Excretion-Wastes, Water and Salt Balance

CHAPTER 3
Excretion—wastes, water and salt balance

Plants and animals regulate the concentration of gases,
water and waste products of metabolism in cells and in
interstitial fluid
The maintenance of relatively constant excretory system is made up of those

concentrations of gases, water systems and organs that carry out the
and waste products in the internal removal of metabolic wastes from
environment of living organisms (cells the body. Carbon dioxide is excreted
and body fluids) is an important aspect via the lungs (respiratory system) and
of homeostasis. The concentration nitrogenous wastes are removed,
of these substances directly affects along with excess salts and water,
metabolism in cells. Excretory wastes via the kidneys (urinary system). In
produced by cellular functioning in mammals, sweat glands in the skin
the body include carbon dioxide and may also excrete some excess salts,
nitrogenous wastes such as ammonia, as well as nitrogenous wastes in a
urea and uric acid. Nitrogenous wastes dilute form. In aquatic animals such as
are produced in the liver as a result of tadpoles and fish, gills act as excretory
protein breakdown. Excretory products organs to eliminate excess carbon
of cells alter the normal internal dioxide (in addition to their function of
environment of cells of the body oxygenating blood), while in plants the
and body fluids (such as blood and elimination of carbon dioxide at night
interstitial fluid in animals) and, unless occurs through the stomata of leaves.
they are removed, they can poison the Note: Excretion in animals should
organism, interfere with metabolism not be confused with elimination,
and ultimately lead to death. which is the removal of unabsorbed
Excretion is the process by which food from the body, since this
waste products, which have been undigested food was never a part of the
produced as a result of metabolism, metabolic functioning of the body.
are removed from the body. The
3.1 The iimportance of excretion (and water and salt

balance) in humans and other animals
balan
Homeostasis, the maintenance of a pH, enzymes are substrate specific,
steady internal state, is essential for and do not function effectively in
cell functioning. Cell metabolism an environment where there is an
is controlled by enzymes which accumulation of waste products or
catalyse each chemical reaction in the optimal concentrations of water
living organisms. In addition to being and dissolved substances are not
extremely sensitive to temperature and maintained.
70
Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 70 28/5/08 2:37:06 PM

EXCRETION—WASTES, WATER AND SALT BALANCE
In this chapter, we deal with the role ■ removing metabolic wastes

of the excretory system in regulating (including nitrogenous wastes and
the levels of water and salts (ions) in carbon dioxide)
the body, as well its role in eliminating ■ maintaining optimal water and salt
wastes which are toxic to cells (even levels (i.e. osmoregulation).
in relatively low concentrations)—in Additional functions of the excretory
keeping with the theme of this HSC system in humans and other mammals
module: ‘Maintaining a balance’. are the maintenance of:
The excretory system regulates the ■ blood pH
concentrations of essential substances ■ blood volume (and therefore blood
and wastes in the internal environment pressure).
by:
Water balance: the importance of maintaining water

concentration
■ explain why the concentration of water in cells should be
maintained within a narrow range for optimal function
Water makes up at least two-thirds dependent on the osmotic gradient—
of the body composition of most water moves from a high to a low
living organisms, and the internal water concentration through the
concentration of water and dissolved selectively permeable cell membrane.
substances in cells is similar to that of The movement of water into and out of
sea water. (This is not surprising if we cells therefore depends directly on the
consider that all early life forms are concentration of solutions both inside
thought to have evolved in the sea.) and outside the cells.
Water is the solvent that forms the Water provides the necessary
basic aquatic medium of cytoplasm medium in which all chemical reactions
in cells and also of body fluids of metabolism can occur : chemical
such as blood, interstitial fluid and reactions in cells can proceed only if
digestive juices in animals. It is also the reactants are dissolved in water.
the transport medium in plants, acting Water and solute concentration in cells
as a medium for the translocation of and fluids in living organs must be
ions in xylem and sugars in phloem maintained at a relatively constant level,
tissue. Solutes that dissolve in water within a narrow range so that these
in living organisms include inorganic cellular reactions can take place.
dissolved ions (such as sodium, Water itself may participate as a
potassium, chloride and hydrogen ions) reactant in some metabolic processes
and organic solutes such as glucose (such as photosynthesis) and may be
and amino acids (end products of a product (for example, in cellular
digestion), as well as urea and ammonia respiration).
(nitrogenous wastes that accumulate as
a result of protein breakdown). Problems associated with change in
Changes in water concentration water concentration
lead to corresponding changes in solute If the balance of water and solutes in
concentration in cells: the relative cells is not maintained at an optimal
concentration of solutes: water in cells concentration, too much water may
determines the osmotic pressure move into cells, causing them to burst
of cells. Water enters and leaves cells (if they are animal cells) or too much
by the process of osmosis and the water may move out, causing the cell
net direction of water movement is contents to shrink and the cytoplasm
71

MAINTAINING A BALANCE
to become too concentrated for normal and this is responsible for structural
cell functioning. support in many living organisms
The osmotic pressure of living tissue (such as plants and some invertebrate
can also affect the pH in cells—for animals). For example, in plants
example, too little water leads to an osmotic pressure maintains cell
increase in the concentration of solutes shape—the outward osmotic pressure
such as carbon dioxide and this in turn of the vacuole is counteracted by
lowers pH. Both osmotic pressure and the inward pressure of the cell wall,
pH must be maintained within a narrow making plant cells turgid.
range so that enzymes can function If water accumulates in high
under optimal conditions, to allow quantities as an end product of
effective metabolism. Homeostasis is metabolism in cells, it may dilute
the regulatory process by which these reactants and slow down metabolism;
levels are maintained. therefore excess water must be
Correct fluid concentrations removed from living organisms.
maintain the osmotic pressure of cells
The importance of the removal of wastes

■ explain why the removal of wastes is essential for
continued metabolic activity
Any accumulation of wastes may be ■ carbon dioxide accumulation, which
toxic to cells and so metabolic wastes lowers pH, resulting in the internal
must be removed from the body to environment becoming more acidic.
maintain homeostasis. If wastes are These changes to the acidity or
not continuously removed, their levels alkalinity of cells slow down or inhibit
in the body will increase and alter the enzyme functioning in metabolism.
conditions in the internal environment. The accumulation of wastes
This in turn inhibits enzyme functioning that do not alter the pH may cause
and prevents cells from undergoing other problems—increased solute
normal metabolic activity. Examples are: concentrations interfere with reaction
■ the build-up of nitrogenous wastes rates and an osmotic imbalance
such as ammonia, which causes an adversely affects membrane
increase in pH in cells, resulting in functioning.
them becoming more alkaline
3.2 The role

ro of the kidney in excretion and
osmoregulation
osmor
The excretory system is a group of The function of the kidney in
organs that function together to remove excretion is to filter the blood that
metabolic wastes from the tissues of an enters it, removing wastes (in solution)
organism and expel them to the outside from the bloodstream so that they
(see Fig. 3.1a). The kidneys are the can be excreted from the body. This
main excretory organs responsible for filtration is carried out in millions of
removing nitrogenous wastes from the tiny excretory units called nephrons.
bodies of vertebrate animals, including Urine is the excretory solution finally
fish and mammals. produced by these microscopic tubules
72

renal cortex renal medulla Figure 3.1

(a) Excretory system
kidneys of mammals;
(b) macroscopic
renal artery structure of
renal vein mammalian kidney
(longitudinal section);
ureter (c) microscopic
inferior aorta structure showing the
vena cava bladder distribution of tubules
renal artery—carries
blood to kidney in the mammalian
renal
urethra pelvis kidney; (d) nephron
renal pelvis—funnels and associated
urine into the ureter
capillaries
renal vein—carries ureter

blood away from kidney
(a) (b)
proximal
distal tubule proximal tubule
efferent arteriole convoluted
from glomerulus tubule
distal
convoluted
tubule Bowman’s
afferent arteriole capsule
from renal artery
Bowman’s capsule
glomerulus
decending limb renal

ascending limb cortex
branch of
renal vein loop of
Henle
collecting
duct
renal
medulla
to
renal
pelvis
collecting
duct
(c) (d) loop of Henle
and it drains out of the kidneys, carrying are filtered to form urine. The kidney is
wastes out of the kidney via ducts, the drained of its fluids by two vessels:
ureters. In vertebrates, the ureters lead ■ the renal vein, which carries
to a urine storage organ, the bladder, purified blood back into the general
which passes urine via the urethra to circulation
the outside. In other vertebrates, the ■ the ureter, which carries urine
ureters carry urine directly to a chamber, (a watery solution containing
the cloaca (the common opening of nitrogenous wastes) out of the
the urinary, digestive and reproductive kidney (see Fig. 3.1a and b).
tracts), which empties to the outside The blood that was filtered in
(see Fig. 3.2). the kidney tubules returns to the
The oxygenated blood arriving general circulation via the renal
at the kidney, via the renal artery, vein. This blood has been purified
carries nitrogenous wastes and these, (all nitrogenous wastes have been
together with water and other solutes, removed).
73

water and salt (electrolyte) balance in

bladder
animals. The maintenance of a stable
ureter
blood volume, blood pressure and pH
renal portal
vein opening depends upon a stable water balance
kidney
of ureter within a narrow range in the body. The
aorta
importance of conserving water varies
in different animals, depending on the
environment which each inhabits.
The main environments inhabited
cloaca by living organisms are freshwater,
marine and terrestrial habitats. Each
habitat presents its own problems for
Figure 3.2 Cloaca
organisms in terms of maintaining
of fish, showing the Animals use water to flush metabolic their internal water and salt balance.
opening of the urinary wastes out of the body. Excretion The kidneys of animals have evolved
tract
therefore brings with it the problem to function in both excretion and the
of regulating the amount of water lost, removal or conservation of water and
while ensuring that wastes are removed. salts, maintaining optimal levels of
The role of the kidney includes both these substances within the bodies
the excretion of nitrogenous wastes of animals that live in different
and osmoregulation—maintaining the environments.
3.3 Active and passive transport (diffusion and osmosis)

