02 Forces

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FORCES
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“Mind-Map” Outline of Topic

This topic belongs to the branch of Science called “Physics”.
Physics is the study of the physical world of forces, motion & energy.
Contact Forces
&
Field Forces
Friction
Force
& Mass
&
Its Effects Weight
Gravitational
Force
FORCES
Orbits
&
Weightlessness
Magnetic
Electrostatic Force
Force
Magnetic
Electrical Fields
Charges Charging
&
Discharging
Year 7-8 Topic 2 Forces 3 Usage & copying is permitted according to the
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Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

Cut out the boxes. Sort them into an appropriate lay-out on a page of your
workbook, then glue them down. Add connecting arrows and colour in.
Electrostatic
FORCES Force Friction
Force Magnetic Mass Orbits

& &
& Force Weight Weightlessness
Its Effects
Magnetic
Contact Forces Charging
Fields
Gravitational & &
Discharging
Force Field Forces
Electrical
Charges
Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

Cut out the boxes. Sort them into an appropriate lay-out on a page of your
workbook, then glue them down. Add connecting arrows and colour in.
Electrostatic
FORCES Force Friction
Force Magnetic Mass Orbits

& &
& Force Weight Weightlessness
Its Effects
Magnetic
Contact Forces Charging
Fields
Gravitational & &
Discharging
Force Field Forces
Electrical
Charges
®
What is a FORCE? A force is a PUSH or a PULL.
Force is what causes things to begin moving, or slow down and stop.
When you pull on the rope,

a force is transmitted through the rope
to pull on the box and drag it along
When the club strikes Your legs push on the

the ball, a force pushes pedals. Wheels go around
and push on the road.
to make the ball move.
If something is already moving, force can

make it go faster, or slow down and stop. Pressing the accelerator makes the engine supply
more force to the wheels... the car goes faster.
Pressing on the brake pedal causes a force in the
wheels to slow the car down.
Force can also cause a change of shape.

For example, in a collision, forces can Sometimes, forces can
change the shape of the things involved. change the temperature.
In the car above, the

brakes become very hot
when force is used to
slow the car down.
Contact Forces and Field Forces

All the forces described above are How can gravity, electrical and magnetic
“Contact Forces” because they act only forces reach out through space and apply a
if the force is in contact with something. force to things without touching them?
For example, if the golf club swings and To understand this, we use the “model” of a
misses the ball, no force would act on “force field”.
the ball and it would not move.
For example, N S
There are also some forces which can we imagine
act on things without touching them. that a magnet
is surrounded by
an invisible web of forces. If certain things
Gravity come within this “field”, a magnetic force will
push or pull on them.
Electrical Force
Magnetic Force “Field Forces” will be studied in more
detail later in this topic.
®
Measuring Forces
Force is measured in units called To start getting an idea of how to measure
“newtons”, abbreviated “N”. forces, and some idea of how much 1N of
The newton unit is named after
force is, you might use a spring balance to
A simple way Sir Isaac Newton, an English drag various objects across the bench and
to measure scientist who lived about 300 measure the force required to move them.
some forces in years ago. He discovered many
basic ideas about forces. spring balance
the laboratory object, Pull
string
such as a pencil
is to use a spring balance. case
There are various

models, but they all You should read the balance scale while the
work by a spring object is moving along steadily.
being stretched
when a force pulls If you measure for the same object loaded
on the mechanism. onto a laboratory trolley, you may find it
Spring
Balance
(They cannot measure requires less force to move it when on
pushes... only pulls.) wheels.
same object, spring balance
on a trolley Pull
A number scale allows string
you to read the size of the force in newtons.
Be aware that spring balances are not totally
accurate or reliable. You’ll find out why, soon!
Forces Cause Movement

Here’s a simple experiment you might do, or see demonstrated in class.
Glass rod
taped to
You can experiment by:
Lab. trolley bench
String • Adding more hanging
masses. This increases the
gravitational force pulling on
Bench the string.
How does this change the
movement?
You’ll find that:
• more mass on the string • Adding a large mass to the
causes “faster” motion of the trolley to make it “heavier”,
trolley. Slotted masses but leave the same amount
are pulled down by of mass hanging on the
gravitational force string.
• More mass on the trolley How does this change the
causes “slower” motion, for the movement?
same force pulling the string.
Later, you’ll learn what is really meant by “mass” & “weight”,

and how the speed and acceleration of moving objects can be
measured. For now, simply judge things “by eye”.
®
The Force of Friction A vital contact force.

Sometimes it helps us, sometimes it hinders, but it’s always there.
If you roll a ball across a flat smooth Since friction always pushes against the
surface, such as playing field, it may motion, friction always:
travel a long way, but gradually it slows
down and stops. • slows down a moving object, and
• tries to stop any object moving any faster.
Why? It’s because of “Friction”.
Rolling Friction is why a car’s engine must keep
Direction of ball supplying a force (through the tyres pushing
Friction Force Direction of
movement on the road) just to keep going at a steady
speed.
If the engine force (pushing the car forward)
Friction is a contact force which always is the same strength as friction (pushing backwards)
then the forces “cancel out” and
pushes in the opposite direction to the the car travels at a constant speed.
way an object is moving. Force from the Friction
engine (through (including air
the tyres) pushes resistance) pushes
If a moving object is touching anything, car this way car this way
(the ground, the air, anything) there will
be friction.
However, in outer space there is no air, To go faster, the driver must increase the
so no friction. A moving meteor, or engine thrust force so it is bigger than the
spaceship, will keep coasting along friction force.
without slowing down.
Even with its engines turned off, the
spaceship keeps flying through space. To stop, the driver increases the friction
There is no friction to slow it down.
force by pressing the brakes, and also lets
the engine force die down to nothing.
A Little History
Until about 300 years ago, the concept of “force” had not been thought of in a
scientific way. It seemed “natural” that an apple from a tree would fall down.
People thought that down-on-the-ground was the “natural place” for all things.
Things fell down because they were trying to get to their “natural place”.
Similarly, it was considered “natural” for a moving object to slow down and stop.
No reason for this... it was just “natural”.
These ideas were overturned by Sir Isaac Newton (1642-1727). He figured out that
all these things were due to forces. A moving object will keep moving unless a
force acts on it. In everyday situations, things slow down and stop because friction
force stops them. Apples fall down because of gravitational force.
You will learn more about these things, and Sir Isaac Newton, in future studies.
®
Examples of Situations Involving Friction

