1

HSC OPTION:
INDIVIDUALS
AND WORK
9
MODULE FOCUS
• The nature of work (p. 292)
• Changing work patterns (p. 306)
• Structures that support individuals in the workplace (p. 316)
• Maintaining work and life balance (p. 327)
• Youth employment (p. 332)
OUTCOMES
A student:
• H2.2 evaluates strategies to contribute to positive relationships and the
wellbeing of individuals, groups, families and communities
• H2.3 critically examines how individual rights and responsibilities in
various environments contribute to wellbeing
• H3.3 critically analyses the role of policy and community structures in
supporting diversity
• H3.4 critically evaluates the impact of social, legal and technological
change on individuals, groups, families and communities
• H5.2 develops strategies for managing multiple roles and demands of
family, work and other environments
• H6.1 analyses how the empowerment of women and men influences the
way they function in society
• H6.2 formulates strategic plans that preserve rights, promote
responsibilities and establish roles leading to the creation of positive
social environments.
9 HSC OPTION: INDIVIDUALS AND WORK 291

ISBN: 9780170347990
THE NATURE OF WORK
work Work defines many of us. We spend a large portion of our lives fulfilling roles and responsibilities set out
Energy directed towards for us by our work. Work dictates how much time we spend with our family, how much money we have to
a goal
spend, and even how we are perceived in the community. Work gives us an identity: who we are, how we
express ourselves, who we spend time with and the place in which we live.
Work can impact on all areas of wellbeing. Physically, work can fulfil basic needs. Emotionally, it can
enable the fulfilment of goals, thereby making people feel good about themselves. Socially, work enables
the formation of friendships and allows people to form productive relationships. Economically, it provides
money to create a lifestyle. Thus work creates opportunities for people not only to believe in themselves
and their abilities (spiritual) but also to express themselves culturally.
Work can be hard to define. Each individual constructs their own definition of ‘work’. One person’s
definition of work may be another’s definition of a leisure activity.
The Concise Oxford Dictionary defines work in 27 different ways, the first as an ‘expenditure of energy,
striving, application of effort or exertion for a purpose’. Work could also be defined simply as ‘energy
directed towards a goal’. Another definition comes closer to the traditional definition of work: ‘Employment,
especially the opportunity of earning money by labour’. This demonstrates that the definition of work can
mean different things to different people.
Getty Images/Mike Harrington
Is it possible that these two people are working? One person is a personal trainer who is receiving money for the
expenditure of their energy; the other person is expending energy in the hope that they will increase fitness (a goal).
Reasons people work

If you were to survey a random sample of people on the reasons they work, most people would suggest
they work only for money. However, working can provide individuals with much more than just money. The
table below shows we work:
• to meet our specific needs,
• to meet our value and status needs
• for economic resources.
292 NELSON COMMUNITY AND FAMILY STUDIES

ISBN: 9780170347990
The mnemonic SHE SEAS VASE will help you remember the reasons people work.
S Safety and Security To meet specific needs

H Health
E Employment
S Sense of identity
E Education
A Adequate
S standard of living
V Value To meet value and status needs

A and
S status
E Economic For economic reasons
To meet specific needs

Specific needs are met through paid and unpaid work, as shown in the table.
S Safety and security

Security and safety refers to our essential desire to feel protected and safe from threat. This need covers important physical, emotional and
financial aspects of wellbeing.
Paid work Unpaid work
Having paid employment gives an employee the safety and security Volunteer work is generally considered safe (e.g. teaching basic adult
a regular income. This gives peace of mind that an individual can education or selling raffle tickets for fundraising), but some volunteer
provide for themselves or their family. jobs do come with risk.
Some patterns of work (see page 299) don’t offer ongoing Those working in environmental conservation should know that the
security; for example, contract work only produces income for the outdoors can be unpredictable – injuries, falls and insects can all be
length of the contract, and casual work only when there are shifts considered risks to our security and safety needs.
available. Irregularity and un-renewed contracts create a lack of job Caring for the physically disabled is physically demanding. Many
security. carers experience back injuries. Learning safe lifting techniques is
Some job types increase the risk of accident or injury; for example, important for this type of work.
working in war zones, on oil rigs, in mining, or on construction sites. Working in unpredictable situations (e.g. for nightly food and blanket
‘Danger money’, or a higher rate of payment, is offered for these drops for the homeless or volunteer firefighting) can impact on the
jobs, as the consequences of mistakes are much higher. security and safety of an individual.
Many volunteer in these roles because they love to give back to the
community or recognise a clear need for these roles.
H Health needs
Health is a holistic concept and is related to a person’s perception of wellbeing. There are five dimensions of health: physical, social, emotional,
mental and spiritual.
There are some paid jobs that relate directly to physical health, such Working in the home can increase fitness levels. Vacuuming, making
as a personal trainer, lifeguard and those in the armed forces or beds and carrying laundry are activities that can regularly allow an
emergency teams. However, in less physical employment, health individual to increase their heart rate for 30 minutes or more – this
needs must also be met. Many employers require compulsory medical decreases the risk of lifestyle diseases and heart attack.
checks, ensuring major illness is ruled out. Health can be further Unpaid work or volunteer work enables individuals to meet their
monitored if warning signs arise. mental health needs, by creating routine. Having to get up each day
Mental health can be impacted by work, if the work is highly and report to an employer gives an individual a sense of purpose and
stressful or does not meet an individual’s economic needs. In such enables goals to be achieved, thus increasing self-esteem.
cases, there may be an increase in anxiety or depression.
(continued )

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E Employment needs
Employment needs are met by exerting energy towards a goal for pay, profit, commission or payment.
The need of employment will be satisfied through this form of work. The need of employment will not be met through this form of work.
S Sense of identity needs
This is your idea of who you are. It is influenced by the roles you play in work, family, sport or social life.
The type of paid work you do – whether you are working in an area Giving back to society through volunteering may create the opportunity
that expresses your culture, your lifestyle or your level of education or for self discovery. Volunteering programs can often be seen as ‘life
in an area that pays a high wage – can enable you to express who you changing’.
are, and can create a picture of who you are to others.
Your sense of identity will also influence your work ethic.
E Education needs
Education refers to the action or process of learning knowledge and skills.
The workplace is seen as an intellectual environment. Every day, Schools and vocational education and training (VET) courses offer
procedures and tasks can keep the mind active and there is the students work experience or work placement, giving them the
opportunity for continual learning. opportunity to experience an occupation or trade. These skills can be
Many employers require that their employees take on continual used when applying for paid employment, as many employers require
professional learning. Employers can offer their employees on-the-job skilled employees.
training and off-site education courses, such as nightly TAFE courses. Networking and meeting people in the desired field of work can
Apprentices, for example, are offered the opportunity to gain on-the- increase the opportunity for paid employment.
job training, as well as study at TAFE one day or night per week. Donating time and energy to charitable organisations can educate
The self-employed may not have the same opportunities to partake volunteers about the needs of those they are working with. These
in extra training or career development courses. individuals can help to educate others.
Through volunteer work, new skills can be learned, such as customer
service, operating a cash register and handling money.
AS Adequate standard of living needs
Sometimes referred to as primary needs, food, clothing and shelter are required by all people.
Working in paid employment provides access to financial resources. Volunteer work or unpaid work offers no monetary compensation, so
This ensures that people can access their ‘primary’ needs, such as will not meet the need for an adequate standard of living. Volunteer
food, clothing and shelter. or unpaid work would need to be done in combination with paid
A wage or a salary will dictate how comfortable an individual’s employment for this need to be met.
lifestyle is. For those earning a large amount, their standard of living
will be drastically different to an individual earning the minimum wage.
For the underemployed, it is difficult to meet an adequate
standard of living. These workers need more hours of work and are
willing to work, but might not be able to get the shifts required to
meet their needs.
underemployed
Workers who need/want
more working hours to
fulfil their own or their
family’s basic needs

ISBN: 9780170347990
Think it through
1 In the table below, a tick (✓) illustrates which needs are met by the occupations listed. Copy the table headings
into your notebook. Complete the table and add some of your own examples of occupations.
Safety Health Employment Sense of Education Adequate Value Status Economic
and identity standard
security of living
Teacher ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Library ✓ ✓
volunteer
for the
housebound
Fitness
instructor
Brain surgeon
Security guard
Legal-aid
lawyer
Understanding the glossary word: compare and contrast

2 Compare (show the similarities and/or differences) and contrast (show how things are different or opposite) how
specific needs are met in paid and unpaid work.
a Copy the table headings from pp. 293–4 into your notebook, adding an extra row for each need. A sample
section of the table is shown below.
b In this extra row, show how each of the specific needs is met in both paid and unpaid work. This will show
similarities. The existing ‘Paid work’ and ‘Unpaid work’ columns in the table show the differences.
c Answer the following HSC-style question: ‘Compare and contrast the specific needs met through paid and
unpaid work.’ Remember to use linking words in each paragraph to show the similarities and the differences;
for example, ‘they both’, ‘this is similar to’, ‘whereas’, ‘in comparison to’.
Health needs
Health includes both the physical and mental condition of a person.
Similarities
Health needs can be met in both paid and unpaid work through the creation of a social atmosphere and the formation
of relationships. Friendships and feelings of connection can increase self-worth as well as create opportunities for
physical health improvements; for example, through lunchtime fitness groups or after-work sporting teams. Many
workers, both paid and unpaid (volunteers), especially those in major cities, can use public transport to access their
workplace, thus increasing their heart rate by riding their bike, or walking to and from bus stops or train stations.
There are some paid jobs that relate directly to physical Vacuuming, making beds and carrying laundry are
health, such as a personal trainer, lifeguard and those in activities that can regularly allow an individual to
the armed forces or emergency teams. increase their heart rate for 30 minutes or more.
Value
Work is valued for two major reasons.
• On an individual basis (where the individual benefits), work is valued because it provides economic
resources to fulfil the need for an adequate standard of living; that is, physical needs, such as food,
clothing and shelter. Individuals may also value work for the satisfaction and self-esteem they gain from
it and/or the lifestyle they are able to create.
• As people earn money and pay taxes, governments are able to provide infrastructure and services, such
as roads and hospitals that contribute to the wellbeing of society (the community benefits).