in kidne
■
kidney functioning
distinguish between active and passive transport and
relate these to processes occurring in the mammalian
kidney
SR Movement of materials into and out randomly. When they are in a higher
of cells takes place either passively or concentration in one region, this
actively. Passive movement includes constant movement slowly results in
the processes of diffusion and osmosis. an overall spreading out from the most
These types of movement require concentrated point, finally bringing
Assumedd kknowledge—
l d
no energy input from the cell, since about their even distribution within
osmosis, diffusion and
active transport molecules move along a concentration
a space. The main limitations of
gradient (see Assumed Knowledge
passive movement are that it depends
on the Student Resource CD). Active
transport requires an input of cellular on the presence of a difference
energy to actively move molecules in concentration of substances (a
against a concentration gradient. concentration gradient) between two
regions and that it is relatively slow,
Passive transport in the especially when the concentration
mammalian kidney gradient is not steep.
Diffusion and osmosis result from Diffusion is the movement of
the random movement of particles, any molecules from a region of high
called Brownian motion, whereby concentration to a region of low
particles continually collide and move concentration of that substance, until
74

equilibrium is reached. This does not Active transport in the

require an energy input. mammalian kidney
Osmosis is the movement of
Active transport is the movement
water molecules from a region of
of molecules from an area of low
high water concentration to a region
concentration to a region of high
of low water concentration through a
concentration, requiring an input of
selectively permeable membrane. This
energy.
does not require an energy input.
Sometimes in living organisms there
Within the kidney, the movement of
is a need to move a chemical against
substances between the bloodstream
the concentration gradient, and to do
and excretory fluid in the microscopic this, active transport occurs. Active
tubules (called nephrons) involves transport involves a carrier protein that
both active and passive transport. A spans the membrane and this carrier
balance in the optimal concentrations molecule can actively move chemicals
of blood chemicals is maintained by the from a low to a high concentration,
selective excretion of wastes, as well utilising cellular energy.
as any excess water and salts, in urine. Active transport moves mainly
Therefore the ability of the kidney to sodium ions, glucose, amino acids and
alter the urine concentration plays a hydrogen ions across the wall of the
vital role in homeostasis. nephron:
Within the kidney tubules, there is a ■ All glucose and amino acids are
two-way movement of substances: reabsorbed by kidney cells so that
■ Waste substances pass from the they are not lost in urine and so
bloodstream into the kidney tubules, they move against a concentration
to be excreted in urine (filtration and gradient.
secretion). ■ Additional nitrogenous wastes (e.g.
■ Substances required by the body uric acid) and hydrogen ions (H+)
are removed from the urine in the are added to urine (from the blood
kidney tubules (before it is excreted) capillaries) in the kidney tubules.
and returned to the bloodstream ■ A ‘sodium pump’ mechanism
(reabsorption). operates in the tubules of the
Passive transport moves water kidneys, actively transporting ions
(by osmosis), and some nitrogenous (salts) from the urine back into the
wastes such as urea and ammonia (by kidney cells. Besides conserving
diffusion) in the kidney of mammals. salts, this process also brings about
In the kidney, only excess water and the conservation of water within
salts are excreted; homeostasis requires the body—the active transport of
that sometimes water and salts should salts draws water out of the urine,
be conserved to maintain the required because water follows by osmosis
levels within the body and at other (passive transport). Water is drawn
times they should be excreted. Salt by the osmotic pull of the salts in
movement is via active transport (see solution.
below) and this in turn draws water by (These are explained in greater detail in
osmosis (passive movement). section 3.4.)
75

3.4 Why osmosis

o and diffusion may be inadequate for
waste removal
■ explain
expla
ain why the processes of diffusion and osmosis are
inadequate in removing dissolved nitrogenous wastes in
inade
some organisms
Diffusion and osmosis are both types Problems with relying on
of passive transport that require no osmosis
energy input and so they are slow—
Too much water may be lost in urine.
the movement of molecules relies
If urine contains a large number of
on differences in the concentration
nitrogenous wastes in solution, water
gradient between two solutions
will be drawn into the urine by osmosis,
(they move from a high to a low
to dilute the wastes and try to equalise
concentration), and so both diffusion
the concentration of the fluid inside the
and osmosis slow down as the
urine and in the surrounding kidney
difference in concentration gradient
tissues. However, excretion of dilute
becomes smaller, and they stop once
urine means the loss of large amounts
the concentration gradient reaches
of water from the body—a loss many
equilibrium.
terrestrial animals cannot afford.
Problems with relying on Movement of water may make wastes
diffusion too dilute for excretion by diffusion.
Organisms that live in freshwater
The rate of movement is too slow. environments have a different
Nitrogenous wastes and toxins such as problem—osmosis results in water
drugs that accumulate in the body must moving into the body tissues from the
be dissolved in water when they are surrounding environment. Although this
removed. If their removal by the kidney dilutes the toxic wastes in the body,
was dependent on diffusion only, it also slows down their excretion by
wastes would be able to move only if diffusion (lowers the concentration
they were more concentrated inside gradient). Therefore a mechanism is
the cells or the bloodstream than in the essential to remove wastes against a
fluids outside. As the concentrations concentration gradient.
begin to equalise, their movement
would slow down and eventually stop.
Solution to the problems—
Not all wastes can be removed by
combined active transport and
diffusion. Since nitrogenous wastes
osmosis
are toxic, it is essential they are all
removed. If concentrations within the Active transport, which requires energy,
blood and urine equalised and no is quicker and more effective than
further wastes were removed, their diffusion as it removes most wastes,
accumulation would change the pH even against a concentration gradient.
of cells and become toxic. Active It can also be used to pump salts from
transport is therefore essential at this urine back into the kidney tissues and
point to move wastes such as uric acid these in turn will draw water with them
against the concentration gradient from (by osmosis), ensuring in this way that
blood into urine in the kidney. the amount of water lost in urine does
not affect the body’s water balance.
(Note : Water cannot be moved directly
by active transport.)
76

Investigating the structure of a mammalian kidney

FIRST-HAND
■ perform a first-hand investigation of the structure of INVESTIGATION
a mammalian kidney by dissection, use of a model or
BIOLOGY SKILLS
visual resource and identify the regions involved in the
excretion of waste products H11.3
H12.1; H12.2
Aim External structure
H13.1
To identify the parts of a mammalian kidney and 2. Examine the external structure of the
kidney, noting its surrounding fat (adipose H14.1
to identify the regions involved in the excretion
of waste products (relate the parts to their tissue) before removing it. Remove the fat,
functions). leaving the vessels at the hilum intact.
3. Compare the size of the kidney that you SR
Background information have for dissection with the dimensions
given for an average human kidney.
The kidneys lie on either side of the midline on
4. Identify the vessels, distinguishing
the dorsal (back) wall of the abdomen in the
between the renal artery, vein and ureter.
region of the waist. In humans, each kidney is
Locate the adrenal gland (in the fat). Guidedd iinvestigation
ti ti
bean-shaped, about 10.5–13 cm long, 6 cm wide
5. Detach the renal capsule. Describe its of the structure of
and 3 cm thick. The indentation in the kidney is
appearance and function. a mammalian kidney
termed the hilum and blood vessels (the renal
6. Draw a life-sized diagram to show the with an investigation
artery and vein), the ureter and nerves enter
external structure of the kidney. template
and leave the kidney at this point. The kidneys
of a well-nourished person are embedded in fat.
They function to filter out wastes, such as urea Internal structure TR
and some salts, and to regulate the water and 7. Cut the kidney in longitudinal section,
salt balance in the body. The kidneys are also making an incision along the side opposite
responsible for regulation of blood pressure and to hilum. Note the opening to the ureter.
maintenance of pH within the body. Insert a probe through the hole and
This investigation may be undertaken as a observe where it exits. General resources—
dissection, using fresh kidneys obtained from 8. Identify the regions of the kidney: the outer risk assessment:
a butcher (request that they are provided still cortex, the medulla and the renal pelvis. safety
embedded in fat). The alternative is to use a Compare the colour and appearance of the
model of a kidney and/or a visual resource such cortex and medulla.
as the website listed below. 9. Insert a probe below the renal pyramids,
slip the lower blade of the scissors into
http://webhome.broward.edu/ the gap and slit through each pyramid to
~ssimpson/!videowebsite/ follow the path of the calyces. Urine from
dissection.htm the collecting tubules drains into these
Website featuring kidney dissection. calyces, which carry the urine to the renal
pelvis, ureters and bladder.
Materials 10. Draw a diagram of a longitudinal section
through the kidney, showing the internal
Dissecting tray, newspaper, sharp scalpel, structure as seen in the dissection.
forceps, probe, scissors, pins and label flags, Annotate the diagram by writing the
kidney, latex gloves (with non-slip grip), hand function of each structure labelled (a
lens minimum of six structures). Do not draw
the textbook diagram.
Safety
11. Identify each of the following regions of
(Refer to the safety guidelines on the Teacher the kidney, using toothpicks with coloured
Resource CD.) Students should draw up a table flags.
in which they identify three risks associated with Red flag—the part of the kidney containing
this investigation, describe each and propose a collecting tubules.
suitable strategy to overcome the risk. Blue flag—the region of the kidney
containing glomeruli and Bowman’s
Method capsules.
1. Work in pairs or in groups of four. Lay the Yellow flag—the part of the kidney that
kidney on the dissecting tray. carries urine from the collecting tubules.
77