(or lack of friction!)
Accelerating, Stopping Dimples on a Footy Ball
or Turning a Corner Traditionally, the ball for Rugby, or League or
If it wasn’t for friction no vehicle could ever Aussie Rules was made from leather. When
get moving, and if it did, it could never turn a wet, these could be slippery and cause a lot
corner or stop again. of mistakes in the game.
Modern balls are often

made of a plastic with
small dimples all over
them.
This increases the

friction between ball
Friction between the tyres and the road gives and hand or boot so there are less handling
the “grip” which allows the tyres to push errors, even in wet weather.
against the road. Without that grip it would be
impossible to: Velcro
Perhaps the ultimate in friction! It’s just 2
• get a stationary vehicle moving, or different pads of nylon material, but once they
• turn a corner, or are pressed together, friction holds them so
• slow down and stop. that they keep your sneakers on, or your
pants up.
Think about what happens when roads are
Notice that it’s easy
wet or icy. Cars skid sideways, or can’t stop
to pull them apart
and have “rear-end” collisions. Wet or icy
by lifting one side
conditions reduce friction and make driving
up from the other.
much more hazardous.
However, it is very
Wheels and Wheel Bearings difficult to pull them
It’s good to have friction “grip” between tyres apart sideways.
and road, but while you’re cruising along it’s
better to have no friction to slow you down.
Cold Hands? Friction Can Help
The rolling action of a On a cold day people rub their hands
wheel has much less together to warm them up.
friction than dragging
a wheel-less vehicle Remember that forces can change the
over the ground. movement of an object, or its shape, or even
its temperature.
A “bearing” is a low-friction
device which joins a wheel to its axle. This Friction forces often result in an increase in
rotates freely and keeps friction to a temperature. Rubbing your hands together
minimum, especially if it is lubricated with creates friction, which causes a rise in
grease or oil. temperature, so your hands get warmer.
®
Worksheet 1
Student Name.............................................
Forces
Fill in the blank spaces
Match the Lists
A force is a a).................... or a b)................ For each definition, write the letter of the
Force is what causes things to begin to matching List Item.
c)......................, or to d)..............................
and stop. Force can change the e)..............
Definitions matches with
of something, such as in a collision. Force
1. Type of force which acts
can also change the f)...............................,
when things push or pull
such as when the g)...................... of a car
when touching. .............
get hot.
Many forces are known as “h)..................... 2. Units of force. .............

forces” because they only act when things
touch. There are also some forces which 3. A type of “field force”. .............
push or pull without touching. These are
called “i)....................... forces”. Examples 4. A change that forces
are j)............................, electrical force and can cause. .............
k).......................... force.
5. Equipment to measure force. .............
Force is measured in units called
l)................................., abbreviated m)........ List Items (not all will be used)
A. spring balance
A simple way to measure forces in the B. gravity F. newton
laboratory is to use a n)................................ C. change of speed G. light
....................... D. volt
E. contact
Worksheet 2
Student Name.............................................
Friction
Friction is a a)............................ force In a car on Earth, the only way to travel at
(contact/field) which always pushes in the a constant h)....................... is to constantly
b).......................... direction to the way provide a i)......................... from the car’s
anything is moving. This means that j)............................ to overcome the
friction always causes moving things on k)............................... force.
Earth to c)........................ and eventually
d)............. To go faster the engine must provide a
force l)........................... (larger
However, in outer space there is no /equal/smaller) than friction.
e)...................... and no friction. A space
craft with its f)......................... turned off, will If the engine’s force is less than friction,
coast along at the g)....................... speed. the car will m).....................................
®
Earlier you learned that there are certain forces that act on things without
touching them. These are the “Field Forces” of Gravity, Electricity and
Magnetism. The rest of this topic is all about these.
Gravitational Force
What Goes Up, Must Come Down Mass and Weight
If you throw a ball vertically upwards it Gravity pulls on all objects because of
goes up, and then falls vertically down their “mass”. Mass is a measure of how
again. If you throw it upwards at an much matter, or how much “substance”,
angle it follows an arc and curves an object contains.
back down to the ground.
Mass is measured in kilograms (kg).
Unfortunately, in everyday life there is