ISBN: 9780170347990
The value placed on a particular occupation (whether by the individual or society) will dictate how
people perceive that type of job, and therefore how valuable that job is.
Status
Status is a societal-based rank of an individual’s importance derived from their work, occupation or
profession. Status can be perceived by:
• whether an individual is employed or unemployed
• the industry in which an individual works – occupations with integrity, such as firefighter or schoolteacher,
will give an individual status compared with those that are seen to lack integrity, such as the paparazzi,
tabloid journalists or used-car salesmen
• the level of employment, such as CEO, manager or assistant
• the level of the decisions made on behalf of others – occupations that are required to make decisions
that might be life-threatening (doctors), or will affect large numbers of people (prime minister), will have
a higher status
• the work pattern
• how many years of study or education that are required to perform this occupation – for example,
doctors and surgeons study for seven years, in comparison to a check-out operator in a supermarket
who has on-the-job training
• how much an individual earns (the level of remuneration).
Check for understanding

1 Place the occupations below in order of highest to lowest status.
• Prosecuting lawyer • Professional model
• General practitioner/doctor • Labourer
• Defence lawyer • Mother
• Judge • Aged-care worker
• Priest/minister/rabbi/imam • School principal
• Vet • Television host (host of MTV music show)
• Retail manager • Television host (host of ABC News)
• Police sergeant • Beautician
• Secondary schoolteacher • Athlete
• Primary schoolteacher • Nurse
• Builder
2 Think about what things create a perception of each occupation. Discuss (provide reasons for and against)
reasons for the position of each occupation on your list.
3 a Underline the occupations that, in the past, have been stereotypically attractive to men.
b Do these jobs appear closer to the top of the list?
c Can you draw conclusions about how a individual may perceive work from the placement of the
stereotypically ‘male’ jobs?
Economic
This is one of the major reasons why people work. Economic gain or monetary rewards are given for
University lecturers, labour, either through direct or indirect payments. Direct payments for work are usually in the form of a
crane operators and wage, salary or fee for service, which often includes compulsory superannuation. Indirect payments are
train drivers earn well non-monetary payments in return for a service, such as a company car, bonuses, stock options, shares,
above the Australian corporate boxes or mobile phones.
average wage of Both direct and indirect payments enable workers to create a lifestyle and satisfy needs and wants. The
$34.70 an hour amount of financial comfort will depend on the work pattern and occupation, as different work patterns
(ABS, 2012).
and occupations attract different wages.

ISBN: 9780170347990
The labour force
Labour force concepts and terms
Labour force: population

15+ years
Employed Unemployed
Full time Part time
Concepts about the labour force (ABS, 2014)
Concept Definition
Labour force All people who are working or are able to work
Employed All persons aged 15 or over who during the working week:
• worked one hour or more per week for either direct or indirect payment in a job, business or on
a farm
• worked one hour or more per week without pay either in a family business or on a farm
• were employees who did not work due to being away, on strike or on workers compensation.
Unemployed All persons aged 15 and over who were not employed but were actively looking for work and were
available for work
Employed part time Those working fewer than 35 hours per working week
Employed full time Those working 35 hours or more per working week
Participation rate The labour force expressed as a percentage of the entire population

For this fictional flowchart, answer the following questions.
Labour force:
1 How many people are in the labour force? population 15+ years
2 How many people are employed? 12 351 500
3 How many people are unemployed?
4 How many people are employed full time?
Employed Unemployed
5 How many people are employed part time? 11 629 500 722 000
6 Calculate the participation rate for:
a employed persons.
b unemployed persons. Full time Part time
c persons employed full time. 8 067 700 3 561 800
d persons employed part time.
Simple flowcharts can be extended to distinguish participation rates according to age and gender. The
Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) releases labour force statistics each month. The graph on the next
page represents the labour force by gender from 1982 to 2013. A benefit of looking at participation over
a long period of time is that it can identify trends.

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Males Females All persons
80
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2013). Barriers and incentives to

70
labour force participation, Australia (Cat. No. 6239.0).

60 %
50
40
1983 1988 1993 1998 2003 2008 2013
Labour force participation, by sex, 1983–2013
From this 1983–2013 graph, we are able to see that:

• labour force participation has increased slightly over time
• male participation in the labour force was greater than female participation
• female participation in the labour force was lower than male participation by approximately 10 per cent
• male participation in the labour force was declining
• female participation increased from 1982.
Unfortunately, graphs like this do not tell us why these trends are occurring. However, we can make
inferences by recognising changes in government policy (for example, the introduction of leave entitlements
and flexible working patterns), technology (for example, the internet allowing for competition between
economic markets) and education (for example, females becoming more competitive within the labour
force through continued education); and by understanding the Australian economy and its reaction to the
Timeline of major events impacting on Australia’s labour force
50
1960 First Labour Force Survey 1979 12 months maternity leave for women
1961 The Pill – oral contraceptives go on sale 1984 Sex Discrimination Act
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Australian Social Trends,

1966 Ban on married women in the public service lifted 1986 Universal superannuation for Australian workers
1969 ACTU wins Equal Pay Case for women 1987 Female students outnumber male students in university
1974 Four weeks annual leave becomes standard
1977 First work-related child care centre opens since WWII
YEARS: 1992 Unemployment peaks at 10.9%
LABOUR FORCE 2009 Fair Work Act
1978 Labour Force Survey goes monthly 2011 National paid parental leave scheme
STATISTICS
70
Participation rate (%)
60
Dec 2011 (Cat. No. 4102.0).
1960
1961
1966
1969
1974
1977
1978
1979
1984
1986
1987
1992
2009
2011
10
Unemployment rate (%)
0

ISBN: 9780170347990
global economy (for example, the global financial crisis). Factors such as government policy can influence
labour force participation. For further discussion, see the ‘Social factors leading to changing work patterns’
section later in this chapter (pages 306–16).
Labour force participation across the life span

As people age, their work-related needs are going to evolve.
Therefore, their participation within the labour force will change.
Across the life span (including in infancy, childhood, adolescence,
adulthood and the aged years), individuals may experience some of
the following life events. These events may impact on labour force
participation, determining whether a person works full time, part
time or is unemployed. Some events may take the person out of the
labour force.
• Going to school
• Going on to tertiary study
• Moving out of home to study
• Buying a car
• Completing tertiary study
• Meeting a partner
• Renting a house/apartment
• Travelling around the world
• Having a family
• Finding suitable childcare
• Sending children to school
• Buying a house with a mortgage
• Owning your own home
• Having children move out of home
Kate Rayner
• Choosing to retire
Different individuals in these situations will have their own reasons
for choosing to work full time, part time or not at all. For further
analysis of this concept, see the ‘Patterns of work’ section of this Work patterns may have to change following a life event
chapter (below). such as having a baby.
Think it through
1 Access the Australian Bureau of Statistics website (link to this directly via http://cafs.nelsonnet.com.au) and
collect current information, including graphs, flowcharts and statistics, that relate to:
a the age and sex of the labour force.
b full-time and part-time employment and unemployment. Australian Bureau
of Statistics
2 Explore the data, paying particular attention to:
a increases or decreases in participation for each age group (take special notice of younger and older employees).
b increases or decreases in participation for each gender.
c which sex has a higher participation rate in full-time work, part-time work and unemployment.
d which age group has a higher participation rate in full-time work, part-time work and unemployment.
3 Analyse the data you have found. Why might these trends have occurred?
Patterns of work
Throughout the life span individuals will need to make judgements on the work pattern that will best suit
their needs. An adolescent will have different work needs to those going through adulthood. As people
reach the age of 65 and are considered ‘aged’, their reasons for working will differ, and they will also place
different demands on their workplace. This will impact on the type of work pattern they choose.

ISBN: 9780170347990
Work patterns for individuals include:
• full time • permanent • voluntary
• part time • contract/temporary • seasonal
• job share • self-employed • working remotely.
• casual • shift work
Full-time work
In most forms of employment, a worker who consistently works more than 35 hours per week is considered
a full-time employee. This type of employment entitles employees to a minimum of four weeks of annual
leave per year, sick leave, long-service leave and parental leave.
Characteristics of full-time work
Advantages Disadvantages Suitability to individuals across the life span

• Work is generally stable • Long hours • Young people who have finished university or TAFE:
• Increased hours, therefore • Work may need to be they are ready to focus on career development and
increased wages taken home will benefit from spending time in the workplace
• Benefits, such as sick leave, • Annual holiday leave may to develop new skills and network with others;
enable parents to care for sick not be flexible alternatively, they may benefit from the larger
children • Less time is spent with income to save for an extended overseas holiday
• Hours can be structured and the family • Home owners with a mortgage: a large percentage
regular • Increased responsibility of their wage or salary will go towards paying off
• Increased opportunities for may bring increased their mortgage and any surplus can be used for
promotion stress lifestyle or entertainment needs
• Opportunity for on-the-job training • Parents with a family: petrol, health care, schooling,
to further establish skills child care and child entertainment/sport/hobbies
• If working in a big business, can all contribute to a high cost of living
childcare facilities may be available
Part-time work
Part-time work is permanent employment. Part-time employees work less than 35 hours per week and
receive all the entitlements of full-time employees on a proportional or pro-rata basis.
Characteristics of part-time work

• Shorter hours, allowing • Wages are proportional to • Phased retirees: allows those nearing retirement to
individuals to combine work the number of hours worked gradually ease out of the workforce
and family responsibilities • Career and promotional • Parents of infants or children: the set and structured
or other interests outside opportunities may decline hours allow parents to have set working hours and
of work • May have to take work home set childcare hours. Childcare hours are generally
• Set and structured hours that is not finished in the set not flexible. The working hours will also provide
per week, which offer number of working hours intellectual and social stimulation for parents
security and regularity in • Lower status than full-time • Young students (school/ university/ TAFE): enables
working hours work young people to socialise in an adult environment
• Wide range of occupations while gaining experience and earning money
• Benefits are proportional • People returning to work from maternity or paternity
to the number of hours leave, or after injury or illness: part-time work
worked, therefore workers facilitates re-entry into the workforce after time off.
are still entitled to sick leave Time at work provides for financial needs, while part-
• Continuing employment, time hours allow time for rest, recuperation or to look
week to week after a young child
• Enables individuals to
maintain skills and develop
their career on return to
full-time employment

ISBN: 9780170347990
Job share
Job sharing involves one full-time position being shared between two people, each with proportionate
benefits. Therefore, one employee working two days per week will receive two-fifths of the benefits, while
the other employee working three days per week will receive three-fifths of the benefits.
Characteristics of job sharing