Results Discussion and conclusion

Record all results appropriately. A worksheet Answer all discussion questions on the Student
has been provided on the Student Resource CD Resource CD and write a valid conclusion.
to assist students.
3.5 Micros
Microscopic structure and the functioning of the
mammalian kidney
mamm
Microscopic structure of the The Bowman’s capsule occurs
kidney at one end and is an enlarged part of
the nephron tubule. It is a double-
The basic functional unit within the
walled sac, indented on one side to
kidney is a microscopic tubule called
accommodate a spherical network
the nephron, the smallest structural
of blood capillaries called the
part of a kidney that is capable of
glomerulus. A useful analogy is to
producing urine. Each kidney contains
think of the Bowman’s capsule as a
millions of these tiny units, which
baseball mitt—double-walled, hollow
coil and twist across both the cortex
(where your hand fits inside) and
and medulla. A nephron consists of
curved around to accommodate a
four functional parts: the Bowman’s
baseball. The glomerulus is represented
capsule, a proximal (first)
by the baseball—in close contact
convoluted tubule, the loop of Henle
with and partly surrounded by the
and a distal (second) convoluted
Bowman’s capsule. If these were
Figure 3.3 The tubule which leads into a collecting
nephron—functional
cut through in longitudinal section,
duct (see Fig. 3.3).
unit of the kidney their structure would appear as in
Figure 3.4.
Bowman’s
The hollow part the Bowman’s
distal tubule
capsule
p
proximal tubule capsule is filled with fluid called
glomerulus
glomerular filtrate. This fluid
continues its flow along the length of
Na+ –
N the nephron and by the time it reaches
CI
Total solute concentration (mOsm)
300 — H2O the collecting tubule at the far end, it is

collecting
tubules known as urine. As it flows along the
loop of
nephron, the chemical composition of
cortex
Henle the fluid is adjusted. Various substances
are removed or added to obtain the
final product—urine.
H2O Na+ H2O
600 — CI– The Bowman’s capsule and first
and second convoluted tubules lie in
outer medulla
the cortex, while the loop of Henle
H2O and the collecting tubules pass into the
urea
medulla. (The distribution of the parts
H2O of the nephron within the cortex and
inner medulla medulla can be seen in Fig. 3.3.)
1200—
78

Nephron functioning: filtration, reabsorption and tubular

secretion
■ explain how the processes of filtration and reabsorption
in the mammalian nephron regulate body fluid
composition
Three main processes that lead to urine and other toxic molecules (see Fig. 3.5).
formation occur in the nephron. These Once inside the Bowman’s capsule, this
are filtration, reabsorption and fluid is termed glomerular filtrate.
secretion, described in detail below The process of filtration separates
(also see Fig. 3.4). substances from the blood based on
their size. It does not take into account
Filtration whether they are wastes to be excreted
The renal artery that enters the kidney or nutrients that are still required in the
branches into numerous smaller and body. Glomerular filtrate is therefore
smaller vessels, each terminating in a not the final fluid excreted—its
globular network of capillaries—the composition is adjusted as it flows
glomerulus. The filtration of blood along the remainder of the nephron:
takes place at the surface between the ■ Substances that the body needs are
glomerulus and the inner lining of each reabsorbed from the filtrate into the
Bowman’s capsule. A high pressure kidney cells or bloodstream so that
system exists in the blood flowing they are not lost with urine.
through the glomerulus, created partly ■ Additional wastes that may still be in
by size of the blood vessels entering the bloodstream (those that were not
and leaving—the vessel entering the squeezed out of the blood under the
capillary network is slightly larger high pressure of filtration) must be
than that exiting. Substances within added (secreted) into the fluid. SR TR
the blood that are small enough are These processes, called tubular
squeezed through the capillary wall reabsorption and tubular secretion,
under pressure; they pass through adjust the composition of the fluid in
the cellular layer lining the Bowman’s the nephron to form urine (see Fig. 3.5). Student worksheet—
capsule and move into the lumen. Students may complete Task 1 on the functioning of the
Blood cells and proteins are retained the Student Resource CD at this point. kidney
in the blood, while large volumes of
water pass through, carrying dissolved Reabsorption
Figure 3.4 The
substances including amino acids, The chemical composition of body processes involved in
glucose, salts (ions), nitrogenous wastes fluids is precisely regulated by selective urine formation in the
nephron
Urine results from the following three processes:
1. Filtration Filtration (blue arrow) is the movement

of materials across the filtration peritubular capillaries
membrane into the lumen of
Bowman’s capsule to form filtrate to general circulation
filtrate urine
2. Reabsorption Solutes are reabsorbed (orange arrow)
across the wall of the nephron by rest of nephron
transport processes, such as active Bowman’s capsule
transport. Water is reabsorbed (purple renal corpuscle
arrow) across the wall of the nephron glomerular capillaries
by osmosis
efferent arteriole carries blood away from glomerulus
3. Secretion Solutes are secreted (green arrow) afferent arteriole brings blood to the glomerulus
across the wall of the nephron into
the filtrate
79

Figure 3.5 Nephron

glomerulus Bowman’s glomerular
functioning showing capillary capsule filtrate
Bowman’s capsule and
glomerulus in detail
1. Filtration
Pressure forces fluids and
dissolved substances through
walls of the glomerular capillaries
into the Bowman’s capsule
1
water
AA
arteriole CI–
entering Na+ ammino
acid glucose
AA
CI–
CI–
red blood glucose
cells
arteriole
leaving
water
urea
protein
2. Reabsorption
Water, salts and nutrients move by
blood diffusion or active transport from
the tubule into the surrounding
2 CI– capillaries
AA
urine
200–1500mL of urine daily 3. Secretion
includes: Excess ions and chemicals such
water: 95–97% Na+
as drugs are secreted
solids: 3–5% including: glucose
urea 30g
creatinine 1–2g
ammonia 0.5g 3 4. Excretion
uric acid 1g Excess water and solutes are
ions (salts) 25g eliminated in the form of urine
4
reabsorption of certain solutes from the depending on the particular

glomerular filtrate at various points along requirements of the body at that time.
the nephron—the proximal tubule, Solute reabsorption: all amino
loop of Henle and distal tubule (see acids and glucose and varying
Fig. 3.6). The filtrate contains molecules quantities of ions such as Na+, K+, Cl–,
that the body needs (e.g. amino acids, Ca2+ and HCO3– (sodium, potassium,
glucose, certain ions and some water) chloride, calcium and hydrogen
and so they are actively reabsorbed from bicarbonate ions) and some vitamins
are reabsorbed. The differing rate of
the nephron and passed back into the
reabsorption of particular ions depends
interstitial fluid and blood capillaries
on feedback from the body. All solutes
surrounding the nephron, a process
that are reabsorbed from the nephron
called tubular reabsorption. These move by means of active transport
capillaries join up to form larger vessels and facilitated diffusion (see table on
which drain into the renal vein, where the Teacher Resource CD). Glomerular
they are carried from the kidney back filtrate also contains a relatively high
into the general circulation. concentration of dissolved urea and
other wastes, most of which are not
Substances that are reabsorbed: water
reabsorbed.
and some solutes
Water reabsorption: As the solutes
All nutrients are reabsorbed from are actively reabsorbed, water follows
the filtrate and varying quantities by the passive process of osmosis.
of inorganic ions are reabsorbed, An enormous quantity of water is
80

Figure 3.6
Filtration, reabsorption
and secretion of
1 proximal tubule 4 distal tubule solutes in the nephron
NaCI nutrients H 2O
HCO3– H2O NaCI HCO3–
K+
K+ H+
H+ NH3
cortex
2 descending 3 thick segment
limb of loop of ascending
of Henle limb
NaCI
H2O
outer NaCI
filtrate
medulla
H2O (water)
salts (NaCI, etc) 3 thin segment 5 collecting
HCO3– (bicarbonate ions) of ascending duct
H+ (hydrogen ions) limb
urea
urea
glucose; amino acids NaCI H2O
some drugs inner
medulla
active transport
passive transport
reabsorbed by osmosis—approximately The loop of Henle descends into

99% of the huge volume of filtrate the medulla and then ascends up
that passes into the Bowman’s capsule towards the cortex, leading into the
is reabsorbed along the length of distal tubule. In the ascending limb of
the nephron and only 1% is actually the loop of Henle, a large number of
excreted as urine. ions (sodium in particular) are actively
The membranes of the cells pumped out into the interstitial fluid
lining the nephron can change their in the medulla, since the membranes
permeability to water and ions, are permeable to salts (dissociated
thus regulating the amount of these into ions) but impermeable to water.
substances that are reabsorbed. Some urea may move by diffusion
Hormones control these changes in out of the collecting tubule and
membrane permeability. This is a
into the surrounding interstitial fluid.
homeostatic mechanism which allows
These solutes which accumulate in
the body to maintain its blood volume
the medulla draw water by osmosis.
and chemical composition within the
Some water moves from the descending
narrow range required for effective
limb of the loop of Henle and a large
metabolism.
amount of water moves from the
Parts of the nephron involved in collecting tubules, both of which
reabsorption have membranes that are permeable
In the proximal tubule, all organic to water, allowing it to move passively
nutrients (amino acids and glucose) by osmosis into the surrounding tissue
are reabsorbed, as well as some ions of the medulla. (Energy is used to
such as sodium, potassium, chlorides, ensure that urea does not return to the
hydrogen carbonate, calcium and capillaries, so this is not true tubular
magnesium ions. reabsorption.)
81

Figure 3.7
The sodium pump
mechanism in the
asscen
ascending
a ndinng
loop of Henle
lilimb
m o
mb off
loop
lo o of
oop o
capillary Henle
H enle
e
1
descending
H2O
limb of loop
of Henle
H 2O CI– H2O
Na+
H2O
2 CI–
H2O H2O
Na+
2
collecting
H2O tubule
Key 1 active
activ
vee ssodium
odium reabsorption
reabsorptio
on 2 passive water movement by osmosis
Note: Water is reabsorbed in all Parts of the nephron involved in tubular

parts of the tubule except the ascending secretion
loop of Henle. H+ and drugs such as penicillin and
saccharin and morphine are secreted
Tubular secretion
into the proximal part of the nephron.
Tubular secretion is the third process Urea is secreted into the descending
that contributes to urine formation in limb of the loop of Henle (the
the nephron. It involves the removal ascending limb and distal tubules are
of toxic substances from the blood impermeable to urea).
capillaries and tissues and their Urea may be recycled in the
active secretion into the nephron. nephron to help move water by
Metabolic wastes such as urea, uric osmosis—some urea may move from
acid, ammonia and hydrogen ions the collecting tubules into the interstitial
are secreted into the fluid within fluid to help draw water out of the loop
the nephron, along with drugs such of Henle. It then diffuses back into the
as penicillin, saccharin, morphine. descending limb of the loop of Henle
Movement of urea and ammonia is so it may be continuously recycled if
mainly by means of diffusion, whereas the body needs to reabsorb water.
all other tubular secretion involves Students may complete Tasks 2–5 on
active transport. the Student Resource CD.
82