The ball, and every other object on or confusion about “mass” and “weight”.
near the Earth is being pulled toward the
Earth by the force of gravity. When a person says “I weigh 65 kg” they
really should say “My mass is 65 kg... my
Gravity reaches out and pulls on weight depends on where I am”.
things without touching them. It’s as
if the Earth is surrounded by an invisible Weight is the force of gravity acting on
“field” of force which attracts all objects. your mass. Since weight is a force it is
measured in newtons (N).
Everything is pulled by This is the direction we
gravity towards the call “down”.
Earth, in the direction The opposite
of the arrows. we call “up”.
The strength of this force depends on
where you are within a gravitational field,
so the same object can have different
weights in different places.
Astronaut in Orbit in Space Shuttle
Mass = 100 kg
Weight = zero N
Gravitational force gets In this diagram, the

weaker as you get grey circles represent
Mass is always Astronaut on Moon
further from the Earth the “Force Field” of
Mass = 100 kg
gravity. the same.
Weight = 160 N
(Moon’s gravity is
Weight changes. much less than
How Does Gravity Work? Earth’s)
We still don’t fully understand what

causes gravity, but we do know that:
Astronaut on Earth’s Surface
Gravitational Force attracts Mass = 100 kg
every object in the Universe Weight = 1,000 N
to every other object in the Universe
You might do an experiment in class to
Gravity holds the planets in orbit around learn about the relationship between mass
the Sun, and holds entire galaxies and weight here on the surface of the Earth
together. More on this in a later topic! (next page).
®
Worksheet 3 An Experiment to Investigate Mass & Weight

You need:
spring balance 0-5 N
slotted 50g masses & mass carrier
Procedure: simple!
1. Start with (say) 100g mass. Record this
mass in both grams (g) and in kilograms
(kg) in a table.
2. Hang the mass on the spring balance
and record its weight in newtons (N).
3. Add another 50g or 100g and repeat
these measurements.
0
Data Table 0
Mass Mass Weight

(g) (kg) (N)
100 0.1 For Discussion:
1. You may have found that the points on
the graph lie almost in a perfect straight
line. Why are some of them not quite
perfectly lined up?
2. Can you determine a mathematical way

to calculate the weight (on the Earth’s
Analysis: surface) of any given mass?
Construct a Line Graph of Mass (kg)
(horizontal) against Weight (N)(vertical). 3. The ratio between Weight (N) and Mass
(kg) gives a special number we call “g”.
You’ll need to work out a suitable number On the Earth’s surface g = 10. The value
scale on each axis first. of “g” is different in different places.
(example: on the Moon, g = 1.6)
Don’t forget to write a “Title”, and to label Can you find out the values for “g” on
the axes. different planets of our Solar System?
All Objects Fall at the Same Rate

Try This: The paper was slowed down by air
Drop a heavy object (e.g. a brick) and a resistance, so your test wasn’t fair.
light-weight object (e.g. a sheet of
paper) from the same height at the same Scrunch the paper into a ball (this reduces
time. Watch carefully to see which hits air resistance) and try the test again.
the ground first.
Without air resistance,
The brick wins! Heavy things fall faster!
all objects fall at the same rate
Wrong! due to gravity
®
Orbits & Being Weightless

Most people know that when the astronauts Weightless in Free Fall
are up in orbit in the Space Shuttle (or other Your weight is the force
spacecraft) they are weightless. pulling you downwards
due to gravity. To
Many think that this is because there is no measure your weight
gravity up there in space. WRONG! you allow your weight-
force to push against the
Without gravity, they would not even be able springs in (say) a set of
to stay in orbit and would fly off into deep bathroom scales.
space.
What if you stood on these scales in an
Gravity & Orbiting aircraft, then jumped out feet-first with
It was Sir Isaac Newton (again!) who first the scales glued to the soles of your
figured out how orbiting is possible. feet? Falling feet-first with the scales
still in position, you read your weight.
He imagined a cannon on a very high
mountain, firing cannon balls horizontally. The scales read zero! Why?
When fired, a cannon ball curves Parachute
downwards until it hits the surface. Simple! You and the scales
If fired faster, it goes further before are both falling at the
hitting the ground. same rate due to gravity.
If fired fast enough,
the cannon ball Since you and the scales
curves downwards are falling at the same rate,
at the same rate as
the Earth curves. you are not pressing on them
at all, so they read zero.
EARTH It will now circle the
whole Earth!
It is falling down, The same thing happens to
but cannot hit the the astronauts in orbit. They
surface. are in a free-fall orbit and while
If there is no air
falling they are weightless.
resistance (no air in
space!) it can orbit They still have their mass, and gravity is
Orbital Speed around and around
needed to orbit the the Earth, always
still pulling on them, but there is no
Earth varies with falling due to weight force.
height, but is about gravity.
25,000 km/hr
You can get small changes in your
weight by standing on scales in a lift. As
This is how satellites are put in orbit, but the lift first begins to move down, your
using rockets, not cannons. They are not fired weight becomes slightly less. As the lift
straight up, but up at an angle to eventually first moves upwards your weight
get them flying parallel to the ground at orbital becomes a little more.
speed.
If you can’t arrange to have scales with
Then, turn off the engines and let them fall... you in a lift, just feel the weight
gravity holds them in orbit. changes... they really happen.
®
Worksheet 4 Student Name.............................................

Gravity
For example, an object on Earth has a
Fill in the blank spaces. certain mass and weight. If the same object
Gravity is a “a).............................. force” was taken to the Moon, its mass would be
which acts on objects without m)..................................., but its weight
b)............................... them. Gravitational would be n)....................................
force c)......................... (attracts/repels)
every object in the Universe. All objects fall o)...........................................
under gravity, so long as p).........................
Gravity is what makes everything near has no effect.
the Earth d)................................... Gravity
holds the Earth in orbit around the A satellite in q)...................... around the
e)................ and holds all the stars Earth is actually r)......................... under
together in a f)................................... gravity. However, because of its
“sideways” speed it curves downwards at
Gravity pulls on everything which has the same rate as the s)..................................
g)....................... This is the amount of the Earth, so it never reaches the
matter in an object, measured in units of surface. So long as there is no friction with
h)................ the t)................... (there is none in space) it
continues to u)....................... around the
Your weight is the i)........................... due Earth without falling down.
to j).......................... pulling on your
mass. The k)....................... of any object Anything orbit or in free-fall has no
stays the same, but its l)............................ v)........................... The object still has its
changes depending on where it is. w)........................, but is weightless.