• Family friendly: provides • Income is lower • Parents with a partner working: for those who have
balance between work and • Working in tandem with infants or children, it is important to balance time
family someone else may be at work and time with children. Because of reduced
• Educational and social needs difficult income, there may be a reliance on a partner to
are met through workplace • Conflict between the two supply the surplus of financial resources. The
interaction workers over hours and extra money may be used for the mortgage, basic
• Opportunity to continue days worked necessities or luxuries
working after pregnancy, • Potential loss of continuity • Those returning to work or phased retirees: the
illness, disability or prior to in position may lead to less reduction in workload makes working only a few
retirement promotional opportunities days per week manageable. Days off provide time
• Set hours allow structure for • Disruption to the office or for rest, bonding with children, rehabilitation or
young children to develop a other working staff recreational activities
routine • If communication between • University/TAFE students: the flexibility of university
• Lower absenteeism as the two workers is not or TAFE can fit into a job-sharing arrangement. The
workers receive adequate clear, it may result in student is able to gain valuable work practice and
time off duplication of work or learn from those experienced in the field
• Fewer working hours can lead decisions being reversed
to greater opportunities for
recreational pursuits
Casual work
Casual employees are those who are engaged to work on an hourly or daily basis for which they are paid
an extra loading on top of the normal rate to compensate for the lack of usual benefits, such as sick leave
or annual leave.
Characteristics of casual work
Advantages Disadvantages Suitability to individuals across

the life span
• Receive an extra pay loading • Can be called in without notice • Young students (school/university/
higher than full-time or part-time • Lacks job security TAFE): enables young people to
employees • No access to sick leave, carers’ leave, socialise, learn new skills and earn
• Gain skills, training and annual leave or long-service leave money to develop independence
exposure to a workplace • No right-of-return after maternity leave if • Carers: may be able to pick up a
• Individuals can leave with short they have been employed by the same casual shift, in times of economic
notice employer for less than 12 months strain or for respite
• Shorter hours of employment, • May be difficult to get home loans or • Parents: the flexibility may allow
with pay at a higher hourly rate financial support because of the lack of parents to access work to
• More casual work available in job security help manage their multiple-role
retail and the service industries • Further education may not be supplied expectations. The higher rate of
during Christmas time; public by the workplace and may be at the pay may assist to pay off part of a
holidays may attract a higher expense of the worker mortgage, or be saved and used for a
rate of pay per hour • More common in lower skilled holiday
• Can access unpaid parental occupations • Phased retirees: allows those nearing
leave, if they have been • Casual workers may need to get another retirement to gradually ease out of the
employed on a regular basis for job, which will be taxed at a higher rate workforce
a period of at least 12 months

ISBN: 9780170347990
Temporary/contract work
A contract is an agreement to perform a task for a certain rate of pay. A contractor can work either
for themselves or others. Companies may choose to strategically hire temporary contractors to boost
productivity for certain periods of the year. Temporary workers are those workers are only employed for a
certain period of time, usually for the duration of a project or based on the funds available.
Characteristics of contract work
Advantages Disadvantages Suitability to individuals

across the life span
• Paid for every hour worked, which • Contractors are generally not eligible for • Young people who have
means a person can earn more than a any benefits, such as sick, annual, long- finished university/TAFE:
permanent worker in the same position service, paternity or maternity leave those who do not have
• Usually flexible, meaning a contractor • Lack of job security and stability: in commitments may use the
can pick and choose which contracts less productive times of the year, higher rate of pay to create
to work a contractor may not work for long their preferred lifestyle
• Working with many new people can periods of time • Parents with a support
keep work interesting • Skills updating must be done in personal network or partner at home:
• It is temporary, so an individual can time and paid for by the contractor; the higher rate of pay will
change work direction at any time, while skills must also be maintained to ensure benefit families; however, the
gaining and broadening experiences a steady flow of work lack of sick or parental leave
• Some industries, such as the building • Travel to the work may result in high may mean a family will have to
industry, have made it easier to build up petrol costs; however, costs can in part rely on other family members
superannuation and long-service leave be gained back through tax or relatives to look after sick
as contractors change employers • Fewer opportunities for advancement or injured children
when only employed for a short period
Self-employed
A self-employed worker is an individual who owns and operates their own business. A self-employed
individual may be someone like Donald Trump or Mark Zuckerberg, who operate large-scale businesses,
a tradesman who works for himself or the owner of a corner store. Those who are self-employed generate
an income directly from their service or product, not as a salary from an employer.
Characteristics of self-employment

• Control over how much time is • Depending on the size of the business, • Parents with partners: will benefit
spent working any time off results in loss of from any profits the business makes.
• Total control over decisions made productivity and loss of earnings If the partner of a self-employed
and what direction the business • Responsible for all banking and financial worker is in fixed employment, the
should go in matters, identifying GST and completion flexibility of self-employment will
• Work hours can be made to of the Business Activity Statement enable sick children to be taken
accommodate family needs or (BAS) for the taxation department. Such care of
other commitments matters can be complicated • Single men and women, or couple
• Control over when holidays are • To begin with, any profit made usually families: more time can be put into
taken goes to establishing the business and the productivity of the business;
• Can offer some tax advantages gaining a recognised name; hours are any profit can be used to create a
• Still covered under occupational long and unpredictable lifestyle
health and safety • Uncertain income due to uncontrollable • Parents: there are many internet-
• May be able to work from home or markets; for example, builders cannot savvy mums who are creating a living
a private office, which will save on work in the rain and will suffer if there through internet businesses. Once a
rental money is a long wet period business is established, this type of
• Any profits made will go back to • Any extra retraining needs to be taken work can either remain in the home
the individual out of working hours (if there is enough space for stock)
• Allows individuals to use the skills • Longer hours will limit time spent with or move off site if there are enough
they excel in to make money the family profits to pay for external rent

ISBN: 9780170347990
Shiftwork
A shiftworker must work for a period of time around a 24-hour clock.
Characteristics of shiftwork

• Rarely travel during peak times • Disrupts shiftworkers’ body rhythms, • Parents with partners/or informal
• Can provide high earnings for resulting in a lack of sleep or disturbed support networks: will need
employees meal times, which can lead to digestive to rely on partners or other
• Can use shops and social facilities problems and insomnia supports to care for children
when they are less crowded • Public facilities – for example, doctors, through the night or before
• The unusual times of work can allow the post office and RTA – may not be school. Parents may use the time
parents to split the childcare duties; available outside normal working hours off to attend a children’s award
for example, a mother can care for • Social and domestic activities may assembly or sporting game
the child during the day and then work still be possible, but fatigue, lack of • Young people: those without
a night shift, while the father works motivation and a general sense of other commitments can work
a day shift and comes home to look tiredness may be experienced irregular shifts and have time for
after the child at night • Workers may resort to stimulant recovery without disturbance
• Increased technology, such as internet products (for example, guarana and
banking, has allowed shiftworkers to energy drinks, cigarettes and coffee) to
access public facilities keep awake through long night shifts
Voluntary work
Voluntary work involves performing a task or choosing to give your time to a not-for-profit organisation or project.
Characteristics of voluntary work

the life span
• Benefits the community and those • No financial reward for effort • Retirees: will have time to give back to the
less fortunate • Not covered by award community, while meeting new people to
• Experiences of a lifetime, such as conditions boost social wellbeing
Olympic or Commonwealth Games • May not gain recognition for the • School students: may gain valuable skills
• Satisfactory on-the-job training, work provided while giving back to the community
which develops skills for later paid • Non-working parents: may have the time
employment while children are at school
• Agreed working hours in a safe
environment
• Education about social injustices
Seasonal work
Work that is available at certain times of the year, each year, is known as seasonal work. It may be in part due to the
weather (such as in fruit picking) or cultural celebrations (such as working as an in-store Santa Claus).
Characteristics of seasonal work

the life span
• Different parts of • Income can be dependent on a good or • University/ TAFE students: work can be
Australia provide a a bad season, such as drought in fruit completed during long holidays. A fun group
variety of seasonal picking atmosphere, which requires few difficult
work all year-round; for • Work can be intensive, repetitive and hard decisions to be made
example, fruit picking • In some cases, there is little or no • Single people: looking for adventure and to
and processing cotton protection from the weather; costs meet new people
and grain are involved in protective clothing or • Retirees and school students: usually available
• Earns extra money for sunscreen to work during times of high demand, such as
short periods of time • Little opportunity for career development during end-of-financial-year retail sales

ISBN: 9780170347990
Working remotely
Working remotely can be seen in two ways.
1 Working away from the home for a period of time (the time period may change, the number of days
away may change and the destination may change). This may include short business trips, fly-in fly-out
situations (for example, for mining purposes), deployment for the Armed services, or even assignments/
contracts (for example, a journalist covering the Olympic Games).
2 Working regularly from a place other than the office. It may use technology to connect to colleagues
and a working environment. This may include working from home and connecting to the office via tools
such as the internet and Skype.
It is important to note that workplace health and safety must be adhered to for all remote working
scenarios.
Characteristics of working remotely

the life span
Working away from home for a period of time
• Individuals and families don’t • Time spent travelling to and from • This type of work is not for everyone, despite
need to permanently relocate, workplace can be draining becoming increasingly popular
meaning they can stay near • Time away from family can be • Young males: for those without family
formed support networks draining and place stress on commitments, this is a way to increase
• Travel costs are paid for relationships financial resources and have long periods
• Time off is longer than a • Living arrangements are usually of time off. Research shows many travel to
two-day weekend, meaning very basic cheap holiday destinations such as Bali during
social and family time can be • Long, laborious hours are put in time off
maintained during the working period, which • Families: in supportive family situations, this
• Usually paid well to compensate can take a toll on physical health type of arrangement will work. The family will
for living arrangements benefit from the long period of time off and
from the financial benefits.
• Retirees: the laborious nature of some of
these jobs may not suit older retirees.
Working remotely away from the office

• Must be technologically savvy • Not available in all occupations • Parents: more time can be spent with
• Save on daily transport and • Company property may have to children, as there is less time spent travelling
office rental space be secured and accounted for to and from the office.
• Avoid traffic jams, city tolls • May reduce access to staff • Young people: telecommuting can work
and reduce petrol and parking training, development and well as a second job. The flexibility of
costs promotion telecommuting means that individuals can
• Save on work clothes • Computer viruses and working in the structured hours of other work
• Advancements in technology breakdowns may halt productivity patterns and also earn extra money in spare
have made telecommuting • Regular updates will need to be time
easier and faster made to the office via email or • New mothers: working from home allows
teleconference new mothers to re-enter the workforce, earn
• Social contact with others is money and still breastfeed. The flexibility in
minimal the hours also allows for rest