Hormonal regulation of kidney functioning

■ outline the role of the hormones, aldosterone and ADH
(anti-diuretic hormone) in the regulation of water and
3.6
salt levels in blood
The role of aldosterone and capillaries occurs, resulting in the SR TR
ADH in regulating kidney retention (conservation) of salt by the
functioning body—that is, less salt is lost in urine.
In the absence of aldosterone, the salt
Hormones are chemical control
concentration in urine is higher (see
substances that are secreted by Student worksheet—
Fig 3.8(b)).
endocrine (ductless) glands, directly hormone regulation of
into the bloodstream. They travel via kidney functioning
Anti-diuretic hormone
the general circulation to parts of the
When a mammal begins to dehydrate,
body and when they reach their target
blood volume drops and this is
cells, these cells (in this case, cells
detected in the hypothalamus of the
within the kidney nephrons) respond.
brain. It stimulates the pituitary gland
The passage of the filtrate from
to release the hormone ADH, which
Bowman’s capsule to the distal parts
acts on the nephrons of the kidneys
of the nephron occurs as outlined
to increase the reabsorption of water.
above, without variation. Adjustments
The presence of ADH increases the
to the concentration of water and salts
permeability of the membranes of
within the urine takes place mainly in
the cells lining the distal tubules and
the distal parts of the tubules and the
collecting tubules to water. As a result,
collecting tubules, by alterations to
water is reabsorbed from these tubules
the permeability of the membranes of
into the kidney tissue and bloodstream
cells lining the nephron walls. These
changes in permeability are brought and so water is conserved within the
about by two main hormones: body (less water is lost in urine). The
■ Aldosterone brings about retention
name of the hormone describes its
(conservation) of salts within the function—a diuretic is a substance that
body. causes the loss of water from the body
■ ADH (anti-diuretic hormone) (alcohol, tea and coffee are diuretics),
brings about water reabsorption so ‘anti-diuretic’ refers to a substance
(conservation) within the body. that reduces water loss. (See the flow
chart, Fig. CD3.5, on the Student
Aldosterone Resource CD.)
A decrease in the concentration of Both ADH and aldosterone therefore
sodium ions in the bloodstream leads play an important role in helping the
to a decrease in blood volume and kidney to carry out its homeostatic
this stimulates cells in the cortex of functions of osmoregulation:
the adrenal gland (above the kidney) ■ regulation of the solute concentration
to secrete the hormone aldosterone. of the blood: regulating the amount
When aldosterone reaches the kidney of sodium and other ions that are
(via the bloodstream), it increases the reabsorbed or secreted in urine)
permeability of the nephron to sodium, ■ regulation of blood volume:
particularly in the ascending limb of maintaining a constant fluid
the loop of Henle. Reabsorption of volume by producing either a large
sodium ions from the nephron into volume of dilute urine or a small or
the surrounding kidney tissue and concentration of concentrated urine.
83

Figure 3.8 Hormone

regulation of kidney hypothalamus
functioning: (a)
ADH and water
conservation;
(b) aldosterone and
salt conservation stimulus: decrease in blood volume
posterior
pituitary (b)
Na+
aldorsterone
adrenal cortex Na+
CI–
(a)
ADH CI–
loop of Henle
sINCREASEDPERMEABILITYOF
membrane to sodium ions
sSALTREABSORBEDRETAINED
LESSFLUIDLOSS
less Na+ loss
H2O
H2O
H2O response: blood volume increases
collecting tubules
s INCREASEDPERMEABILITY
OFMEMBRANESTOWATER
s WATERISREABSORBED
CONSERVED
3.7 Technology related to kidney functioning

An understanding of how the kidney
functions to remove wastes, as well
These applications of the use
of biology have helped to improve
PFA as the hormonal regulation of kidney the lifestyle and increase the life
functioning to maintain homeostasis has expectancy of people who suffer
H3 played a key role in the development from these diseases. The secondary-
of technologies such as: source investigations that follow
■ renal dialysis for people suffering provide suitable material to address the
from reduced kidney functioning prescribed focus area, showing how
■ hormone replacement therapy advances in our knowledge of biology
for patients suffering from have affected the development of
abnormally low levels of the technology.
hormone aldosterone.
84

Technology 1—renal dialysis replaces lost kidney

functioning
SECONDARY SOURCE
■ gather, process and analyse information from secondary INVESTIGATION
sources to compare the process of renal dialysis with the PFA
function of the kidney H3
Aim opposite direction to the blood in order to BIOLOGY SKILLS

maximise diffusion. Dialysate has the same
■ To gather, process and analyse information concentration as blood plasma without the H12.3; H12.4
from secondary sources on the process of metabolic wastes, and since the concentration H14.1
renal dialysis. of metabolic waste is higher in the blood than
■ To compare the process of renal dialysis in the dialysing fluid, the waste materials move
with the function of the kidney. through the semi-permeable membrane into
■ To describe how advances in our knowledge
TR
the dialysing fluid by diffusion. Since dialysis
of biology have affected the development of relies on passive transport for the removal of
the technologies for renal dialysis (PFA H3). wastes from the blood, the dialysing fluid must
(See the Student Resource CD.) constantly be replaced so that the concentration
gradient is maintained away from the blood.
Video clip: Students should view the General resources and
Renal dialysis must be carried out for
video clip on the following website as PFA H3 scaffold
3 to 4 hours, two or three times per week. As
a resource for this investigation. well as its time-consuming nature, another
disadvantage of the process is that only limited
http://www.davita.com/kidney_ amounts of fluid/wastes can be removed from
animation/#intro—A video the blood; other substances such as sodium
showing how dialysis works. phosphate and potassium ions do not diffuse
quickly enough and therefore may accumulate
Background information in the blood and so it is recommended that
patients follow a specific diet to prevent this, as
The kidneys are responsible for filtering our renal dialysis is not effective in regulating the
blood, removing metabolic wastes so that concentration of these ions in the blood.
they may be excreted via urination. If a person
suffers from kidney failure, there is no natural Figure 3.9 A patient
means by which these wastes can be removed receiving renal dialysis
and their toxic effect eventually leads to death.
(Incidental to this excretory function is the ability
of the kidney to regulate the ion concentration,
pH and volume of blood).
The process of renal dialysis has been
developed to carry out the function of failed
kidneys so that blood may be effectively
filtered. There are two types of renal dialysis—
haemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis. The
process of haemodialysis is outlined below,
giving a brief introduction to the technology.
Students research both technologies and take
into account the outcomes achieved by each,
as well as the limitations encountered, when
comparing them with kidney functioning. SR
The main function of a dialysis machine is
to remove metabolic wastes that have built up
in the person’s blood. The patient is connected
to a dialysis machine, which pumps their blood
through a system of tubes (coiled to increase Skills ffor iinvestigation,
ti ti
their surface area and therefore the rate of recommended
diffusion) which have artificial semi-permeable websites and
membranes. The tubes are submerged in PFA H3 scaffold—
dialysis fluid (dialysate), which flows in the renal dialysis
85

(a)
from an artery blood
blood pump diffusion

to a vein of waste
products
such as
bubble urea
trap
dialysis diffusion of waste
membrane products across the
dialysis membrane
compressed fresh constant used

CO2 and air dialysis temperature dialysis
fluid bath fluid dialysis
fluid
(b) dialysate fluid

(i) (ii) (iii)
abdominal cavity
abdominal
cavity bag is rolled up and
tucked around waist
bag is lowered and fluid

is allowed to flow out
Figure 3.10
Renal dialysis:
(a) haemodialysis; Task ■ Mechanism to ensure all wastes are
(b) peritoneal dialysis removed from the blood
Use the text and diagrams on pages 85–86 and ■ Mechanism to ensure no required
the recommended websites and scaffold on the substances are removed from the blood
Student Resource CD to answer the questions ■ Regulation of water and salt balance.
that follow. 3. Draw up a table to compare the process
TR 1. Define renal dialysis and briefly outline the of renal dialysis with the functioning of the
two types of renal dialysis. human kidney.
2. Describe the functioning of the kidney under 4. Describe how advances in our knowledge
the following headings: of biology have affected the development of
■ Filtration of blood the technologies for renal dialysis (use the
Answers to ■ Role of diffusion, active transport and scaffold for PFA H3, provided on the Student
investigation osmosis in kidney functioning Resource CD, to answer this question).
86

Technology 2—aldosterone and hormone

replacement therapy
SECONDARY SOURCE
■ present information to outline the general use of INVESTIGATION
hormone replacement therapy in people who cannot PFA
secrete aldosterone H4
Task Consequences of an inability to BIOLOGY SKILLS

