above left).
to three phases: oil with gas in solution Even with a relatively simple two-phase
traditionally called oil; water with a small 3. Flow structure and speed are phase-steering mecha- system, such as water and oil, the effect of
quantity of gas in solutiontraditionally nisms that may accelerate or slow down the physical- borehole deviation on mixing and flow
chemical equilibrium of the three fluid phases. Empiri-
called water; and free gasgas.3 cal equations are used for transforming the quantities structure is complicated. At least three types
When more than one phase is flowing in a seen downhole to surface, ambient conditions. These of flow structures can be defined based on
pipe, gravity ensures that the light phase corrections are small and approximate, and therefore the pipe deviation angle.
it is appropriate to neglect these steering effects at log-
travels at a faster speed than the heavier ging conditions. First, in vertical wells, the oil and water
phase. The speed difference is called the slip 4. The holdup profile can be approximated by a linear phases are fully mixed across the entire pipe
velocity. This phenomenon generates a dif- function. cross section. Even for wells with a deviation
ference between the phase flow-rate ratios less than 20, the mixing layer is large and
and the phase concentrationsfor example, the two phases are mixed across the pipe
in an oil-and-water system, the water cut is with a smooth velocity profile. However, as
always smaller than the water holdup. soon as the pipe is deviated further, gravity

62 Oilfield Review
 6000
Oil

Water

Total flow rate, B/D

1500
Oil

Water

600 Oil

Water

80 89 90 91
Deviation from vertical

The Schlumberger-Cambridge Research

(SCR) flow loop. Built in 1985, the flow loop
can handle two- and three-phase fluid Water-oil stratified flow in the SCR flow
flows to over 6000 B/D in 100-ft [30-m] loop. These experiments show a strong
clear, high-strength pipes. The flow loop dependence of the flow behavior on well
can be tilted to simulate borehole devia- deviation at low flow rates. The structure
tions from horizontal to vertical. of the flow, holdup and velocity profiles
change completely between 89 and 91
(lower rightmost figures). Here the oil and
water flow rates are both equal at 300 B/D
creates a higher concentration of oil in the are not sufficient to understand the flow in a 5 12-in. pipe.
upper section of the pipe. The profile of local structure. Local measurements made across At 90, oil and water velocities, shown by
water holdup is slowly varying across the the pipe diameter are needed to clarify the arrows, and holdups are nearly equal. Oil
pipe (previous page, right).4 With this kind of velocity and holdup profiles. viscosity is slightly higher than water,
flow structure, averaged measurements Last, for horizontal wells, with deviation leading to oil velocity and holdup being
across the pipe using traditional PL sensors from approximately 85 to 95, the flow slightly slower and larger than water. With
a borehole deviation of only 89, the heav-
fullbore spinner and gradiomanometerare structure becomes completely stratified, ier water, which is flowing uphill, slows
adequate to determine velocity and holdup. with little or no mixing. Water flows at the down. As a result, water holdup increases
Second, in deviated wells between 20 to bottom, and the oil or gas phase flows at the to maintain the same flow rate. Lighter oil
85, portions of the pipe cross section have top. At low flow rates, the flow behavior has will speed up to maintain the same flow
rate. Effects at 89 are large, because lon-
monophasic flow, but the overall flow struc- a strong dependence on the well deviation. gitudinal buoyancy forces are already
ture is complex. Heavy phase, typically As soon as the borehole deviates slightly large compared to frictional forces. At a
water, due to gravity, segregates at the bot- from 90, the monophasic oil and water borehole deviation of 80, the change in
tom of the pipe, and the mixing layer is now streams flow at different velocities. flow continues, but not as fast as the
located at the uppermost part of the pipe At Schlumberger Cambridge Research, change between 90 and 89.
with dispersed bubbles of oil or gas. In Cambridge, England, controlled flow-loop If the borehole deviates upwards to 91,
mixed gas-liquid flow, the structure can be experiments with equal flow rates for oil heavier water now flowing downhill
more complex. The gas can flow in slugs and water demonstrate the dramatic effects speeds up, while holdup decreases to
instead of small bubbles. This flow structure of borehole deviation. (above left). At 90, maintain the same flow rate. Oil does the
opposite, slowing down in the 91 bore-
has large gradients in the velocity and local oil and water velocities and holdup are hole, with an accompanying increase in
holdup distributions. At low flow rates, nearly equal. At 89, the oil, which is lighter holdup. The dependence on the deviation
water is frequently recirculated, and the than the water, accelerates under the action is smaller at high flow rates, because fric-
water velocity at the bottom of the pipe may of the buoyancy forces, and as a conse- tional forces against the pipe wall and at
be negative in some areas. quence the water velocity decreases and the the fluid interface increase at higher veloc-
ities to become the predominant forces
At high flow rates, differential acceleration interface level rises (above right). (middle figures). At high flow rates, the
of phases due to the shear forces between In this case, the water holdup is high. The interface between the two phases is no
the different fluid phases can lead to insta- effect is large, even at 89, because the lon- longer flat, but wavy and bubbly showing
bilities know as Kelvin-Helmholtz instabili- gitudinal buoyancy forces are already large emerging shear instabilities (top).
ties, almost causing a breakdown in stratifi- compared to the frictional shearing forces.
cation. Under these conditions, production Here the water is flowing uphill, and there-
logging sensors that yield average answers fore flows more slowly than the lighter oil.