ISBN: 9780170347990
1 For each working pattern, name two advantages and disadvantages.
2 For each working pattern, think of two more examples for the ‘Suitability to individuals across the life span’
column.
3 For each stage of the life span (listed below), discuss which patterns of work would be most and least suitable.
Explain why. (Tip: use the characteristics of each stage, listed in the tables above, to create an argument.)
• Infancy (parents of infants)
• Childhood (parents of children aged 2–11)
• Adolescence
• Young adulthood
• Adulthood
• The aged
Think it through
Copy the table headings below into your notebook. For each stage of the life span, create a job bank of suitable
occupations.
Stage of the life span Suitable occupations
Infancy (parents with infants)
Childhood (parents with children aged 2–11)
Adolescence
Young adulthood
Adulthood (either pre- or post-dependants)
The aged

Extended response
The job bank created in the above Think it through activity creates the examples you can use when answering
an extended response question such as ‘Evaluate the suitability of each work pattern for different individuals
across the life span’.
When writing an extended response for the CAFS exam option question, use PEEL to structure
your paragraphs.
P Point or topic sentence (where possible, use a syllabus term)

E Elaborate
E Examples
L Link back to the question and to wellbeing
To answer the example question above, you would use PEEL in the following way.
Section of response What to include in the section

P Point or topic sentence Should contain a definition of the work pattern.
E Elaborate Should provide the points for/against a work pattern for the stage of the
life span.
E Examples Use examples of occupations from your job bank to support your
elaboration.
L Link back to the question • The question: you are required to evaluate, therefore your link to the
and wellbeing question should be based on a judgement; i.e. how suitable is this
particular pattern of work for the stage of the life span?
• Wellbeing: if an individual in this stage of the life span was to participate
in this working pattern, how would it impact on their wellbeing
(physical, emotional, economic, cultural, spiritual, and social)?

ISBN: 9780170347990
CHANGING WORK PATTERNS
Social factors leading to changing work patterns
By 2020, there will be many changes in the labour force and the work patterns available.
• The average worker will be older, reflecting the ageing population.
• A larger percentage of workers will be women.
• A larger percentage of workers will have tertiary qualifications.
• Jobs will not reflect the traditional 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. working hours.
• Technology will influence many workplaces, reducing the number of low-skilled, laborious jobs.
There are a number of social factors that contribute to changing work patterns. The EGG FEET
acronym can help you remember them (see the table below).
Social factors leading to changing work patterns Changing work patterns

E Education/retraining • Full time
G Government policy • Part time
G Gender • Job share
• Casual
F Family circumstances • Permanent
E Economics • Contract/temporary
E Employment/unemployment • Self-employment
T Technology • Shiftwork
• Computers • Voluntary
• Robotics and automation • Seasonal
• Research and development • Working remotely
Source for acronym: K. Rodenburg and I. Dorigo
Think it through
1 Use the internet to find the lyrics to the chorus of Dolly Parton’s 1980 hit song ‘9 to 5’.
a What pattern of work does this song reflect?
b Compare and contrast the words to this song to today’s workforce.
2 Find the lyrics to other songs about work. In a table, compile information about when these songs were written
and compare the lyrics with today’s workforce.
3 Write the chorus to your own song/rap that reflects the modern workforce.
Education/retraining
In the past, education was viewed differently: the workforce was not as competitive. Many students
completed the compulsory years of schooling and continued on to apprenticeships, traineeships or gained
low-skilled employment.
Since then, we have seen a trend in more young people – especially women – staying on at school to
complete their Year 10 Record of School Achievement, their Year 11 Preliminary Certificate and their final
Year 12 Higher School Certificate. The number of people with post-school qualifications, including from
TAFE, private colleges and universities, has also increased; correspondingly, the number of people without
post-school qualifications has declined.
The Australian Government has impacted on the level of education of young people. Laws now state
that no student can leave school until the age of 17, unless they are in full-time employment, full-time
study or a combination of both for up to 25 hours per week.
The job market is now aimed at those with a higher education, and is consequently pushing those
without degrees down the job queue. This makes it harder for the unskilled to gain employment.

ISBN: 9780170347990
Kate Rayner
Today, we are seeing more women completing their tertiary studies. It is becoming harder for the unskilled to obtain employment.
The growth in the service industry (for example, child care, aged care and hospitality), coupled with
Australia’s current skills shortage, has meant education within secondary schools is adapting to help
reduce the shortfall of employees in these areas and create options for those students who choose not
to go to university. Schools across New South Wales are offering practical training in VET courses, such
as hospitality, children services, automotive services, business services, construction, entertainment,
information technology, metal works and engineering, primary industries, retail and tourism.
Effects of education/retraining on patterns of work

There are a number of ways that education/retraining has affected work patterns.
• The trend of young people continuing to study full-time means they may need to access casual and
part-time jobs that are flexible in nature for the duration of their study.
• In the past, when women left school with
only the minimal qualification, their post-
school opportunities were limited to low-
skilled part-time work, casual work and
voluntary work. As they became more
educated, they rapidly moved into full-time
and permanent work.
• The nature of the service industry (for
example, aged care, hotels and restaurants)
is to provide service 24 hours a day.
Shiftworkers are employed to work these
irregular hours to provide for this demand.
Shutterstock.com/Tyler Olson
• The high costs of retraining have caused

workplaces to offer flexible working patterns
in a bid to retain trained staff. These include
job share, temporary/contract, and part-
time work.
Growth in the hospitality industry has increased the number of shiftwork jobs available.

ISBN: 9780170347990
Technology
Computers
Computers have revolutionised the labour market. They have reduced the number of laborious jobs,
created new jobs, allowed people to create businesses from home and enabled people to communicate
with others who are thousands of kilometres away.
Computers have shrunk geographical and cultural distances: satellite conferences, email, Skype and
computers allow companies to trade in a global market 24 hours a day.
Industries relying on machines, such as banking and manufacturing, are run by computers. Computer
programs have also created new industries: web designing, internet advertising, animation and online
gaming have all come about as a consequence of advances in technology.
Automation/robotics
The technological advancement in robotics and automation
has displaced both skilled and unskilled workers. Within
the food industry, for example, many foods can be made in
totally automated factories, with the assistance of unskilled
‘quality control’ workers. However, in the same factories,
skilled computer technicians, electricians and machine
maintenance workers are required 24 hours a day to
ensure any computer-operated machinery is kept in good
condition.
An area in which robotics has brought about improved
job satisfaction is the medical industry. For instance, hand-
held robotic devices are used to operate on delicate areas,
like the brain, thereby helping to minimise human error
that may cause death or permanent injury to patients.
Robotics has also been used for jobs considered too
dangerous for employees, such as in mining, rescue
Computers have the power to connect with operations and bomb detonation. By safeguarding
anyone, anywhere, at any time. employees, a specialised industry has emerged.
Getty Images/Portland Press Herald
Special operations police squads can send in robots to investigate potentially life-threatening situations.

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Research and development
Industries – such as the textiles, science, automotive and medical industries – will always require people to
take on projects to improve the lives of others.
• Wrinkle-free fabrics, which have reduced the need to iron, have evolved from research into mixing and
producing new blends of fabrics.
• Cheaper fuel costs and research and development in aeronautical engineering has reduced the time
and cost involved in travel. Therefore new fly-in fly-out work opportunities in remote areas have created
jobs; thus skilled employees are travelling to areas that were previously desolate. This creates an
economy and other business opportunities for these areas. It has also created access to previously
inaccessible resources such as coal and uranium.
• New diseases and strains of diseases will continue to evolve. The science and medical industries will
therefore continue to apply for, and receive, short-term monetary grants to search for cures.
Effects of technology on patterns of work

Technology can affect work patterns in various ways.
• Shiftwork in some industries, such as media, banking and finance, will increase to compete with
competition in the global market.
• More people will be contracted to complete smaller jobs, such as web designing or computer animation.
Such jobs can also be completed remotely, away from the office.
• Shiftworkers will be required at irregular hours to maintain and service computer-operated machines.
• Contractors or volunteers working on their PhDs through university research centres will work on an area of
research for a specified period of time. If the project succeeds, full-time or contract work may be offered.
• Remote working arrangements will increase, partly due to better telecommunications and computers,
and improvements in mining and aeronautical engineering. The creation of jobs in remote areas is
already evident in places such as Roxby Downs and the Olympic Dam mining development.
Employment/unemployment
Employment has changed from the regular 9 a.m. to 5 p.m. working day to more irregular working hours.
For example, some employees work at night or on the weekend. Such irregular hours can encroach
on family time, which results in families needing to work harder to maintain a balance. However, some
changes to the 9–5 format have benefited families, with parents using their bargaining power to create
these changes.
The casualisation of the workforce involves the shift from predominantly full-time and permanent
positions to higher levels of casual and contract positions. It is important to focus on the percentage
of casual, contract and part-time employees who are underemployed, rather than the unemployed.
The underemployed are those workers who need more working hours to fulfil their own and their family’s
basic needs.
Effects of employment/unemployment on patterns of work

The effects of employment/unemployment on work patterns include:
• changes to the 9–5 format, such as part-time, shiftwork and job sharing; these patterns have enabled
people to better manage their time, which has reduced the pressures of parenting and improved their
bargaining power with their employers
• the casualisation of the workforce; this has reduced the number of full-time and permanent jobs
available; the fact that casual and temporary/contract workers earn less and receive fewer benefits
means that they are less able to satisfy their needs and those of their family.
Perceptions of gender
Traditionally, men and women entered the paid workforce at the age of 15. Men usually continued in the
workforce until their eventual death, disability or retirement. Their work life may have been interrupted by
job changes, military service or unemployment. In contrast, women continued to work until marriage or
perhaps until the birth of their first child, at which point they gave up their career to take up caring full-time.