secrete adequate aldosterone H12.3; H12.4
Read the background information given below
and then present information in the form of a ■ Inadequate aldosterone may lead to
Addison’s disease, where the adrenal cortex H13.1
report. (The Student Resource CD contains
recommended websites and information on a is unable to secrete sufficient (or, in severe H14.2; H14.3
report text type to assist students completing cases any) aldosterone.
this task.) Select ONE option from the list ■ It results in low sodium levels and high
below: potassium levels in the blood—this is a SR
■ Write a letter to your local newspaper in potentially dangerous situation, initially
order to raise awareness of the importance leading to symptoms such as weakness,
of hormone replacement therapy for people fatigue and weight loss.
who lack aldosterone. ■ In severe cases of mineral ion imbalance,
■ Write a sequence of diary entries from the blood pressure drops due to the low
Reportt ttextt ttype andd
perspective of a patient, beginning when amounts of sodium and potassium ions,
relevant websites
you first find out you have insufficient an imbalance of hydrogen ions leads to a
aldosterone until after you are on hormone lowering of blood pH and blood glucose
replacement therapy. Report in each entry imbalance may arise (this results from a lack TR
on how your developing condition affects of another associated hormone produced
your lifestyle. by the adrenal cortex). Symptoms such as
■ Write a newspaper report on an occurrence these restrict the patient’s lifestyle as they
involving a person who was suffering from cannot stand for long periods of time, may
Addison’s disease and explain how hormone faint from low blood pressure (which brings Summary—
replacement therapy may have changed dangers of its own, restricting activities and aldosterone and
this. independence, such as not being able to hormone replacement
Whatever your choice of presentation, drive) and are often too tired to do much. therapy
you are required to outline the general use ■ Without treatment, this may result in the
of hormone replacement therapy and its potentially lethal condition of heart failure.
importance. Base your presentation on fact, but In a medical emergency, large amounts of
try to be creative and original in your ideas— salt and water must be given intravenously,
you may use emotive language. as well as rapid intravenous adrenal
replacement therapy.
Background information
Hormone replacement therapy
The function of aldosterone in the
■ Hormone replacement therapy involves
body restoring the balance of the hormones at
Aldosterone increases the amount of salt levels that are normal for the body, by giving
reabsorbed from kidney tubules and as a result the patients hormones.
it also helps regulate blood pressure. ■ When applied appropriately, it can increase
fluid retention, raise blood pressure and
Why some people lack aldosterone remove the danger of heart failure, allowing
Addison’s disease results from abnormally low sufferers to lead normal lives.
levels of aldosterone in the body. The causes ■ Since 1927, when the first hormone
are not always known, but include: replacement therapy began (using an
■ damage to the adrenal glands that produce extract from the adrenal cortex of cattle),
aldosterone, due to accident, surgery or hundreds of human lives which would have
disease (such as bacterial infections or been lost to Addison’s disease in the past
cancer of the gland) have been saved. Modern day hormone
■ damage to the pituitary gland that controls replacement therapy involves administering
the adrenal gland (for example, because of a genetically engineered hormone called
a tumour). fludrocortisone.
87

3.8 Excret
Excretion of nitrogenous wastes and
osmoregulation in animals
osmor
■ identify the role of the kidney in the excretory system of
fish and mammals
Water and solutes are continually move into or out of the body of the
exchanged between the environment fish.
and a living organism’s body fluids. Freshwater fish live in rivers and
Water accumulates within the body of lakes, where the water potential is
an animal when it eats or drinks, or as high—these habitats contain very few
a by-product of cellular metabolism. dissolved salts and water is therefore
Nitrogenous wastes accumulate in freely available (not a limiting factor).
animals as a result of metabolism. Freshwater fish urinate frequently,
as water tends to accumulate in
The role of the kidney in fish their tissues as a result of passive
and mammals movement by osmosis from a higher
concentration in the surroundings to
The kidneys in fish and mammals are a lower water concentration in the
excretory and osmoregulatory organs animal. These fish are faced with the
and their main functions are outlined problem of too much water being
below. present in their bodies. The kidneys in
■ Marine fish: their kidneys conserve freshwater fish therefore excrete excess
water, excrete excess salts and water (gained by osmosis from their
nitrogenous wastes. surroundings), as well as nitrogenous
■ Freshwater fish: their kidneys excrete wastes (as ammonia). Their kidneys are
excess water and nitrogenous wastes structurally suited to this role by having
(produce large amounts of dilute large glomeruli for the filtration of
urine), conserve salt. blood in large volumes. Their kidneys
■ Mammals: their kidneys conserve are not involved in salt balance, since
water and salts when required, these fish do not face the problem of
excrete excess water and salts and salt accumulation from their freshwater
excrete nitrogenous wastes. environment. Any excess salts that they
The water potential of living cells consume in their diets are excreted via
is similar to that of sea water, but the gills.
Organisms that live in marine
lower than that of fresh water or the
habitats (in the sea) or terrestrial
surrounding air. (Water potential is the
habitats (on land) tend to lose water to
tendency of a solution to lose water
their surroundings, and so they have
by osmosis, typical of solutions that
evolved mechanisms to conserve water.
have a high water concentration.) The Marine fish urinate less. They tend
concentration of water in the immediate to lose body water (by osmosis), across
environment of an organism determines the body surface and gills, into their
its need to conserve (retain) water or salty surroundings. Excess salt tends
lose it. to accumulate in their bodies, moving
In aquatic animals such as fish, in by diffusion from the surrounding
the concentration of solutes in the sea water. The main function of the
surrounding aquatic environment has kidneys in these fish is therefore to
a direct influence on the direction of remove excess salt. Marine fish tend
movement of water—whether it will to drink sea water, extract the salt
88

from it and then use the water for is produced. In cold weather, more SR TR
metabolism. They excrete the extracted water is lost in urine and very little in
salt to keep salt levels in the body to a sweat.
minimum. Their kidneys tend to play A relatively large quantity of salts
a role in conserving water rather than is also lost during sweating and
Student worksheet—
excreting it. To meet this need, their needs to be replaced to maintain a
role of the kidney in
kidneys tend to have small glomeruli stable osmotic pressure within body excretion in mammals,
as well as a mechanism for removing fluids and cells in an organism. Any freshwater fish and
excess salt taken in with sea water. The adjustment to water and salt levels in marine fish
kidney is also responsible for excreting urine is brought about by the action
nitrogenous wastes (usually in the form of the hormones ADH and aldosterone
of urea) in marine fish. on the kidney tubules. Urine produced
Terrestrial mammals lose water may be more dilute (e.g. in animals
and solutes from the body as a result that have been drinking large amounts
of evaporation from the lung surface of water) or concentrated (in those
during respiration and as a result of that have been sweating) and this
excretion (for example, the production adjustment is made depending on the
of sweat and urine). needs of the body.
The kidneys of mammals excrete
urine that is composed mainly of water Task: Role of the kidney in
and nitrogenous wastes (urea), as well excretion and osmoregulation
as some (excess) salts. The mammalian Read the notes on the preceding
kidney can adjust the reabsorption of pages and then complete the table
nitrogenous wastes, water and salts, provided on the Student Resource CD
varying the concentration of urine to compare the role of the kidney in
produced. Mammals have a complex mammals, freshwater fish and marine
control mechanism to ensure that a fish, under the following headings:
balance is maintained between the ■ Excretion: type of nitrogenous waste
amounts of sweat and urine excreted. excreted.
In hot weather, more water is excreted ■ Osmoregulation: regulation of water
as sweat (since sweating is a form concentration in the body.
of evaporative cooling and this has ■ Osmoregulation: role in salt balance
the advantage of lowering body (which assists with electrolyte levels,
temperature) and as a result less urine pH and blood pressure).
Urine concentration and water balance in animal

excretion (mammals, marine and freshwater fish)
SECONDARY SOURCE
■ analyse information from secondary sources to compare INVESTIGATION
and explain the differences in urine concentration of BIOLOGY SKILLS
terrestrial mammals, marine fish and freshwater fish
H12.4
Background information watery solvent of urine is a measure of how
H13.1
The concentration of urine produced by different dilute or concentrated the urine solution actually H14.1; H14.3
animals depends on their need to conserve is. Nitrogenous wastes and salts are the most
water. The amount of solutes dissolved in the abundant solutes in urine. If urine is high in
89

solutes, it is said to be concentrated, but if it is respiration and they rely on this for their
very watery and contains relatively few solutes, survival. The urine that they produce may be up
it is termed dilute. All vertebrates are able to to three times as salty as sea water. The loop of
produce urine that is the same concentration as Henle in their kidneys is almost three times as
or more dilute than that of blood. However, only long as that in human kidneys, allowing them
those with specialised excretory systems can to reabsorb vast quantities of water from their
produce urine that is more concentrated than urine. (See the recommended websites on the
blood. This requires energy and specialised Student Resource CD.)
mechanisms of functioning.
Fish—a set concentration of urine
Mammals—a varied concentration The physiology of fish allows them to produce
of urine urine of one particular concentration, rather
Some organisms, such as mammals and birds, than varying the concentration as is seen in
are able to vary their urine concentrations mammals. The concentration of urine that is
according to the changing needs of the body. excreted is dependent on the type of aquatic
When the body needs to conserve water (e.g. if environment in which the fish lives. The
large amounts of water have been lost in warm exchange of water and dissolved salts occurs
weather as a result of sweating or panting) the between the cells and body fluids of the fish and
body will excrete concentrated urine so that its environment, and each aquatic environment
water is conserved. On cooler days when the (marine and fresh water) presents its own set of
animal does not sweat or on days where large problems that must be overcome by structural,
amounts of water are consumed, dilute urine is physiological and behavioural adaptations in the
excreted by the kidneys. As a result, the water fish.
content of the blood is maintained at a relatively In freshwater fish (for example, native
constant level because the kidneys are able bass), the water surrounding the fish has a
to adjust the concentration of urine excreted lower concentration of solutes than the cells of
and so the kidneys play a role in assisting the the fish. The main problem facing the animal
maintenance of a relatively constant blood is that, since water moves by osmosis from a
volume (and therefore pressure) in the body. higher water concentration (fresh water) to a
The kidneys of mammals also regulate the lower water concentration, it tends to move from
concentration of salts excreted in urine (and the surrounding environment into body tissues
therefore those that remain in the blood plasma) of the fish. To overcome this problem, large
SR TR quantities of very dilute urine are excreted.
and they keep the blood pH within a narrow
range by varying the amount of hydrogen ions In marine fish (for example, whiting), the
excreted in urine. sea water surrounding the fish has a higher
The concentration of urine in mammals concentration of solutes than the cells of the
therefore varies in terms of the concentration fish and so water tends to move out of the fish
Recommended websites by osmosis, from a higher water concentration
of water and of dissolved substances such as
and investigation (in the cells of the fish) into the surrounding
nitrogenous wastes, salts and hydrogen ions
worksheet—urine environment (lower water concentration). The
that it contains. Humans produce, on average,
concentrations in fish therefore needs to conserve water and
urine that is about 4.2 times more concentrated
terrestrial mammals, so small quantities of concentrated urine are
than their plasma (that is, their urine is slightly
marine fish and excreted.
more salty than sea water). The concentration
freshwater fish
of the urine of desert mammals is greater; for Task: Urine concentration in
example, the urine of camels is eight times
TR as concentrated as their blood and that of the
animals
spinifex hopping mouse can be even higher. Analyse the background information and
Kangaroo rats can live on a diet of plant the diagrams provided, and refer to the
parts that contain almost no water—they can recommended websites on the Student
survive on dry seeds and not drink water for Resource CD, to draw up a table to compare
Extension task—urine prolonged periods of time. Their bodies are the concentration of urine excreted in fresh
concentration in able to make use of metabolic water that water fish, marine fish and mammals (see the
animals they generate by processes such as cellular Student Resource CD for a sample table).
90

diffusion osmosis
ions water active tubular
higher solute lower water large reabsorption very few high water
concentration potential glomerulus of salt solutes potential
salt
salt
body fluids fresh water
Na+= 150 mM Na+= 0.08 mM
K+= 4 mM kidney tubule K+= 0.01 mM
Cl–= 120 mM Cl–= 0.05 mM
osmotic concentration = 290 mOsm osmotic concentration = 1 mOsm
fish does not drink

food, fresh water
Kidney:
excretion of dilute
urine with ammonia
Gills:
active absorption of urine
salt, water enters
gills osmotically
(a)
diffusion osmosis sea water lower water

ions water higher Na+ = 470 mM potential
concentration K+ = 10 mM
of salts Cl– = 584 mM
osmotic concentration = 1000 mOsm
lower salt higher water glomerulus
concentration potential reduced or
absent
salt active tubular
secretion
body fluids salt
of salts
Na+= 183 mM
K+= 4 mM
Cl–= 146 mM
osmotic concentration = 360 mOsm
fish drinks
sea water,
ions, food,
Gills:
active secretion of Kidney:
NaCl, water loss excretion of concentrated
urine,urea, little water
(b)
Figure 3.11 (a) Osmoregulation in freshwater fish; (b) osmoregulation in marine fish
91