Skills Exercise on Gravity
Did you do the experiment and complete
Worksheet 3?
An astronaut who landed on a planet of our

Solar System did exactly the same
experiment. Here are her results:
Mass Mass Weight

(g) (kg) (N)
0.1 0.4
0
0.2 0.8 0
0.25 1.0
0.4 1.6 3. Your points should lie in a straight line.
0.5 2.0 Find the gradient (slope) of this line.
(gradient = vertical rise / horiz. run)
1. Fill in the first column of the table above. 4. What is the value of “g” on this planet?
2. Graph the Mass(kg) against Weight(N). 5. Which planet of our Solar System is the
(also label the axes, work out number astronaut most likely visiting?
scales, and write a Title)
®
Magnetic Forces
Magnets are surrounded by an invisible force The Earth also has some magnetism. The
field which acts on some substances. If Earth’s magnetic field is why a compass
certain types of materials come within the can tell us directions.
field they will be attracted, The magnetic field of the
and pulled by a force. Earth is also important in
protecting us from
Magnets can also repel, or dangerous radiations from
push another magnet away. the Sun, and produces the
beautiful and eerie “aurora”
Magnetism can be created which can be seen in the
from electricity, and we sky from places near the
know that all magnetism is North Pole or near the
actually due to electricity. South Pole.
There are many ways to investigate

Investigating the
magnetism. You may do some as Magnetic Field
class experiments and/or your Here’s another simple investigation you
teacher may demonstrate. might do.
Paperclip
(on cotton thread tied to a clamp)
attracted towards a magnet
What Can Magnets Attract?
You might carry out a simple investigation
with a bar magnet to find out what
substances are attracted to magnets.
To investigate the
magnetic field, try
Bar holding a variety of
Magnet N
thin sheets of different
Some materials where the
N Object dotted line is.
people think being
that magnets attract tested
Try paper, plastic, glass and Bar
anything made of metal.
a variety of different metal Magnet
sheets, if available.
If you test some different metals, you will
Try a gauze... it’s metal, but
quickly find out that magnets only attract
not solid.
“ferrous metals”. (“Ferrous” = iron)
S
Can the magnetic field
These are metals containing iron, and include
attract the paperclip
many “steels” (e.g. stainless steel).
through solid substances?
“Steel” is a metal made of iron mixed with
some carbon and may include a variety of
Which substances can block the
other metals mixed in.
magnetic field?
It’s the iron that a magnet attracts.
®
How Magnets Affect Each Other

If you place a bar magnet on the bench and This is often summarised as follows:
slowly bring another bar magnet towards it
you’ll quickly find out several things: Opposite poles attract.
Magnets can Like poles repel.
N
attract each other.
Opposite poles attract
S Turn one around
and they repel N S N S
each other.
They have 2 distinct
N S
ends, or “poles”, and S N N S
Same poles repel
the magnetic force is
concentrated at the poles.
Finding Directions with a Compass

Place a bar magnet in a small plastic Earth’s Magnetic Field
container and float it in a tub of water. The Earth’s geographical poles are the
You’ll see that the magnet and floating points around which the Earth rotates on
container will swing arround to always its axis.
point in a particular direction.
The Earth also acts as if there was a huge
bar magnet inside it and has a magnetic
field with north and south magnetic poles.
Geographic Pole.
S N Earth’s axis of Magnetic Pole.
rotation. Compasses
point to this.
The end of the magnet marked “N” always

points in the direction of north. Earth is
surrounded
by a huge
The “N” end of the magnet is called the Equator magnetic
“north-seeking pole” of the magnet, field
because it seeks out and points to the
Earth’s magnetic north pole.
Since the “N” end is attracted towards the

Earth’s north pole, it follows that the “N” The magnetic poles are close to, but not
end is actually a magnetic south pole. in the same places as the geographical
poles.
Confusing?
That’s why it should be referred to as A compass, of course, points at the
the “north-seeking pole”. magnetic poles. This is close to true north
and south, but not quite the same.
®
Electromagnets
Magnetism can be made from electricity.
off
Wrap insulated wire around a bar of soft iron. (a large on AC
bolt will do) Connect to a power pack and turn on an - +
electric current. DC
The iron bar becomes instantly magnetic, which you

Just the electric coil
can prove by using it to attract paper clips or similar.
(called a “solenoid”) by
itself will produce a
Turn it off, and most of the magnetism instantly magnetic field. The iron
stops. (Some may linger for a while.) core just intensifies
the field.
Uses of Electromagnets
The electromagnet is one the most useful devices ever invented. Electromagnets are the
basis of the electric generators which we use to make all our electricity in power stations.
Electromagnets are also the main part of all electric

motors which we use in power tools , machinery,
and many household appliances.
Electromagnets are also the main part of speakers in

radios, TVs, public address systems, etc.
The electromagnets in a speaker are able to convert
electrical signals into sound by causing the speaker
to vibrate and create sound waves in the air.
Technology Makes Life Easier