ISBN: 9780170347990
Over the past few decades, factors (including feminism) have removed the societal expectation that the
patriarch of the family is the sole provider and that the matriarch completes the domestic labour. Feminism
has encouraged women to continue their education; women no longer have to rely on their partner for
financial support and so have become financially independent. This has led to a change in the perceptions
of a woman’s role within a family.
As we have seen, antidiscrimination policies have increased women’s participation in a variety of
industries, including politics, real estate, construction and engineering. An example of such a policy is the
Workplace Gender Equity Act, 2012 (Cth).
Effects of perceptions of gender on patterns of work

The effects of perceptions of gender on work patterns impacts upon men and women.
• Many women desire the flexibility to fit work around the demands of parenting and caring. After
childbirth, women may desire the opportunity to access part-time, casual, job share and other flexible
work options. If they have the skills they may even create a business from home.
• The increased acceptance of men as carers of their children has enabled them to work part-time while
their partner works full-time.
CASE STUDY
WOMEN PAID LESS THAN MEN FOR SAME JOB
Girls outshine boys at school and are more likely to graduate from university – but are still paid less to do
the same work as men, a damning new report reveals.
The Council of Australian Governments Reform Council report, shows that young male dentists earn
$14 000 more than women in their first job, while male architect graduates earn $9000 more and male
lawyers $4300 more.
Women even earn 12 per cent less for non-managerial roles – $31 an hour compared to $35 for men.
In total, a woman working 40 hours a week in a non-managerial job will earn $8736 less than a man in a
similar role.
Women earn 17.5 per cent less than men, on average – adding up to $266 per week.
And they retire $87 000 poorer, because women accumulate less superannuation over their working lives.
‘Financial disadvantage starts as soon as women enter the workforce,’ the official report says.
‘Graduate starting salaries are overall significantly lower for women than men.
‘Lower pay and workforce participation means women are retiring with an average of 36 per cent less
superannuation than men.’
COAG Reform Council chairman John Brumby said ... ‘We have to ask ourselves why it is that girls do
well in the education system, but once out in the employment market they have to fight to have their value
realised.’
‘The highly competitive global environment means we simply cannot afford to waste the talents and
perspective of half our population.’
News.com.au. (2013). Women paid less than men for same job. News.com.au, November 19.
Questions
1 Outline the social factors that the article can be linked to.
2 Identify three occupations where young males earn more than their female counterparts for the same job.
3 Why do women retire $87 000 poorer than males?
4 What factors of a woman’s life would lead her to earn less superannuation? Explain the implications of
this for women in later life or in marriage breakdown.
5 ‘We have to ask ourselves why it is that girls do well in the education system, but once out in the
employment market they have to fight to have their value realised.’ Imagine you are a politician. Describe
the value that women bring to the employment market (labour force) and analyse the steps you would
take to improve on this situation.

ISBN: 9780170347990
Family circumstances, including structural change
As a family moves through stages in the life span, their circumstances may change. The changes could be:
• to lose or gain a family member, such as in death, birth, marriage, divorce or separation
• in the family’s socioeconomic status by forcing members to gain employment, such as to cope with a
redundancy
• in their caring situation, such as in the event of illness or disability, or after the birth of a new child or
when their children go to school.
Today, the fertility rate stands at almost two babies per woman (see graph below). A slight increase was
triggered after 2002 by the introduction of the baby bonus, but in general family sizes are much smaller
than they used to be. As a result, women are having shorter absences from work; while most work patterns
have a ‘right of return’ following maternity leave, women are seeking a more suitable working pattern to
balance work and family.
3.6
3.4
Australian Bureau of Statistics. Births, Australia, 2012 (Cat. No. 3301.0).
3.2
3
2.8
Rate
2.6
2.4
2.2
1.8
1.6
1932 1942 1952 1962 1972 1982 1992 2002 2012
Total fertility rates for the period 1932–2012
The higher rate of divorce and the change in social attitudes towards single parents have left sole
parents responsible for the paid and domestic work responsibilities. Some sole parents may have no other
choice but to take on more than one job to provide financially for their family. In other family structures,
such as nuclear and de-facto families, job losses and retrenchments may provoke family members to
change their working patterns or non-working members to find employment.
As parents age, they may choose to reduce their working hours as the financial demands of their
children lessen. They may seek phased retirement or, if their mobility is limited, choose to work from home
or telecommute. If they have totally retired, they may use their time to give back to the community.
The high costs and difficulties associated with finding child care have meant that many mothers are not
entering full-time work – and, in some cases, any pattern of work. Average fees for child care in New South
Wales are $81.50 per day, with some as expensive as $111 per day in affluent and high-demand areas
(Marszalek & Gothe-Snape, 2013).
Effects of family circumstances on patterns of work

Family circumstances can affect work patterns in a number of ways.
• Following the birth of a child, women may take maternity leave from their full-time job. They may return
to work part-time, casually or in a job share to allow for the demands of parenting. When their children
go to school, women may return to full-time work. Working patterns of fathers are affected less by the
age of their children.
• The irregular hours of shiftwork or lack of job security in contract work may no longer be suitable for a
parent after the birth of a child.
ISBN: 9780170347990
• Family-friendly work practices (such as part-time hours or job sharing) and flexibility (such as flexible start
and finishing times) in some workplaces enable parents to adapt to the changes experienced by families.
• In the event of losing a job or retrenchment, a partner may have to increase their number of hours – that
is, move from part-time to full-time work.
• If family breakdown occurs, both parents may need to return to work or move from part-time to full-time
work to support their family. If grandparents are still working, they may choose to reduce their working
hours – that is, phase in their retirement or shift from full-time to part-time work – to help care for their
grandchildren.
Government policy
Women have benefited much more than men from legislative changes in recent decades. This has resulted
in double the number of women in the paid workforce. Employers have therefore had to change previously
accepted working patterns and hours to suit the needs of women and their families.
Government policy will change with each new government, but past policies have created support for
workers, enabling them to establish themselves within the labour market and influence patterns of work.
Examples of government policy that affect patterns of work are listed below.
• The Anti-Discrimination Act 1977 (NSW) allows people to be treated equally regardless of gender,
sexuality, disability, age or carer’s responsibility.
• The Industrial Relation Act 1996 (NSW) introduced enterprise agreements.
• The Workplace Gender Equality Act 2012 (Cth) replaced affirmative action policies. The basic aims of
this act are to improve gender equality, including equal pay, and eliminate discrimination on the basis
of gender in relation to family and caring responsibilities.
• The introduction of parental leave includes maternity and paternity leave.
The Liberal Government, which came into power in 2013, plans to review child care systems to ensure
working parents have a clear understanding of and access to child care. The government will also access
the independent Productivity Commission to review the Fair Work awards systems, and seek to overhaul
the parental leave scheme, under which ‘mothers will be provided with 26 weeks of paid parental leave, at
their actual wage or the national minimum wage (whichever is greater, up to a maximum of $75 000), plus
superannuation’ (Coalition of Australia, 2013).
While Australia has one of the highest rates of educated women, it has one of the lowest rates of
educated women in the workforce (Ernst & Young Australia, 2013); this means we are investing an enormous
amount of time and money educating women for little economic return. Therefore, unless more legislation is
implemented to support women in the workplace, Australia’s economy and the labour force will not benefit.
Effects of government policy on patterns of work

The effects of government policy on work patterns often benefit employees.
• Minority groups who were previously unable to gain employment, such as those with disabilities or with
carer’s responsibilities, may be able to access flexible work patterns, such as part-time, casual, job share,
working from home or working remotely.
• Maternity and paternity leave may involve the new parent moving from full-time work to unpaid
parenting. Legislation has been introduced for some industries that enables a parent to continue to
work part-time until their child goes to school. For other industries in which this option is not available,
parents may choose to work part-time, job share or work from home.
• Enterprise bargaining agreements may allow some workers to negotiate more flexible working patterns
away from full-time work.
Economics
The state of the economy and the move towards a global market (globalisation) have had a significant
influence on the relationship between employees and their work patterns.
• The time difference between the Northern and Southern Hemispheres has meant that companies need
to trade 24 hours a day if they want to remain competitive. Efficient technological advances, such as
electronic banking, have also enhanced the communication power between the two hemispheres.
• Traditionally, the bargaining power of employees fluctuates according to economic growth and inflation
levels.

ISBN: 9780170347990
D: Boom
Economy
C: Recovery
A: Decline/contraction
B: Recession
Time
The economic cycle
Looking at the economy over a period of time allows us to see trends occurring. The economic cycle
(above) shows strengths and weaknesses in the economy that impact on working patterns.
CASE STUDY
THE ECONOMIC CYCLE
A: DECLINE OR CONTRACTION
In simple terms, during periods of prosperity (when consumer demand for products and services rises),
businesses expand by borrowing money. This causes interest rates to increase. To counteract that,
businesses increase their prices. In response, consumers gradually reduce their spending and businesses
are forced to cut their expenses. Wages are one of the largest expenses for businesses, so, to retain their
profits, businesses tend to make full-time employees redundant and employ less expensive casual workers
in their place. Contract workers are retained. As more people lose their jobs, spending decreases further
and the economy sinks into recession.
B: RECESSION
A recession is the lowest point in the economic cycle. Employment and incomes are low, and employees
have little or no bargaining power. If the recession is severe, families may be forced to sell their homes and
some small (e.g. sole-trader) businesses may fail completely. Production will also be at a definitive low.
During this time, factories may reduce the number of available working hours for employees, or even shut
down altogether.
Fortunately, the cycle continues: while spending is low, the demand to borrow money is also low. This
will reduce interest rates – and therefore mortgage repayments – and prices of goods will drop. While
prices are low, some people will benefit from the affordability of previously unaffordable items; others will
benefit from the low interest rates and borrow money. As the spending and borrowing slowly increase, the
economy recovers.
C: RECOVERY
During economic recovery, people take advantage of low prices and interest rates. This results in money
being injected into the economy. More resources become available and there is increased demand for
products. Businesses will earn more money and, because there is more demand, employers will increase
the working hours of their employees, who will similarly earn more money. Having more money encourages
consumers to increase their spending. As this continues to happen across all sectors, the economy will
experience an economic boom.

ISBN: 9780170347990
D: BOOM
During a boom period, the surplus of money enables people to pursue their own businesses and promotes
consumer spending. Profits and employment rates increase. Successful employee enterprise bargaining
agreements may result in better working conditions. For example, employees may bargain for wage
increases, more benefits or flexible work patterns.
An economic boom is considered a time of high spending, high production rates (requiring high
employment rates) and rising inflation rates. However, rising inflation rates will cause interest rates to
increase, causing mortgage rates to rise and spending to slow down. Thus the economy cycle will go into
decline and the cycle will begin again.
Effects of the economy on patterns of work

The economy affects work patterns during each phase of its cycle.
• To remain competitive in the global market, businesses have had to respond to globalisation and
employ shiftworkers to communicate around the clock with overseas clients and competitors.
• During a contraction or decline in the economic cycle, many full-time employees will lose their jobs. To
maintain production, casual and temporary/contract workers are hired. These workers are not entitled
to benefits; therefore, businesses cut their spending and maintain a profit.
• A recession signifies high unemployment and little bargaining power. The number of shiftworkers is
reduced as factories cannot maintain a working business 24 hours a day. Full-time workers are also
replaced by cheaper casual and part-time labour.
• During a recovery period, the number of hours increase, part-time workers may be increased to full-
time, and contracts may be signed for longer periods. More money is thus available, so workers may be
able to set up home offices to work remotely.
• An economic boom enables employees to bargain for flexible working patterns to help manage multiple
roles. As there is a surplus of spending and increased demand, individuals may open up their own
businesses, increasing the number of self-employed in the job market. During this prosperous time,
people may have more time to give to worthy causes, increasing the number of volunteer workers.