Nitrogenous wastes and water conservation

in animals (Australian insects and terrestrial
mammals)
SECONDARY
S EC SOURCE
IINVESTIGATION
NVE ■ use available evidence to explain the relationship
BIOLOGY SKILLS between the conservation of water and the production
H12.3; H12.4
and excretion of concentrated nitrogenous wastes in a
range of Australian insects and terrestrial mammals
H14.2; H14.3
Background information wastes occurs in the liver and they are then
carried to the kidneys for excretion.
SR All animals must eliminate nitrogen-containing
metabolic wastes that arise from the breakdown Nitrogenous wastes and water
of protein so that they do not accumulate conservation
in toxic amounts. Excess amino acids (and The environment in which an organism lives
nucleic acids) in the bodies of vertebrates determines how important the conservation
Assumedd kknowledge—
l d are de-aminated and the nitrogen-containing of water is for the survival of that organism. In
de-amination and amino group is removed and combined with environments where water is scarce, for example
the production of carbon dioxide to produce ammonia (see some arid terrestrial habitats, natural selection
nitrogenous wastes Assumed Knowledge on the Student Resource has favoured the survival of those organisms that
CD).The ammonia is still fairly toxic and so it secrete less toxic forms of nitrogenous wastes,
must be excreted directly, diluted with large because they are able to conserve more water
quantities of water, or it may be changed to a while still flushing out their wastes.
less toxic form of nitrogenous waste. (Just as Ammonia is very toxic compared with other
nitrogenous wastes. It requires no energy to be
carbon dioxide changes the pH of solutions
made, but must be excreted immediately and
to become more acidic, so ammonia makes
in a dilute form with a great deal of water. It is
the pH more alkaline—thus changing the therefore most commonly secreted by aquatic
internal environment from its optimal range and invertebrates and fish that live in fresh water,
affecting enzyme functioning and metabolism.) where the availability of water is not a limiting
Urea and uric acid are less toxic forms of factor.
nitrogenous wastes which can be excreted in a Urea is the most common form of
less dilute form. The formation of all nitrogenous nitrogenous waste excreted by terrestrial
Figure 3.12 Urine

concentration in
animals
gut
blind
blind-ending
excretory
tubule
freshwater fish terrestrial spinifex hopping insect

copious dilute urine mammal mouse semi-solid uric acid
containing concentrated urine extremely concentrated
ammonia containing urea urine containing urea
dilute urine concentrated urine
92

mammals, adult amphibians and some fish. absorb water vapour from the air through the SR TR
It is not as toxic as ammonia and so it can mouth or anus. Water that enters the anus of
be excreted in a less dilute form, resulting in the meal worm is absorbed through the rectum
less water loss. It does, however, require more and is then drawn into the adjacent kidney
energy for its production. tubules by osmosis. These are simple forms of
Uric acid is the least toxic form of tubular reabsorption, more primitive versions
Table for investigation
nitrogenous waste and so it is excreted (as of that in mammals that need to conserve water. task
a semi-solid, whitish paste) by animals that
have a particular need to conserve as much Conclusion
water as possible, for example birds and most TR
The challenge of regulating water content
invertebrates, including insects. The synthesis during excretion is therefore solved by varying
of uric acid uses a large amount of energy the type of nitrogenous waste excreted, which
in contrast to ammonia and urea, although it in turn determines whether urine needs to be
has the smallest amount of water loss in the dilute (to safely flush out more toxic forms of
process of excretion. The excretion of uric Extension activity
waste), or if it can be more concentrated (to
acid, which is not very soluble in water, allows flush out less toxic forms).
animals such as insects to conserve water This affects the physiology of the animal:
within the body, as its low toxicity means it can the amount of water that must be reabsorbed
be excreted with minimal water loss.
into the body or the amount that can be lost
in urine depends on the type of nitrogenous
Excretion of nitrogenous wastes
waste excreted, as well as the concentration
in insects of salts that are being excreted. All of these
Insects have blind-ending kidney tubules factors contribute to determining the eventual
(Malpighian tubules) that open directly into the concentration of urine that is excreted. Figure 3.13 Excretion
hind part of the digestive tract (see Fig. 3.13). in insects: (a) the
Water and waste solutes are drawn into the blind Task: Nitrogenous wastes and hindgut of mealworm
end from the fluid in the body cavity of the insect. the conservation of water larvae absorbs water
The open end of each kidney tubule empties vapour from the air
Complete the table provided on the Student and passes it into the
into the hindgut of the digestive tract. In some
Resource CD to explain the relationship kidney tubules; (b) the
insects (e.g. the blowfly) the blind-ending kidney
between the conservation of water and the rectal pad of blowfly
tubules lie close to the end of their digestive reabsorbs water from
production and excretion of concentrated
tracts and the solutes in the tubules draw water the hindgut
by osmosis across the epithelium (lining) of the
rectum, in this way modifying their excretory fluid (b)
so that most water is reabsorbed from their rectal
contents into the body. As a result, they produce
very dry faeces (which contain nitrogenous
wastes as well as undigested food).
Some insects such as the desert silverfish
and the larval forms (meal worms) of a
particular moth (Tenebrio molitor) are able to
rectal pad
(a)
blood ions water
KCl + _ + _
+ _
Malpighian tubule K Cl K Cl K Cl
water
faeces water water vapour cuticle

water
medulla ions
rectum
cortex
rectal
lumen
93

nitrogenous wastes in a range of Australian ■ Outline the availability of water in the

insects and terrestrial mammals. environment of each animal.
■ Identify the type of nitrogenous waste ■ Explain the relationship between the type of
excreted, its toxicity and the amount of nitrogenous waste and the need to conserve
energy needed for its production. water in each organism.
3.9 Enantiostasis and estuarine organisms

Enanti
■ define enantiostasis as the maintenance of metabolic
and physiological functions in response to variations in
the environment and discuss its importance to estuarine
organisms in maintaining appropriate salt concentrations
Some organisms live in environments ■ At high tide, sea water flows into the
where they experience extreme river mouth, creating an environment
fluctuations in conditions. To survive, with a higher salt concentration (a
these plants and animals have evolved higher osmotic pressure) than the
adaptations that allow them to cope cytoplasm of cells and body fluids
physiologically with these fluctuations, in organisms. This salt water has the
a survival mechanism called tendency to draw water out of cells
enantiostasis. by osmosis.
Enantiostasis is the maintenance of ■ At low tide, sea water flows out
metabolic and physiological functions of the river mouth and fresh water
in response to variations in the flows into the estuary. Plants and
environment. animals in the estuary which are
The survival of species that live in an subjected to this predominantly fresh
environment such as an estuary, where water environment with a high water
salt and water concentrations fluctuate potential face the challenge of water
broadly on a daily basis, depends tending to move into living tissue.
on their ability to either avoid these Osmoregulation in organisms
changes or to tolerate them. Organisms inhabiting an estuary is a challenge—
that move freely between the sea and they need to maintain normal metabolic
rivers experience similar fluctuations functioning, despite these enormous
in environmental conditions, and they fluctuations within the environment.
too have developed mechanisms of Living organisms employ one of two
avoidance or tolerance. Enantiostasis strategies in enantiostasis:
is not limited to fluctuations in salt 1. Osmoconformers are organisms
levels. For example, extreme changes in that tolerate the changes in the
environmental pressure are experienced environment by altering the
by diving birds and so these animals concentration of their internal solutes
must also rely on enantiostasis for their to match the external environment
survival. (their body fluids ‘conform’ to that of
the environment). Their metabolism
Estuarine organisms— is able to tolerate changes in salinity
maintaining a water and salt in their own body fluids and cells.
balance 2. Osmoregulators are organisms
In estuaries, the daily change in tides that avoid changes in their
affects the salinity of the environment internal environment and have
in the following ways: the ability to keep the solutes at
94

an optimal level (‘regulate’ solute mechanisms to exclude salt to keep

concentrations within the body), the internal fluid concentration
regardless of the differing external constant, despite fluctuations in the
environment. These organisms environment.
are unable to tolerate a range of Table 3.2 compares estuarine
salt concentrations in their body animals that use these two methods to
fluids and cells and so they have bring about enantiostasis.
Table 3.2 Enantiostasis in estuarine organisms
Osmoconformers Osmoregulators
They modify the salt concentration in their body to match They maintain a constant salt concentration in their bodies,
fluctuations in external conditions. despite environmental fluctuations.
Metabolism and cell functioning are able to continue within a Their cell metabolism and physiology is not able to tolerate a
broad range of salinity. range of salt concentrations.
Mechanism: They use small organic molecules (e.g. non- Mechanism: Their body fluids are similar to those in a marine
essential amino acids or molecules like trimethylamine oxide) to environment, so when exposed to fresh water, the water tends
vary the solute concentration in their cells to match that of the to accumulate by osmosis. To counteract this, the animal
surroundings. produces more dilute urine, to reduce the internal water
concentration to a level at which the cells can function.
Result: The osmotic pressure inside the body and outside (in Result: A higher osmotic pressure is maintained inside the body
the external environment) are the same. than in the external environment.
Examples: Examples:
■ The fiddler crab (Macrophthalmus punctulatus), when in ■ Mussels in rock pools close their valves when the tide is out
salt water, accumulates additional solutes in its tissues and to keep the salt concentrations inside their bodies the same
muscles to reach an equal salt concentration and it pumps as the seawater.
out excess salt from its gills when exposed to water with a ■ Salmon show adaptations in their physiology: in salt water,
lower salinity than normal seawater. they drink continuously and eliminate salts through their
■ Sharks use trimethylamine oxide to regulate osmotic gills, whereas in fresh water they stop drinking, absorb
pressure in cells to equal that of the environment. salt through their gills and excrete very dilute urine as do
freshwater fish.
■ Polychaete worms and marine fish are also osmoregulators.
(a) (b)
Figure 3.14 Estuarine organisms that use enantiostasis strategies for survival: (a) a fiddler crab—an
osmoconformer; (b) mussels—osmoregulators
Text
95