Electromagnets are the basis of some of the of most important technologies our
society depends on... electrical motors and generators.
These technologies make our life and work easier and more convenient.
In the Home Factories&Workshops

washing machine power tools
vacuum cleaner machinery
refrigerator conveyors
fans & hair driers pumps & compressors
Each of these devices works because of an

electric motor, which runs on electricity produced
by a generator (at a power station).
Think about how each device makes life or work easier and more convenient.
®
The Magnetic Field

We can easily see the effects of a Instead of using paper, your teacher might
magnetic field, but we can never demonstrate this using a clear plastic
actually see the field... or can we? sheet on an overhead projector.
Firstly, place a bar magnet inside a As well as a single magnet, try using 2
plastic bag or wrap it in cling film. magnets which are attracting each other,
N S N S
Then place a sheet of stiff paper over it.
Sprinkle the paper with powdered iron
granules. Now gently tap the paper and or 2 magnets repelling each other.
watch the pattern develop.
S N N S
Which is this?
The small particles of iron line up with

the shape of the magnetic field
and allow you to “see” it.
Mapping a Magnetic Field with a Compass

Another way to understand and to “see” a magnetic field is to map it using a
compass to find the direction of the “magnetic field lines” at various points.
Draw an arrow to show
Place a solenoid coil on a blank piece of paper which way the N-s
seeking
end of the compass points
and connect to a power pack on low voltage.
Now place a compass on the paper
and see which direction it points.
other
Draw an arrow on the paper to show which way compass
the north-seeking end of the compass points. Sheet Solenoid positions
of
paper
Now move the compass to a variety of other
places on the paper and repeat the “mapping”.
You might even be able to place the compass inside the coil.
You may end up with a pattern similar to this sketch.
Can you see from this pattern that the magnetic field
produced by an electrical coil (and an electromagnet)
is more or less the same shape as the field of a
bar magnet?
Can you tell which end of the coil was the N-pole?
®
Worksheet 6
Magnetism Student Name.............................................

Magnetism is a a)........................... force Every magnet has two ends, or
(contact/field) which can both b).................. k)”.....................” called north & south
(pull towards) or c)..................... (push
away). Two magnets affect each other as follows:
Opposite poles l)................................ while
The Earth has a magnetic d).................... m)..................... poles n)..............................
That is why a freely-rotating magnetic
needle (called a e)”.............................”) An electromagnet can be made by
always points in the f).............. - ................ wrapping o).......................... around an
direction. The Earth’s magnetic field also p).......................... bar and connecting it in
acts as a shield against dangerous an q).......................... circuit. The
g)............................... from the Sun. magnetism can be turned on and off with
the r)...................................... This makes
A magnet will attract any metal containing electromagnets very useful in electric
h)............. The magnetic field can penetrate motors, s)............................. and
through substances such as i)...................., .......................................
but is blocked by any j).......................

Magnetism
Each set of diagrams shows a number
of magnets with the “field lines” made 2. S
visible using iron dust.
Only one pole of one magnet is known.

Identify all the magetic poles
(write “N” or “S” on the diagrams).
1.
®
How Scientific “Models” and Theories

Help Us to Understand Things
Sometimes it’s very difficult to understand The force-field model is not the only way to
strange natural things like gravity, or explain gravity.
magnetism.
Einstein’s “Theory of Relativity” explains
To help us understand such things we use gravity in a totally different way. According
scientific “models”. to this theory, empty space itself has a
certain geometry or “shape”. We can model
For example, the idea of a “Force Field” is this by imagining a grid which represents
a model to explain how some forces can the “shape” of space itself.
reach out through space and push or pull
on things without touching them. Things
coasting
Our explanation of through space
magnetism is that a N follow the
magnet is surrounded by shape of space.
an invisible field of Moving things
magnetic forces, and could include
we use diagrams like solid objects
this to help visualise such as a
the field. S space craft, or
even a beam of
light.
We explain Einstein’s theory is that mass causes the

gravity by shape of space to be warped or distorted.
imagining that Moving things still follow the geometric grid,
the Earth is so near a massive object such as a planet,
surrounded by the space craft follows a curve which may
an invisible lead it down to the planet’s surface, or into
force field which orbit, etc, according to its speed.
attracts mass.
Are these models true and real?

Are there really invisible force lines
everywhere?
planet
Even if a model is not the full reality, it
is still useful if it helps us understand This curved path
the facts we observe in the Universe. is not due to a
force of gravity,
but because the
craft follows the
The “force-ffield model” of gravity is ideal to warped fabric of
explain the facts of gravity in everyday space itself.
events here on Earth.
Einstein’s theory is able to explain things
In the wider Universe of massive stars and that the “force-field model” of gravity
black holes, Einstein’s “warped space model” cannot, such as the bending of light
is necessary to explain what we see. travelling near stars.
®
Electrostatic Force Electric Charge

In an electric circuit there is a flow, or You need to be aware that every
current, of electrical charges moving substance is made up of tiny units of
through a conductor. matter called atoms.
Materials which are electrical insulators Each atom often acts as if it was a tiny
(e.g. plastic) will not allow a current to flow, solid ball, but in fact it is composed of
but they can develop an electrostatic smaller particles arranged as in this
charge. (“static” = not moving) diagram.
Structure
Electrostatic charges can exert a force of an -
(push or pull) on each other and cause ATOM
electron (-))
many strange effects.
Nucleus contains
PROTONS (+) and
NEUTRONS (0)
The little electrons are whizzing around

the central nucleus, like miniature
planets around the Sun.
(Note: this is NOT a gravitational orbit, )
Each electron, and each proton in the

nucleus, carries a field-force which we
call electric charge.
There are 2 opposite types of electric

charge which have been called simply
“positive” (+ve) and “negative” (-ve).
Electrons carry negative electric charge.
Each hair has a static charge and
repels every other hair. Protons carry positive electric charge.
How Things Get an Electrostatic Charge