1 Draw the economic cycle in your notebook.
2 Identify a contraction, recession, recovery and boom.
3 Clarify the difference between a contraction and a recession, and between a recovery and a boom.
Think it through
1 Hypothesise about work in the future. Will current trends continue to move away from traditional forms of
employment?
2 Analyse the impact of these predictions on an individual’s ability to manage their multiple-role expectations.
3 The following two questions are from past HSC papers. Create your own questions from this section of the syllabus.
They can include a range of marks, and should use various key terms from the Board of Studies glossary of key words.
• Critically discuss the impact of social factors on changing work patterns. (12 marks)
• Evaluate the impacts that social, legal and technological change have had on current trends in patterns of
work. (15 marks)

ISBN: 9780170347990
Copy the table headings into your notebook. Place an arrow in the appropriate work pattern box to suggest
whether the social factor has caused the work pattern to either increase or decrease. Leave the box blank if it
has not had an impact. The column ‘Technology’ has been completed for you.
Work Education/ Gender Government Family Economics Employment/ Technology
pattern retraining policy circumstances unemployment
Full time
➞
Part time
Job share
Casual
Permanent
➞
Contract/
➞
temporary
Self
employed
Shiftwork
➞ ➞
Voluntary
Seasonal
Working
➞
remotely
1 What conclusions about full-time and permanent working patterns can you draw from the table?
2 The service industry is one of the fastest growing industries. Outline changes to working patterns caused
by this.
Women with child aged less than

2 years: 523 300
Started or returned to work after birth Did not start or return to

of child(2): 205 500 work(3): 317 800
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Pregnancy and Employment
Child aged 0–3 Child aged 4–6 Child aged 7–12 Child aged 13–23
months(1): 59 400 months(1): 57 800 months(1): 69 600 months(1): 18 700
Transitions, Australia, Nov 2011 (Cat. No. 4913.0).
Employed(2)(3): Unemployed(2): Not in the labour

231 300 1 500 force(2): 281 600
1 Age of child has been rounded to the nearest month

2 Age at November 2011
3 Includes women who have not started or returned to work and were on
paid leave at the time of the survey
Employment transitions after the birth of a child

ISBN: 9780170347990
The diagram on the previous page shows the employment transitions for women after the birth of their child.
1 Identify five key points from the figure.
2 Explain the importance of women returning to the labour market. Write from the perspective of:
• the individual.
• the family.
• the community.
3 The diagram does not break down ‘employment’ into patterns of work. Hypothesise about the patterns of work
these workers would have entered into.
4 Evaluate current incentives that encourage women to return to the workforce.
5 The diagram shows statistics from 2011. If the current government carries through with its paid 26 weeks
parental leave scheme, what influence will it have on a figure such as this?
STRUCTURES THAT SUPPORT INDIVIDUALS

IN THE WORKPLACE
Rights and responsibilities
Employees
An employee is anyone hired either to fulfil or complete a job that may produce goods or to provide a
service. The Commonwealth and State governments have established a set of laws aimed at protecting the
rights of employees. In turn, employees have a moral obligation to meet their employers’ expectations,
providing they are reasonable and in accordance with the law. The table below outlines the rights and
responsibilities of employees.
Rights (entitlements) Responsibilities (moral obligations)

An employee is entitled to: An employee has the responsibility to:
• a clear rate of pay and to be paid the correct amount • comply with lawful and reasonable instructions given by the
for the work that is done. This must be at least the employer
minimum wage and entitlements as set out by the • work together with the employer and other employees to
appropriate award or contract maintain a safe and healthy working environment
• leave entitlements as stated by the award, agreement • work with a level of competency that displays skill and care
or contract, such as sick leave, annual leave, parental • have good faith and maintain confidentiality. An employee
leave, public holidays and long-service leave must not give out confidential information or trade secrets.
• feel safe in the working environment and have access to They also have an ethical responsibility to maintain
safety equipment when needed customer privacy
• receive on-the-job training and in-services to complete • disclose information that may put themselves, others or the
their jobs properly and safely business at risk; for example, health care workers or those
• the freedom to belong to or join a union in the defence forces must disclose to their employers if
• be protected from unfair dismissal, and the right to they are living with HIV/AIDS
appeal to the Industrial Tribunal if they consider they • maintain a reasonable work ethic by arriving on time,
have been ‘wrongfully’ dismissed dressing appropriately in compliance with occupational
• have a contract amended if it is not covered by the health and safety, respecting others’ and employers’
award property, alerting the employer if absent and not
• work in an environment that is free from discrimination discriminating against or vilifying others
and harassment. • give sufficient notice when intending to leave.

ISBN: 9780170347990
Employers
An employer is a person or business that hires individuals either to fulfil or complete a job that may produce
goods or to provide a service. The rights and responsibilities of employers are given in the table below.
Rights (entitlements) Responsibilities (moral obligations)

Employers have the right to: Employers have the responsibility to:
• discuss and negotiate terms and conditions with any • set out clear terms and conditions of employment; for
employee under an enterprise agreement example, minimum wages, provision of meal breaks,
• end employment by providing redundancy (transfer working hours, opportunities for overtime and details of
of duties, voluntarily stopping work) when the amount expected meetings
of work or hours of work have changed. This may be • pay their employees on a regular basis and provide within one
caused by technological change, economic recession, day of payment a pay slip, on which is recorded the number
company merger, takeover or restructuring of hours worked, the amount of tax and superannuation
• dismiss employees on the spot when they fail to obey • maintain records for 6 years, including employee
lawful instruction, perform duties over a period of details, wages paid, hours worked, leave accruals and
time, perform duties safely and meet the conditions of superannuation contributions
the employment contract • provide a duty of care, which ensures the safety of
• enjoy safety and safety measures at the same level as employees. This means to provide safety equipment, training
those of their employees employees to have the skills to perform duties in a safe
• expect their employees to follow safety instructions, manner, and alerting employees to any unexpected risks or
complete all set tasks and maintain work integrity. harms in the workplace
• create an environment free from discrimination/vilification
• not terminate employment without reasonable grounds.
Workplace structures
The following structures have been implemented in workplaces to meet the rights of employers and
employees: legislation, work conditions, trade unions, flexible work patterns and practices, workplace
culture and leave entitlements. How employers and employees respond to their responsibilities will
impact on the overall achievement of wellbeing for both parties. There is likely to be greater efficiency in
the workplace if employer and employee wellbeing is achieved.
Workplace structures
• Legislation
• Work conditions
• Trade unions
• Flexible work patterns
and practices
• Workplace culture
• Leave entitlements
Employer and employee Efficiency in the workplace

wellbeing
• High productivity
• Physical • High morale
• Emotional • Open and productive communication
• Economic • Low staff turnover
• Cultural • Low absenteeism
• Social • High respect for work health and safety
• Spiritual
• Reduced conflict and minimal complaints
• Accessible grievance procedures
• Promotional opportunities and staff training
Workplace structures, efficiency and wellbeing are all interdependent.

ISBN: 9780170347990
Think it through
1 High productivity creates an efficient workplace. Discuss.
Legislation
Health and safety
Despite media messages and education programs, a large number of work-related illnesses and injuries
still occur. The Australian Government is responsible for reducing the number of injuries, illnesses and
fatalities in Australian workplaces and, in 2011, updated previous laws to form the Work Health and Safety
Act 2011 (Cth) (WHS). This legislation seeks to not only act as a safety net to prevent injury and illness, but
also to reduce the costs associated with work-related injury, such as legal, rehabilitation and medical costs.
The major aim of the WHS Act is to protect the health and safety of workers. This primary duty of care is
imposed on a ‘person conducting a business or undertaking’ (known as a PCBU) (Work Health and Safety Act
2011 (Cth) Part 2) – this is basically the same role as an ‘employer’ under the outdated Occupational Health and
reasonably practicable Safety Act 2004 (Cth). It is their duty to ensure (if it is reasonably practicable) that risk is minimised for themselves,
That which is, or was workers (including contractors and volunteers) and others, including customers or visitors to the workplace.
at a particular time,
The PCBU must ensure the provision and maintenance of (WorkCover NSW, 2013):
reasonably able to be
• a work environment without risks to health and safety
done to ensure health
and safety, taking into • a safe plant and structures
account and weighing • safe systems of work.
up all relevant matters To achieve this:
including: a) the • anyone at risk must receive any information, training or supervision that is necessary for their protection
likelihood of the hazard
• there must be adequate access to facilities/equipment to reduce the risk
or the risk concerned
occurring, b) the • health and conditions must be monitored for the purpose of preventing illness or injury.
degree of harm that The PCBU must modify the environment and remove all hazards at their source rather than relying on
might result from the employees to modify their behaviour.
hazard or the risk, and
c) what the person The responsibilities of the PCBU to provide a safe working environment
concerned knows, or
ought reasonably to The hazard Modifying the workplace to make it safer Safer than relying on employees
know, about the hazard Amputation of fingers The machine must have a guide or emergency Much safer than just training people to
or risk, and ways of and deep lacerations mechanism that stops it from moving if any body be careful
eliminating or minimising while cutting meat with parts are in danger; it will not let you make a
the risk (Safe Work
an electric slicer mistake
Australia, 2011)
Risk of sunburn from Suitable work gear (clothing) and overhead shade Better than simply providing sunscreen
working outdoors cloth; for example, shade cloth over public outdoor and relying on employees to use it
swimming pools for swimming teachers, and
school playgrounds for teachers
Workers also maintain responsibilities in the workplace – they must take responsibility for their own
health and safety and ensure they do not impact on the health and safety of others. They also must
conform to any reasonable instructions set out by the WHS policies and procedures.