Salt balance in plants

SECONDARY
S EC SOURCE
IINVESTIGATION
NVE ■ process and analyse information from secondary
sources and use available evidence to discuss processes
BIO
BIOLOGY SKILLS
used by different plants for salt regulation in saline
H11.1 environments
H12.3; H12.4
H13.1
Salt regulation in plants in toxicity by increasing their water content in large
vacuoles.
saline environments
H14.1; H14.3 In contrast, salt avoidant plants (salt
Background information excluders) minimise the salt concentrations
Salt, even in relatively small concentrations of cells through structural and physiological
in soil water, has a damaging effect on cell adaptations such as stopping salt from entering
ultrastructure and cellular metabolism. Plants at the roots.
that are adapted to saline environments are
called halophytes. The plants use either salt
Examples of halophytes
tolerance (salt accumulation) or salt avoidance Saltbush (Atriplex vesicaria) is an excluder—it
(salt exclusion) as strategies to survive in actively transports excess sodium and chloride
environments where they are exposed to high ions into bladder cells situated on the tip of
salt concentrations. hairs on the surface of leaves (see Fig. 3.15).
Salt tolerant plants (e.g. sea grass and When the bladder cell reaches capacity it
mangroves) are able maintain metabolic bursts, releasing the salts into the environment.
functioning even though their cells accumulate Palmer’s grass (Distichlis palmeri) also actively
sodium and chloride ions. They minimise salt secretes salts from specialised cells to avoid
high salt concentration within the cells.
Figure 3.15 Salt vacuole
glands in the salt bush Succulents minimise the salt toxicity through
Atriplex vesicaria increasing water content in large vacuoles,
bladder cell
where the accumulation of excess salt is
balanced with additional water drawn into the
epidermis
cells. Pickleweed (Salicornia) uses this method
and also actively transports salts from the
mesophyll
cytoplasm by a sodium—potassium pump on
bundle sheath the vacuole membrane. Pigface (Carpobrotus
xylem glaucescens), a succulent that grows on coastal
sand dunes, tolerates salt by increasing water
uptake to dilute the salt. It also stores excess
SR TR salt in a location away from sensitive cells.
Task
Complete the worksheet on the Student
Resource CD on salt regulation in mangroves
Student worksheet— and the flowchart showing salt movement in the
salt regulation in plants saltbush.
96

Water conservation in plants—adaptations in

Australian plants to minimise water loss
■ describe adaptations of a range of terrestrial Australian
3.10
plants that assist in minimising water loss
Problems facing plants that Most of Australia is hot and dry, so
minimise water loss water (like soil nutrients) becomes a
limited resource for plants, available in
The main form of water loss in plants short supply or only in sporadic bursts.
is by means of transpiration— Stomata close in response to darkness,
evaporation of water from the stomata dehydration and a lack of carbon
of leaves. Transpiration serves two main dioxide.
functions—it lifts water and dissolved Three main problems face plants
ions up the stem to the top of plants with regard to minimising water loss:
in a continuous transpiration stream 1. If plants lose too much water
and it is a form of evaporative cooling, through transpiration they run the
a process that is essential in regulating risk of dehydrating, yet loss of
temperature in plants. Those plants water by this evaporative cooling
that live in areas where water is in mechanism is an essential part of
limited supply (usually hot, dry areas) temperature regulation to keep plant
must achieve a balance between how cells within the optimal temperature
much water the plant can afford to lose range for metabolic functioning.
for cooling purposes and the risk of 2. If plants reduce the surface area
dehydration. of their leaves or lose their leaves,
Xerophytes are plants that live in the number of stomata exposed to
arid conditions and possess adaptations the external environment may be
that equip them to achieve this reduced, but the reduced exposure
balance and survive in their hostile of photosynthetic surface area to
environment. sunlight may be inadequate for
Leaves of plants contain stomata photosynthesis to occur.
and so they are the organs where 3. If plants retain their leaves, but
most transpiration in plants occurs. develop ways of ensuring that
Generally, stomata are most abundant stomata do not open, gaseous
on the undersides of leaves, with exchange between the leaf and the
fewer stomata on the upper leaf and surrounding air becomes limited
even less on leaf stalks and the stems and, as a result, may not allow
of herbaceous (green) plants. Stomata sufficient carbon dioxide into the
are stimulated to open in the presence plant—a necessary requirement for
of light and/or excess heat in well- photosynthesis.
hydrated pants, leading to a loss of
water by the process of transpiration. Adaptations in Australian
About 98% of water loss from plants plants to minimise water loss
occurs as a result of transpiration. The Many plants that live in arid
advantage of the opening of stomata conditions display complex xerophytic
is to allow evaporative cooling and adaptations, features which have
to allow carbon dioxide to enter evolved and allow these plants to
the leaves for photosynthesis. The minimise water loss while maintaining
disadvantage is that it exposes plants functions such as cooling of the plant
to the risk of dehydration. and photosynthesis. Most of these
97

SR TR adaptations are evident as modifications organs such as flower petals) have the
of leaves, but other organs may greatest rates of transpiration. Some
also show modifications. Stems and plants reduce the exposure of these
leaf stalks (petioles) have sparsely organs (and their stomata) to light by:
distributed stomata, but are green and ■ changing the orientation of leaves
Student worksheet—
thus have adequate photosynthetic so that stomata are not exposed
features in plants to
minimise water loss tissue. This can be used to advantage to direct light (and so they do not
in allowing xerophytes with reduced open)
leaves to carry out other essential ■ reducing the surface area of organs
functions to survive in their arid habitat. that have the highest proportion of
Xerophytes, such as some Australian stomata
plants, live in hot, dry habitats where ■ the complete loss of transpiring
they are exposed to bright sunlight. plant organs (for example, leaves or
They minimise water loss in four main leaf-like parts of the plant such as
ways, as outlined below. flowers).
(These plants need to have
Reducing the internal temperature some additional adaptations to
Some plants have developed structural prevent overheating, increase their
features or physiological mechanisms photosynthetic tissue or ensure
other than transpiration to reduce pollination, as a result of their loss leaf
their internal temperature, allowing the or petal surface area.)
plants to use less water for evaporative
cooling, but still keep their temperature Australian examples
within the correct range for metabolism. ■ Reduced leaves
For example, their leaves may be Plants like Hakea and Acacias
coated in a shiny waxy cuticle or they (wattles) also have leaves that have
may have white hairs to reflect sunlight. become reduced in size, where each
leaf is divided into pinna or leaflets.
Australian examples (These and other Australian plants
The saltbush has waxy leaves that that show reduced surface areas of
reflect heat and light. leaves will be viewed in the first-
Eucalypts and banksias have coarse, hand investigation that follows.)
leathery leaves with a thick cuticle Some plants have their leaves
to protect them from the excessive reduced to tiny brown bracts or
sunlight by giving some insulation scales and their photosynthetic
and reducing the small amount of function is taken over by other parts
evaporation that sometimes occurs of the plant, for example cladodes
through thinner leaf cuticles. Plants (photosynthetic stems) and phyllodes
with these tough, dry leaves are known (photosynthetic leaf stalks). The
as sclerophylls (Greek: sclero—hard photosynthetic stems or stalks
and phyllo—leaf). that take over the function of the
In addition, both of these features leaves have very few stomata and
ensure that all the epidermal cells are therefore the amount of water lost
waterproof, preventing loss of water by by transpiration is reduced, while
evaporation from these surface cells to the photosynthetic surface area is
the outside. still sufficient. Many phyllodes and
cladodes have the added features of
Reducing the exposure of transpiring hairs and/or sunken stomata.
plant structures to sunlight —Cladodes are common features of
Plant organs that have the most Australian she-oaks (casuarinas).
abundant stomata (leaves and leaf-like The green, needle-like structures
98

that resemble leaves are in fact (a) Figure 3.16 Plant

features which
modified stems. These needles minimise water loss:
have tiny light-coloured markings (a) the cladodes of
at regular intervals along their a she-oak; (b) cross-
section through leaf
length. Closer examination (for
of an Australian
example, with a hand lens) reveals xerophyte (dune grass)
that these light areas are actually showing rolled leaf
rings of tiny brown scale leaves, with sunken stomata;
(c) Calandrinia
a feature to reduce the surface eremaea (parakeelya),
area of leaves and therefore a desert succulent
their exposure to the sun (see
Fig. 3.16a).
—Phyllodes, common to Acacia
species (Australian mulga, for
example Acacia Aneura), are
broad, flat leaf-shaped leaf stalks
(petioles) that take over the
function of leaves. These are
common in Acacia species and
the tiny, brown scale at the tip of
each phyllode is all that remains (b)
of the reduced leaf.
■ Reduced size of flowers or having no
petals can also reduce the amount of
water a plant requires; for example,
the Acacia has small clustered
flowers, reducing the energy and
water required to needed to produce
them. (Petals are considered to be
modified leaves, so reducing the
size of flowers or loss of petals also
reduces evaporation of water from
their surfaces.) (c)
■ Shedding leaves is another way of
reducing the water lost by leaves, for
example the river gum.
■ Orientation of leaves on the stem
is another feature of plants
to prevent overheating is the
orientation of leaves on the stem
(see Chapter 1). In addition,
eucalypts have an adaptation
that helps them to survive—their
leaves hang in a vertical position
to reduce the surface area that is
exposed to the sun during the heat
of the noonday sun. This serves
an additional function—that of
minimising water loss because the
stomata are not directly exposed to
sunlight during the hottest part of
99