Normally, the number of However, it is very easy to upset this
electrons and the number electron balance by transferring electrons
of protons in each atom rubbed off
from the atoms of one
one atom,
is exactly the same. onto substance onto the atoms of
another a different substance.
The +ve charges and the
-ve charges “cancel This atom still has all its This atom still has all its
Gentle friction is enough.
(+ve) protons, but has
out” and no electrical (+ve) protons, but has
lost a (-v
ve) electron. gained a (-v Just rubbing 2 different
ve) electron.
effects are apparent. Overall, it now has a Overall, it now has a
substances together can
(+ve) charge. (-v
ve) charge.
transfer electrons
If these substances are electrical insulators, the charges cannot flow away, from one to the
so the substance stays charged, at least for a while. other.
The charges can push or pull each other (FORCE!)
because each has a force-field.
®
Forces Between Electrostatic Charges

How do electrical charges affect each other?
It turns out to be very similar to the pattern of forces between magnetic poles.
Opposites + +
Attract.
+ Force pulls
Like Charges Repel.
Force pushes them apart

them together
Getting Charged Electroscopes

To investigate electrostatic charge you An electroscope is a device which detects
will probably experiment by rubbing electric charge, and allows you to study it.
different materials together.
There are various types of electroscope
One of the best combinations is to rub you might use, or see demonstrated. The
perspex (a clear plastic) with silk. simplest type is shown.
Electrons rubbed off perspex rod.
Rod becomes positively charged.
Ball Electroscope
This is simply a light-w
weight
ball (e.g.polystyrene)
hanging on a fine silk thread.
++++++ If no charge is present, the
ball hangs straight down.
If a charged object is
nearby the ball is attracted to it.
If you rub an ebonite rod (ebonite is a

hardened rubber substance) with wool, Some electrons in the
it becomes negatively charged. ball move, causing a Why is the
separation of
+ charges. ball
+
+ +
attracted?
+ + The rod then attracts the nearer
charges, and the ball is pulled towards the rod.
+
Electrons rubbed off wool cloth. If the rod touches the ball,
Rod becomes negatively charged. electrons transfer (rod to
Only the (-ve) electrons move. ball) so the ball gets the
same charge as the rod.
The (+ve) charges (protons)
cannot move because they are Now the ball is repelled by
the rod because they have
fixed in the nucleus of the atom. the same charge.
®
Static Discharge
Things can get charged up, and they can also lose their charge again.
Often, they lose their charge by a “SPARK” jumping.
A spark occurs when millions of electrons jump through the air.
A spark discharge always involves Lightning
electrons jumping from a negatively The ultimate in an
charged object towards a more positively “earth discharge” is
charged object. Remember, only the (-ve) lightning.
electrons can move.
Violent winds inside a
“thunderstorm” system
cause static charges to
build up in the clouds.
Some clouds become

(+ve) and others (-ve).
Eventually, they may

discharge by sparking,
either from one cloud to another, or by
You may have seen a “van der Graaf” generator “earthing”.
in action in the laboratory. electron flow
It develops strong electrostatic charges which + cloud to cloud
are great for studying the effects of charge, and +
also great for making discharge sparks! + +
+ + +
Earthing a Charge electron
The Earth itself is such a huge lump of atoms flow
Earth to
that it can easily supply electrons to, or cloud
accept electrons from, a charged object. A “lightning rod” electron
protects buildings flow
by providing a cloud to
So, if electrons can flow between a charged conducting pathway Earth
for electrons to
object and the Earth, either by sparking or by flow through.
flowing through a conductor, they will. The
charged object loses its charge. we say it has
been “earthed”, or “discharged”. As the electrons force their way through
the air, a narrow channel of air is heated to
Ever been “zapped” as you step from a car? very high temperature and glows briefly.
Friction with the air can create
a static charge on a car, which That is the flash of lightning.
is insulated from the Earth by
+ its rubber tyres.
The sudden expansion of air in this “super-
+ As you step out, electrons flow heated” channel of air creates a shock
through you to “earth” the car. wave of sound.
+ You get an electric shock.
In the dark you might
electron even see sparks!
This shock wave is the sound
flow of “thunder”.
®
Worksheet 8
Student Name.............................................
Electrostatic Charge & Force
Fill in the blank spaces. Normally, the number of electrons and
protons are i)............................. and cancel
Electrostatic force is a out. However, if two different substances
a)............................ (contact/field) for are rubbed together, j)........................... can
which acts between things that have an be rubbed off one type of atom onto the
b)........................... charge. other.
Electric charges are carried by particles The substance which loses electrons now
within atoms. On the outside of every has a surplus of k)......................... charge.
atom are the c)............................ which That which gains electrons has an excess
carry d)............................ charge. In the of l)............................... charge. If the
e).............................(central part) of each substance is an electrical m).......................,
atom are the f)............................. which the charge cannot easily flow away.
carry g).......................... charge. (There
are also h)............................., which have Electric charges exert a force on each other
no charge.) as follows: Opposite charges n)..................,
while o)....................... charges p)...............