1 Copy the table headings below into your notebook. Complete the table by analysing how work health and
safety may impact on aspects of wellbeing.
Aspect of wellbeing Work health and safety
Social Working as a team to ensure safety

Physical
Emotional
Economic
Cultural
Spiritual
(continued)
ISBN: 9780170347990
2 Copy the table into your notebook. Complete the table by analysing two work health and safety hazards that
can be prevented in the workplace.
The hazard Modifying the workplace to Safer than relying on
make it safer employees
Employee/customer slipping over on a
wet floor
Employee straining their back lifting a
patient in a nursing home or hospital
Think it through
1 Why was it important for the Australian Government to streamline the different workplace safety laws to create
the Work Health and Safety Act 2011 (Cth)?
2 Explain how work health and safety laws meet the rights of the employee.
3 Explain the relationship between work health and safety and the efficiency of a workplace.
Equal Employment Opportunity

Equal Employment Opportunity (EEO) is the establishment of conditions that allow all workers – regardless
of their age, gender, disability, ethnicity and sexuality – the opportunity to find, gain and advance (through
promotion) in employment.
While EEO does not assume everyone has the same skills, talents or abilities it does demand that
everyone is given the same opportunity to use their skills, talents and abilities.
Therefore, EEO aims to eliminate the possibility of discrimination. The discrimination of workers,
including women, may take place during staff recruitment, in promotional and retraining opportunities,
and when transferring and terminating contracts.

1 Describe Equal Employment Opportunity.
2 How does EEO fulfil the right of an employee?
3 Outline employers’ responsibilities in creating a workplace culture.
4 Identify the aspect/s of wellbeing that EEO relates to.
5 Explain the link between EEO and the identified aspect/s of wellbeing.
Think it through
Discuss the capacity for Equal Employment Opportunity to create efficiency in the workplace.
Work Conditions (awards and grievance procedures)

Awards
An award is a set of minimum employment standards that is specific for each industry or occupation. award
It dictates the working arrangements of employees and includes things such as rates of pay, types of A set of minimum
employment standards
employment (for example, full time, part time), overtime, penalty rates, allowances, and other work
that is set out and
arrangements. specific for each industry
The National Employment Standards (NES), introduced in January 2010, set out 10 minimum conditions
of employment for every employee in Australia. The standards cover public holidays, weekly hours,
requests for flexible working arrangements, unpaid parental leave entitlements, annual leave, personal
carers’ leave, community service leave, long-service leave and notice of termination.

ISBN: 9780170347990
It is important to note that modern awards may apply on top of the NES. Employment contracts and
enterprise bargaining agreements may give employees extra entitlements, but cannot go below what is
specified in the NES.
Awards have evolved over time, and can change according to changes in government.
CASE STUDY
EVOLUTION OF AUSTRALIAN AWARDS
The general entitlements covered by each government’s award systems between 1983 and the present day
are outlined below.
Hawke–Keating Labor Government award system: 1983–96
• Minimum wage
• Set number or spread of working hours an individual can work (standard hours)
• Sick leave and annual leave (could not be cashed out)
• Parental leave, carers’ leave and long-service leave
• Superannuation entitlements
• Public holiday leave
• Overtime pay
• Allowances
• Weekend and shiftwork rates of pay
• Redundancy pay
• Rest breaks
• Incentive-based pay (including indirect payments)
Howard Coalition Government award system: 1996–2007
• Minimum wage based on job classification, starting at $484 a week (before tax)
• Four weeks’ paid annual leave, of which two weeks could be cashed out at the request of an employee
• Paid personal/carers’ leave, including sick leave, of 10 days a year, plus a further 2 days of unpaid carers’
leave if all paid leave has been used up
• Parental leave of up to 52 weeks, unpaid, after the birth or adoption of a child for the primary caregiver
• A standard working week of 38 hours, averaged over a year, but not tightly enforced
Gillard/Rudd Labor Government award system: 2010–2013
• Minimum wage (as at July 2013) for adults was $622.10 per week (before tax)
• Facilitation of flexible work arrangements (e.g. permanent or casual) for type of work performed
• Penalty rates for employees working unsocial, irregular or unpredictable hours on weekends and public
holidays, and for shift workers
• Overtime rates
• Minimum annualised wage or salary for each industry
• Allowances (e.g. work-related and expense-related allowances)
• Leave entitlements:
› 20 days of paid annual leave (25 days for some shift workers)
› 10 days of paid personal/carers’ leave
› 2 days of unpaid carers leave
› 2 days of paid compassionate leave
› 12 months of unpaid parental leave
• Superannuation
• Dispute resolution processes
• Unfair dismissal laws
• Paid Parental Leave (for children born or adopted from 1 Jan 2011): Primary carer eligible if they have
an income of $150 000 or less and have worked at least one day a week for at least 10 of the 13 months
before the birth or adoption of the child. Entitlement is pay for 18 weeks at the National Minimum Wage
($622.10 a week before tax). Recipient’s employer pays. PPL is taxable income and does not include
superannuation contributions.
• Dad and Partner Pay (from January 2013): A 2-week payment, paid at the National Minimum Wage, made
available to working fathers or partners

ISBN: 9780170347990
Abbott Coalition Government award system: 2013–present
The Coalition released its Fair Work Policy in May 2013, then came into government in September that
year. It has pledged to change very little in Australia’s Fair Work laws and reward conditions, though it has
undertaken a review of them. The extent of any changes won’t be known until after July 2014, when the
Senate term commences in its new composition (post election) for the first time.
One striking change the Abbott Government proposes is a new Paid Parental Leave scheme, where
mothers would be eligible for 26 weeks of paid leave based on their actual wage or the National Minimum
Wage (whichever is greater). This would be capped at wages of $150 000. It would include superannuation
and be paid from a tax on companies. The Dad and Partner Pay would be retained, paid for 2 weeks at
actual wage or National Minimum Wage (whichever is greater).
Grievance procedures
A grievance is a formal communication of dissatisfaction about a work situation or incident. It can be made grievance
by an employee or, in some cases, a group of employees. A grievance procedure is a formal process A formal communication
of dissatisfaction about a
that employees may follow to resolve a grievance. It may be either set out in the award and therefore
work situation or incident
used by entire industries, or developed by individual employers. An example of a grievance procedure is
shown below.
When a dispute cannot be resolved, it may be referred to a third party, such as the Australian Industrial grievance procedure
A formal process that
Relations Commission or the Antidiscrimination Board. A commissioner will be employed to hear both
employees may follow to
sides of the complaint. To resolve the conflict, the commissioner will either require both sides to negotiate resolve a grievance
on some issues or develop strategies that can be put in place to resolve the complaint.
Experience of
conflict
Avoid the
Exit the workplace Voice the conflict
conflict
Employee Organisational Informal process

outcomes outcomes (e.g. open-door discussion Dispute resolution
between conflicting procedures
parties)
Grievance discussed by employee and supervisor:

Stress and burnout Poor performance Negotiations may begin here. At this meeting, an
employee may involve a trade union representative,
and the employer may involve a representative from
their employer organisation.
Disengagement Absenteeism Mediation: Mediation may involve a neutral third party

who may help to resolve the dispute. This third party
is not acting on any legislation but aims to solve the
dispute at this level.
Deteriorating Conciliation: Conciliation is the first step in an informal

Staff turnover industrial relations hearing. The commission of an
work relationship
industrial tribunal requests a meeting with both parties
with the aim to reach an agreement themselves.
Arbitration: Arbitration is a formal process that occurs

when an industrial commissioner assesses both
Conflict escalation Low productivity
positions and makes a legally binding judgement.
Both parties have the right to appeal the decision.
Example of a grievance procedure

ISBN: 9780170347990
1 Outline the award system.
2 Which of the following creates more entitlements for employees? Explain your response.
a The National Employment Standards
b The award system
c An employer contract/enterprise bargaining agreement
3 Outline when employees would use grievance procedures.
4 Describe the process employees would follow for a complaint to be resolved.
Think it through
1 Explain how the modern award system and grievance procedures meet the rights of and create responsibilities for
employers and employees.
2 ‘Awards and grievance procedures create greater efficiency in the workplace.’ Evaluate the accuracy of this
statement.
Trade unions
The first organised industrial action in Australia occurred in 1791, when convicts in Sydney demanded daily
instead of weekly rations. However, it wasn’t until the rise of unionism in 1860 that New South Wales’ first
trade union trade unions commenced, forming and recruiting members.
An organisation that Trade unions are organisations that have been created by workers for the purpose of protecting and
has been created by
advancing their interests and wellbeing. They will fight on behalf of employees to:
workers for the purpose
of protecting and
• maximise the wages and salaries of their members
advancing their interests • preserve and protect awards
and wellbeing • provide job security – they will challenge redundancies, negotiate consent packages and ensure correct
termination payments
• create a safe and healthy workplace
• ensure equality between men and women
• ensure equal employment opportunity is enforced by representing an employee with, for example,
sexual harassment or discrimination claims.
Over the years, trade unions have played a large role in the creation of fairer working conditions.
Fryer Library, University of Queensland Library (SU_5_39)

Fairfax Syndication/Russell McPhedran
A womens liberation group demonstrating for equal opportunities for Trade unionists lobbying for citizenship for Indigenous
women outside the Sydney Town Hall, 11 November 1972 Australians, Brisbane May Day procession, 1966

ISBN: 9780170347990
Think it through
The graph shows trade union
Males Females
membership for males and females 50
from 1993 to 2011.
1 Interpret the statistics given in
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2012). Employee Earnings, Benefits and

the graph and what this means
for Australian employees. 40
2 Explain reasons why trade
union membership is in decline.
3 What could happen as a result % 30
of this decline?
Trade Union Membership (Cat. No. 6310.0)
4 Research some of the issues

that trade unions have fought
20
for and won.
5 Discuss how trade unions have
contributed to the wellbeing of
employers and employees. 10
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
6 ‘Trade unions have outlived
their usefulness.’ Assess this
Year
statement in relation to
Trade union membership, employees in main job, by sex 1993–2011
efficiency in the workplace,
using relevant examples to
support your argument.
Flexible work patterns and practices (e.g. job share, flexible work
arrangements)
Businesses need to use flexible work patterns and practices to maintain and attract new skilled staff.
Flexible working practices include:
• flexible start and finishing times (including staggered start and finishing times)
• flexible rostering
• leave arrangements that are flexible and negotiable
• rostered days off
• regular but quality part-time work (work pattern)
• working remotely (work pattern)
• job sharing (work pattern)
• career breaks
• the ability to make up work hours in case of emergency.
There are various benefits to be gained from flexible working arrangements.
• Employing someone part time or two people in a job-sharing situation will generally increase
productivity. This may be because there is a shorter time period to achieve working goals, which can
motivate employees. However, if communication between colleagues is not clear, productivity may
diminish through jobs being completed twice or not at all. Incomplete tasks and frustrations would
impact negatively upon the wellbeing of employees and the employer.
• Having the option to job share or undertake part-time work gives new parents, those recovering from
illness or injury (physical wellbeing) and those caring for someone else the choice to continue to work
while also meeting the needs of others (emotional wellbeing). Being able to work allows for economic
wellbeing (through wages and the accumulation of superannuation), social contact with other adults
and the maintenance of skills. Working part time also allows young people to build the skills required
for their career while fulfilling study obligations.
• Working from home can save time and money. Time is saved by not having to travel to work, and money
is saved on public transport and/or petrol costs, car maintenance and work clothes. Childcare costs may
also be saved as work may be structured around children’s sleeping patterns.