the day and will close. Eucalypts Epidermal hairs trap a moist layer
therefore regulate the times of of air, resulting in a smaller difference
stomatal opening and closing— between the concentration of water
during the cooler early morning and in the leaf tissue and the water
late afternoon, stomata are open vapour in the layer of air trapped by
for photosynthesis, but when the the hairs—for example, hairs on the
temperatures increase to a level that under-surface of leaves of the coastal
causes water stress to the plant the banksia.
stomata then close. Curled or rolled leaves, such as
those of porcupine grass (Miscanthus
Reducing the difference in water sinensis), enclose a microclimate of
concentration between the plant humid air to reduce the difference in
and the outside air water potential (see Fig. 3.16b).
The difference in water concentration These adaptations allow plants to
(or water potential) between the plant keep their stomata open for a longer
and the surrounding atmosphere period of time, as there is not as
determines how much water is lost by much water being lost and so gaseous
transpiration. On a hot, dry day, the exchange for photosynthesis can occur
water concentration in the air is much freely.
lower than that in the internal tissues
of the leaf and so more water is lost by Water storage
transpiration than on a cooler or more Some plants, called succulents, have
humid day. adaptations such as fleshy stems
Since plants cannot change the or leaves which are able to swell
overall external environment, many up and retain moisture when it is
have adaptations that allow them to available; they then survive by using
create their own smaller ‘microclimate’ this moisture during dry periods.
in the air immediately surrounding Australia has some succulent species,
each leaf. Structures such as hairy including the desert plant Calandrinia
leaves or rolled leaves trap water in (parakeelya), an important food for
the immediate vicinity and in this way Aboriginal people (the leaves provide
they keep air around the plant humid an excellent source of moisture in
by preventing the moist air being swept desert environments and were eaten
away by dry air currents and they also as a green salad leaf). The word
create a barrier to evaporation. ‘parakeelya’ was derived from the
word ‘periculia’, an Aboriginal name
Australian examples
for the bread-like seed meal that is
Sunken stomata or stomatal pits occur made from the cooked seed (see
in Hakea and in the cladodes of she- Fig. 3.16c).
oaks. The actual stoma (breathing Fruits are structures that are removed
pores) are lower than the main surface from plants so that the seeds that
of the leaf and this allows moist air they contain can be dispersed. Many
to be trapped in the pit, therefore Australian plants produce woody fruits
reducing the difference in water rather than fleshy fruits, as this reduces
potential immediately outside the stoma the amount of water lost from the plant
(in the pit) and inside the leaf. when the fruits fall off.
100

Structures in plants that assist the conservation

of water
FIRST-HAND
■ perform a first-hand investigation to gather information INVESTIGATION
about structures in plants that assist in the conservation BIOLOGY SKILLS
of water
H11.3
It is recommended that students review 2. Using a stereo dissecting microscope H12.1; H12.2; H12.4
‘Adaptations in Australian plants to minimise or hand lens, observe the presence of
water loss’ on pages 97–100 and answer scale leaves in some specimens such as H13.1
Question 1 in the Revision Questions at the end Casuarina (the she-oak). H14.1
of this chapter in preparation for, or as a follow- 3. Using a compound microscope, observe the
up activity to, this first-hand investigation. position of stomata in the cross-section of a
xerophytic leaf. SR TR
Aim
Results
To gather information from plant specimens
about structures that assist in the conservation 1. On a piece of A4 paper, draw three plant
of water. specimens that you have observed and
label on each diagram the structures that Table and questions for
Safety reduce water loss. investigation
2. For each of the plant specimens studied (a
Students should complete a table in which they
minimum of three specimens), complete
outline three risks that they may encounter in
a table in which you identify the different
this investigation, and identify and describe
features evident for water conservation and
strategies that they could put in place to
describe how each reduces water loss in
overcome these. Discuss what is meant by
the example that you have studied. (See the
‘non-destructive investigation’.
Student Resource CD for a sample table.)
Materials Discussion questions
■ A range of plant material that demonstrates 1. The need to reduce water loss has
adaptations to minimise water loss (e.g. presented three problems in plants.
Eucalyptus, Banksia, Acacia, Casuarina, Identify these three problems and describe
Callistemon, Grevillea, Hakea and how one plant specimen that you have
porcupine grass—Miscanthus sinensis) studied has overcome each of these
■ Hand lens problems. (A table is provided on the
■ Stereo dissecting microscope Student Resource CD to guide you when
■ Compound microscope answering this question.)
■ Prepared microscope slide: cross-section 2. Name one plant studied that has
through the leaf of a xerophyte. (If this is not sunken stomata and describe two other
available, you may refer to the micrograph in characteristics that help that plant to reduce
Fig. 3.16b on page 99.) water loss.
3. Describe measures taken to ensure that this
Method investigation was conducted in a manner
1. Analyse the plant material provided to that is non-destructive.
identify structures present that assist with
minimising water loss. Refer to the notes on
Conclusion
pages 97–100 to assist you. Students should write a valid conclusion.
101

REVISION QUESTIONS
1. In the form of a table, summarise the features in plants that minimise water loss under the
following headings:
Mechanisms that minimise Explanation of how this

water loss Features evident in plants conserves water
Include the following mechanisms (in the first column):

■ features to reduce the internal temperature of plants
■ adaptations to reduce exposure of the leaves (or stomata) to the sun:
– reduced exposure of stomata
– reduced surface area of leaves or leaf-like structures
■ adaptations to reduce the difference in water concentration between the plant and the outside
air
■ features related to water storage:
– storing water
– reducing water loss in fruits.
2. Explain why it is essential to remove carbon dioxide and the nitrogenous waste ammonia from
cells.
3. Identify three reasons why it is essential to maintain the water concentration in living organisms.
4. Explain why energy is required for the reabsorption of glucose and amino acids in nephrons.
5. Copy a version of Figure 3.17 and complete the figure, showing the movement of water, salts,
urea, drugs and hydrogen ions. Provide a key and indicate which movement is by means of active
transport and which by means of passive transport (distinguish between osmosis and diffusion).
6. Analyse the information in Figure 3.18 and then use evidence from the diagram to explain the
relationship between the type of nitrogenous waste produced and the type of environment in
which the organism lives.
7. In renal dialysis, blood is taken from a vein and run past a dialysate fluid, separated by a
selectively permeable membrane. Describe what would happen if the concentration of glucose in
the dialysate was lower than the concentration of the patient’s blood.
SR TR
8. Compare the chemical composition of blood arriving at the glomerulus with the composition of
glomerular filtrate.
9. Identify the hormone absent from people who suffer from Addison’s disease and explain the
main role of this hormone in kidney functioning.
Answers to revision 10.
1 Name one Australian insect and one Australian plant that are adapted to minimise water loss and
questions describe this adaptation in each.
glomerulus neck
proximal distal arm

arm glucose
amino
acids
divalent
ions
collecting
intermedia
duct
segment
(loop of Henle)
reptile
semi-solid uric acid
Figure 3.17 Figure 3.18
102

Excretion-Wastes, Water and Salt Balance

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CHAPTER 3

Excretion—wastes, water and salt balance

The maintenance of relatively constant excretory system is made up of those

3.1 The iimportance of excretion (and water and salt

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 70 28/5/08 2:37:06 PM

In this chapter, we deal with the role ■ removing metabolic wastes

Water balance: the importance of maintaining water

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 71 28/5/08 2:37:07 PM

The importance of the removal of wastes

3.2 The role

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 72 28/5/08 2:37:07 PM

renal cortex renal medulla Figure 3.1

renal vein—carries ureter

decending limb renal

(c) (d) loop of Henle

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 73 28/5/08 2:37:08 PM

water and salt (electrolyte) balance in

3.3 Active and passive transport (diffusion and osmosis)

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 74 28/5/08 2:37:17 PM

equilibrium is reached. This does not Active transport in the

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 75 28/5/08 2:37:19 PM

3.4 Why osmosis

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 76 28/5/08 2:37:19 PM

Investigating the structure of a mammalian kidney

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 77 28/5/08 2:37:20 PM

Results Discussion and conclusion

300 — H2O the collecting tubule at the far end, it is

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 78 28/5/08 2:37:21 PM

Nephron functioning: filtration, reabsorption and tubular

Urine results from the following three processes:

1. Filtration Filtration (blue arrow) is the movement

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 79 28/5/08 2:37:24 PM

Figure 3.5 Nephron

reabsorption of certain solutes from the depending on the particular

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 80 28/5/08 2:37:26 PM

reabsorbed by osmosis—approximately The loop of Henle descends into

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 81 28/5/08 2:37:27 PM

Note: Water is reabsorbed in all Parts of the nephron involved in tubular

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 82 28/5/08 2:37:29 PM

Hormonal regulation of kidney functioning

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 83 28/5/08 2:37:36 PM

Figure 3.8 Hormone

3.7 Technology related to kidney functioning

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 84 28/5/08 2:37:37 PM

Technology 1—renal dialysis replaces lost kidney

Aim opposite direction to the blood in order to BIOLOGY SKILLS

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 85 28/5/08 2:37:40 PM

from an artery blood

blood pump diffusion

compressed fresh constant used

(b) dialysate fluid

bag is lowered and fluid

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 86 28/5/08 2:37:42 PM

Technology 2—aldosterone and hormone

Task Consequences of an inability to BIOLOGY SKILLS

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 87 28/5/08 2:37:49 PM

Module 1-Chapter 3.indd 88 28/5/08 2:37:50 PM

Urine concentration and water balance in animal