Winter 1996 63
 At 91, the water flows downhill much water holdup. Here the velocity profiles are
Pure oil
faster than the oil because its density is complex, sometimes changing direction
Pure water higher. The oil-water interface level drops, across the pipe, and detailed measurements
and the water holdup is low. At high flow are necessary to accurately determine the
90 rates, the dependence on borehole devia- multiphase flow rates. In Domain-3, in the
3 tion is smaller because the increasing shear upper region of the plot are the nearly hori-
4 2
Pure
oil 1 Pure
frictional forces against the wall and inter- zontal wells, and their special problems

Deviation
water face dominate. Under high flow-rate condi- with stratified fluid distributions and flow.
0
tions, the position of the interface, and Here, detailed holdup and velocity flow
0% 100%
Average water holdup
therefore average water holdup, is not as information is needed to determine accurate
dependent on borehole deviation as is the flow rates.
case in lower rates of flow. Finally, there is Domain-4 in the leftmost
In multiphase flow, the flows are usually region, where development is still ongoing
considered turbulent, although laminar flow to understand flow velocity and holdup
can occur when the borehole is perfectly distributions. Generally speaking, this
horizontal. As soon as the borehole is no domain is symmetrical to Domain-2. The
Four domains of flow derived from flow longer horizontal, one phase accelerates top of the pipe cross section is filled by
structure variation with deviation and and generates turbulence. The Reynolds monophasic oil and the bottom by a bub-
holdup. The traditional PL environment number, which is clearly defined in a pipe bly mixture. The velocity profile across the
Domain-1 has small borehole deviations with monophasic flow, can be redefined in pipe is complex. This is currently an area of
and a large mixing layer across the entire
pipe. Holdup and velocity profiles are multiphase flow in several ways by using the active research.
slowly changing. Domain-2 has deviated mixture velocity or the velocity of each
wells with high water holdup and complex phase and slip velocity. At present, there is Modeling in the Future
water velocity profiles. In highly deviated no general consensus on what to use for an An increasingly sophisticated understand-
and horizontal wells, Domain-3, the mixing
appropriate definition of Reynolds number ing of the mechanisms of different types of
layer is small and the flow consists of strat-
ified flow with monophasic regions at the in multiphase flow. fluid flow is helping to improve production
bottom and top of the pipe. Domain-4 has The types of flow structures, discussed here, logging services. Fluid-flow models, based
deviated holes and low water holdup. can be classified into four domains, with on a better understanding of the different
respect to the borehole pipe deviation and flow structures, are routinely used to help
the average water holdup. (left). interpret PL measurements.
In Domain-1, the lowest region of the plot, However, the current models are still too
are the traditional production logging mea- limited to accurately tackle all the con-
surements and techniquesapplied to verti- stantly changing flow structures actually
cal and nearly vertical wells. These wells seen within oil wells. The challenge is to not
have simple velocity and holdup profiles, only develop these improved models, but
where average measurements are suffi- also to introduce appropriate new logging
ciently accurate to determine fluid-flow measurements that adapt to every possible
rates. In the right region of the plot, flow structure.
Domain-2, are deviated wells with high

64 Oilfield Review