Electrostatic 2.
HeyBannerBanner.com
Photo courtesy of
Charge & Force This girl was
photographed while she
Briefly answer the questions was touching a van der
Graaf generator.
1.
Each of these Explain why her hair is standing up.
electroscope balls
were touched by a
rod which had
been rubbed
3.
with a cloth.
Fred discovered that if he rubbed his
a) Explain the way they are hanging.
shoes on the nylon carpet, then
touched someone who was holding the
b) Were they both touched by the same handrail or a water tap, they got an
rod? Explain. electric shock. Explain what’s
happening.
c) Complete this
sketch to show the 4.
effect of touching Why is it NOT wise to shelter under a
both with the tree during a thunderstorm?
same rod.
®
How Scientific Knowledge Has Changed

Our Understanding of the World
Many ancient people thought that thunder Volta went on to invent the first practical
and lightning were caused by angry gods in electrical battery to make usable amounts of
the sky. electricity.
In 1752, the American Benjamin This allowed

Franklin carried out a famous (and many later
incredibly dangerous) experiment. scientists to
He flew a kite into a thunderstorm study
and collected electrostatic charge electricity
from the and
clouds. gradually
From this he gain a full
was able to show that understanding of both static and current
lightning was electrical electricity. Many inventions followed, leading
and could be studied to light bulbs, electric motors and
scientifically. It no longer appliances, etc.
needed a supernatural explanation.
In his honour, we have named the electrical
About 30 years later, 2 Italian scientists unit, the “volt”, after Alessandro Volta.
studied electricity in a different way.
Luigi Galvani The work of Ben Franklin and Volta was the
discovered that start of a series of developments which led
freshly dissected frog’s legs directly to our modern electrically-powered
would twitch and world.
jump if touched with metal
wires. He believed that However, their work led not only to the new
there was “animal electrical technologies, but helped change
electricity” in them, and in the way people understand the natural world.
all living things. He
thought electricity was a People gradually began to see that
“life force”, possibly of supernatural origin. mysterious things like lightning, the
Universe, or even life itself, could be
Alessandro Volta believed the electricity understood scientifically without the need for
making the frog’s legs jump was not some supernatural explanations.
supernatural force, but simple chemistry. He
began experiments to prove his ideas.
Over a 20 year period, the experiments and

arguments went back-and-forth until
eventually Volta was proven correct.
The explanation was that the muscles were

still alive and functioning for a while after
being cut from the frog. Electricity from a
chemical reaction involving the metal wires
and the frog’s body fluids stimulated the
muscles and made them twitch.
®
Topic Test - Forces

Student Name.............................................
Answer all questions
in the spaces provided Score /30
1. (10 marks)
Match each description to an item from 2.
Give a brief explanation of each of the
the list. To answer, write the letter
following.
(A,B,C, etc) of the list item beside the
a) On Earth, a moving object (without
description.
power) always slows down and stops, but
in space things can keep going without
Description matches with List Item
power. (2 marks)
i) a field force which can
attract or repel things. .............
ii) Unit of force. .............
iii) Contact force which always .............

opposes the motion of an object.
b) Rubbing your hands together makes
iv) Unit of mass. ............. them warmer. (1 mark)
v) Constantly falling down

around the Earth, but never .............
reaching the ground.
vi) Coil of wire around an .............

iron bar.
c) A compass needle always points in a
vii) How 2 south poles would ............. north-south direction.(2 marks)
affect each other.
viii) Type of electric charge carried

by an electron. .............
ix) Device for detecting electro-

static charges. .............
x) Static discharge from sky to d) Sometimes the more you brush your hair,
earth. ............. the more it stands up on end. (2 marks)
List Items (not all will be used)

A. repel H. newton
B. electromagnet I. electroscope
C. gravity J. orbit
D. negative K. positive
E. kg L. lightning
F. friction M. neutrons
G. magnetism
®
3. (4 marks) 5. (4 marks)
True or False? Write “T” or “F” for each Back in the 1970’s, an astronaut on the
a) Objects in orbit are weightless ............. Moon carried out a famous experiment. He
because there is no gravity up there. dropped a hammer and a feather at the
same time.
b) Frictional force could never make Both objects fell very slowly, and hit the
something go faster. ............. ground at the same time.
c) A magnetic field can be blocked a) Why do you think they both fell very
by a sheet of plastic or paper. ............. slowly?
d) Objects can get a +ve charge
by gaining more protons. .............
4. (5 marks)
Fill in the blank spaces in these statements.
a) To measure force in the laboratory you b) Why did they hit the ground at the same
can use a .................................................. time?
b) Compared to being on Earth, an

astronaut on the Moon will have
........................mass, but ...................
weight.
(Choose from “less”, “the same” or “more”)
c) Would they hit the ground at the same
c) The common metal that is attracted by all time on Earth? Explain your answer.
magnets is .........................................
d) If you rub a balloon on your woollen

jumper, the wool loses electrons. This
means the balloon gets a ...........................
charge.
6. Skills Question Your teacher will decide if you are to Mass v Weight
attempt this question or not. Calculator needed. (8 marks) on Jupiter
This graph shows the weight of different masses on the planet Jupiter.
100
a) What is the approx weight of a 1 kg mass on Jupiter? .................

80
b) What is the mass of an 80N weight on Jupiter? .................

Weight Force (N)
c) Calculate the gradient (slope) of the graph. Show working below.

60
grad. = vert/horiz = ................. .................= .................

40
d) What is the value of “g” on Jupiter? .................
e) A 50kg person has a weight force of 500N on Earth.

20
What is the weight force of the same person on Jupiter? .................
f) What would this same person weigh when

0
in orbit around Jupiter? ................. 0 1 2 3 4

Mass (kg)
®
Answer Section Worksheet 3 (cont)

1.
Worksheet 1 There is some experimental error.
a) push b) pull Spring balances are often not very
c) move d) slow down accurate or reliable.
e) shape f) temperature 2.You can see from the data that the weight
g) brakes h) contact force is always about 10 times the mass
i) field j) gravity in kg.
k) electrical (or electrostatic) 3. examples only: Jupiter g = 27,
l) newtons m) N (capital) Mars g = 4
n) spring balance
Match the Lists Worksheet 4
1. E 2. F 3. B 4. C 5. A a) field b) touching
c) attracts d) fall down
Worksheet 2 e) Sun f) galaxy
a) contact b) opposite g) mass h) kg
c) slow down d) stop i) force j) gravity
e) air f) engine k) mass l) weight
g) same h) speed m) the same n) less
i) force j) engine o) at the same ratep) air resistance
k) friction l) larger q) orbit r) falling
m) slow down s) curvature t) air
u) orbit / fall v) weight
Worksheet 3 w) mass
Data Table (Typical results)
Worksheet 5
Mass Mass Weight 1. 100, 200,250,400,500
(g) (kg) (N) 2.
100 0.1 1.0 Weight and Mass
2.5
on Another Planet
200 0.2 2.1
1.5 2.0
250 0.25 2.5

400 0.4 3.9
Weight (N)
500 0.5 5.1

Weight Force of Different Masses
1.0
Note: although
5
0.5
not given as data

(0,0) is a point.
Zero mass must
4
have zero weight

0
Weight (N)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

3
Mass (kg)
Although these
points are not quite
in a straight line, it
2
is best to rule a 3. grad = vert/horiz = 2.0 / 0.5 = 4

straight line as close
to all as possible, 4. g = 4 (“g” is the ratio weight / mass)
1
as shown.
“Line of best fit” 5. If you researched to find the values of
g on other planets, you’ll know that
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 planet Mars has a g-value close to 4.
Mass (kg)
®
Worksheet 6 Worksheet 9 (cont)

a) field b) attract 3.
c) repel d) field (They would have
e) compass f) north-south the same charge
g) radiation h) iron and repel each
i) paper / plastic j) metal other)
k) poles l) attract
m) like n) repel
o) (insulated) wire p) iron
q) electrical r) electricity Topic Test
s) generators and speakers 1.
i) G ii) H iii) F iv) E v) J
Worksheet 7 vi) B vii) A viii) D ix) I x) L
1. N S N S
2.
S a) On Earth there is always some friction.
S N
In space there is no air, and no friction.
2. N b) Friction causes heat and raises the
S temperature.
c) The compass’s magnetic field is
N
attracted/repelled by the Earth’s magnetic
field, so that the needle points towards the
N
N Earth’s magnetic poles.
S
d) The friction of brushing causes each hair to
S
get an electric charge. Since each hair gets
S N the same charge, they all repel each other and
stand up to get as far away from each other as
they can.
3.a) F b) T c) F d) F
4.
Worksheet 8 a) spring balance.
a) field b) electric b) the same mass, but less weight.
c) electrons d) negative c) iron
e) nucleus f) protons d) negative
g) positive h) neutrons 5.
i) equal j) electrons a) Gravity on the Moon is weaker, so things
k) positive l) negative fall more slowly.
m) insulator n) attract b) All objects fall at the same rate under
o) like p) repel gravity, so long as there is no air resistance.
c) Unlikely, because air resistance would
make the feather flutter and faller slower than
Worksheet 9 the hammer.
1. 6.
They have opposite electric charges and a) approx 27 N
are attracting each other. b) 3 kg
2. c) 80 / 3 = 27 (nearest whole number)
No, because they have opposite d) 27 (g is the ratio of weight / mass)
charges. e) 1350 N (mass x g)
f) zero (weightless in orbit)

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“Mind-Map” Outline of Topic

Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

Force Magnetic Mass Orbits

Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

Force Magnetic Mass Orbits

What is a FORCE? A force is a PUSH or a PULL.

When you pull on the rope,

When the club strikes Your legs push on the

If something is already moving, force can

Force can also cause a change of shape.

In the car above, the

Contact Forces and Field Forces

There are various

Forces Cause Movement

Later, you’ll learn what is really meant by “mass” & “weight”,

The Force of Friction A vital contact force.

Examples of Situations Involving Friction

Modern balls are often

This increases the

Many forces are known as “h)..................... 2. Units of force. .............

Unfortunately, in everyday life there is

Gravitational force gets In this diagram, the

We still don’t fully understand what

Worksheet 3 An Experiment to Investigate Mass & Weight

Mass Mass Weight

2. Can you determine a mathematical way

All Objects Fall at the Same Rate

Orbits & Being Weightless

Worksheet 4 Student Name.............................................

Worksheet 5 Student Name.............................................

An astronaut who landed on a planet of our

Mass Mass Weight

There are many ways to investigate

How Magnets Affect Each Other

Finding Directions with a Compass

The end of the magnet marked “N” always

Since the “N” end is attracted towards the

The iron bar becomes instantly magnetic, which you

Electromagnets are also the main part of all electric

Electromagnets are also the main part of speakers in

Technology Makes Life Easier

In the Home Factories&Workshops

Each of these devices works because of an

The Magnetic Field

The small particles of iron line up with

Mapping a Magnetic Field with a Compass

You may end up with a pattern similar to this sketch.

Fill in the blank spaces