ISBN: 9780170347990
1 Outline the difference between flexible work patterns and flexible work practices.
2 Explain the links between flexible work patterns and practices and employee wellbeing.
Think it through
1 ‘Flexible work practices benefit employee and employer wellbeing equally.’ Discuss.
2 Analyse how employee wellbeing equates to efficiency in the workplace. Reference flexible work patterns and
workplace culture
practices to support your argument.
The feelings or
atmosphere and
environment created
by a business for Workplace culture (e.g. childcare, prayer room, kitchen)
employees, employers
Have you ever walked into a business and felt an emotional response or had a reaction to it based on first
and the wider public
impressions? If the answer is ‘yes’, those feelings or first impressions are more than likely a reflection of
the workplace culture. The music, the colours or the way the staff
interacted with each other may have contributed to your emotional
response.
Workplace culture can be dictated by such things as the size of
the workplace, the hierarchy of employees, the employees’ attire
and the level of interaction between staff.
Child care
A workplace that provides access to child care is said to have a
family-friendly culture.
• If a childcare centre is located in the workplace building, parents
may even be able to spend lunchtimes with their child. This is also
extremely convenient for breastfeeding mothers.
• Having referral services or reserved places takes the ‘guess work’
Fairfax Syndication
out of finding a safe and suitable childcare centre. This is now one
of the biggest inhibitors for women returning to the workforce.
By creating a family-friendly culture, employers will benefit by
having skilled women return to work after having children. This
Businesses can create a ‘family friendly’ culture by allowing their will reduce retraining costs and increase productivity, as their
employees flexible working hours or providing on-site childcare previous training will allow them to fit straight back into the working
centres such as this centre at MLC in North Sydney. environment.
Prayer rooms
To create an environment free from discrimination and vilification,
employers should ensure that their workplaces are welcoming to
people of all faiths. While it is not yet required by law, employers can
create a space that fosters greater inclusivity at work. Having a multi-
faith prayer room acknowledges that some religions are required to
observe ceremonial activities during working hours.
Kitchens
Have you ever heard the saying ‘around the water cooler’? It refers
to the informal discussions of a workplace, in which people can trade
gossip, discuss sporting teams or make after-work or weekend plans.
Kitchens create a space where relationships between employees and
employers can be fostered and developed. By encouraging these
relationships, employers can hope to reduce conflict and increase
communication.
Water-cooler conversations often centre around sporting teams.

ISBN: 9780170347990
1 Define ‘workplace culture’.
2 Outline the aspects of a workplace that contribute to workplace culture.
Think it through
1 Create links between social wellbeing and workplace culture.
2 Explain how the creation of a positive workplace culture can lead to greater workplace efficiency.
Leave entitlements (e.g. parental, carers’ leave)

When examining leave entitlement, and any other legislation, it is important to acknowledge their ability
to change over time. As new governments come into power, they will adapt and amend laws to suit the
needs of the economy and the labour force.
The CLAPS mnemonic can help you remember the five types of leave entitlement.
C Carers’ leave
L Long-service leave
A Annual leave
P Parental leave
S Sick leave
The regulations and entitlements surrounding each type of leave are discussed next.
Carers’ leave
Carers’ leave is paid leave that enables individuals to care for a:
• spouse, de-facto spouse or same-sex partner
• child, including adopted, foster, ex-nuptial or stepchild
• parent, including foster parent or legal guardian
• grandparent, grandchild or sibling.
Employees are able to use their sick leave as carers’ leave, as they are likely to have accrued more sick
leave over time.
Effect on efficiency
When employees have paid time off to care for their dependants, spouses or parents, they can return
to work and remain productive without worrying about their home situation. There will be less animosity
and conflict between employers and employees, as there will be open communication and therefore
understanding; employees will not have to be sneaky or lie about why they are not attending work.
Workers who continually take time off to care for others may cause frustration for their fellow employees.
This may impact on their workloads, which will lead to a reduction in productivity and lower staff morale.
Think it through
Discuss how the wellbeing of parents who access carers’ leave may or may not be met.
Long-service leave
Long-service leave is 2 months of paid leave after 10 years of service with the same employer and 1 month
of paid leave for each additional 5 years of service.

ISBN: 9780170347990
Long-service leave gives time off work for loyal employees. Loyalty in an employee usually equates to
contentment. Therefore, long-serving employees have generally remained productive in the same
workplace for an extended period of time. Loyal employees may have built relationships with newer
employees, sharing skills and information about workplace history. This kind of positive working
environment can be a cost-effective way of training and developing staff.
Think it through
Discuss how the wellbeing of parents who access long-service leave may be affected.
Annual leave
Employees under the Annual Holidays Act 1944 (NSW) are entitled to 4 weeks annual holidays each year.
It can be used in one, two, three or four separate blocks if agreed to by both employer and employee, and
can only be taken after the 1-year anniversary of employment.
Annual leave gives workers time off to recuperate or rejuvenate away from work. This time off enables
workers to return to work happier and healthier, which increases staff morale and productivity. Where
employers dictate when annual leave must be taken, efficiency may be reduced as a result of employees
being unhappy about having to meet their employer’s requirements rather than their own.
Think it through
Discuss how the wellbeing of parents who access annual leave may be affected.
Parental leave
The NES has established a set of minimums for unpaid parental leave and covers all situations relating
to birth-related leave (including stillbirth), adoption leave and leave for those in de facto same-sex
relationships.
Parental leave can be taken as a new mother, a new father or as a same-sex partner (either through
birth or adoption). Continuous unpaid leave can be taken for up to 52 weeks (12 months). Employees
can request a further 52 weeks of continuous leave in writing; this may be refused if there are reasonable
business grounds to do so. An employee couple (both partners are in paid employment) are not entitled
to more than 24 months between them. This means a mother can take 52 weeks of leave and then she or
her partner can request a further 52 weeks.
Generally, parents will take their leave separately over the agreed period of time, though both parents
in an employee couple may take unpaid leave at the same time for a maximum of eight weeks.
By giving employees time off (whether paid or unpaid) and the right to return to work, employers are
enabling skilled parents to return to the workplace. These skilled workers are invaluable to the workplace
as they are associated with less training costs, increased staff morale and productivity (as these trained
employees understand the expectations set for them). Organisational efficiency is also improved through
long-service leave and the associated employee loyalty.
For males, there may be an unspoken pressure or workplace culture that questions masculinity and
discourages them from taking time off after the birth of their child. While this will retain productivity for the
present, in the future there may be built-up frustration or disgruntlement that leads to an early resignation.
Think it through
1 Discuss how the wellbeing of parents who access parental leave may be affected.
Department of Human 2 Refer to the Department of Human Services Centrelink website to see what the current parental leave payments
Services – Centrelink are. You can link to this directly via http://cafs.nelsonnet.com.au.

ISBN: 9780170347990
Sick leave
Employees are generally entitled to a minimum of five sick days per annum. This regulation entitles
workers to take time off when they are ill or incapacitated. This reduces the spread of infection to other
employees and increases recovery time. This paid time off will also allow workers to make and attend
doctor’s appointments.
Think it through
1 Can males and females both access carers’ leave, long-service leave, annual leave and parental leave?
2 Examine why males may have greater access to long-service leave.
3 Perceptions of gender may influence access to carers’ and parental leave. How relevant is this for males and
females in the labour force?
4 Discuss the rights males and females have when accessing leave entitlements.
5 Evaluate the following statement. ‘There are inequalities for males and females accessing leave entitlements.’
MAINTAINING WORK AND LIFE BALANCE

As workers, individuals have roles they must fulfil in order to meet their employment responsibilities.
Outside of work, individuals take on or assume other roles that they may not get paid for, but are equally
important. Each of these roles, or personal commitments, has a set of responsibilities that must be fulfilled.
In the workplace the employee has structured supports that enable the them to fulfil their role. Outside of
the workplace, individuals have unstructured supports, which are utilised based on personality, economics,
knowledge, skills and resilience.
Leadership
Recre
Religion ation
Studying
Caring
Work ring
ntee
Volu
ting
Paren
bies
Hob
Work-life balance rescue
Mana
g
resou ing
rces y ssing
nolog Acce ort
Tech supp
Work plac
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Work res
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Neg
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Par
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Hobbies
Religion
Devising strategies will enable all workers to meet their individual needs and the needs of their employer.

ISBN: 9780170347990
Individual roles
It is important to recognise that many individuals take on more roles (multiple roles) than just that of
an employee. Therefore, to manage their multiple roles, an individual must prioritise their time and use
suitable strategies to reduce fatigue and ensure their needs, their family’s needs and their employer’s
needs are met.
Personal commitments and interests

Work
Employees of any working pattern will have responsibilities. An employee must recognise these
responsibilities and plan for them. These responsibilities may extend outside working hours and may
not incur overtime penalties. For many it is difficult to maintain a work–life balance as there are many
responsibilities they must fulfil. Different occupations and working patterns will dictate the level of
responsibility; more responsibility usually equates to more time and energy spent in the workplace.
Accessing workplace supports will allow employees to achieve a greater work–life balance. When
circumstances change (for example, after the birth of a child or in the case of needing to care for a sick
relative), individuals can access their leave entitlements to support them. They may also look to flexible
work patterns or practices to help manage their time. In the case of workplace injury, work health and
safety laws and workers’ compensation are available to support the injured employee with their medical
and rehabilitation needs, which will help them return to work as quickly as possible.
Think it through
1 Outline the work patterns and occupations that may make it difficult to maintain a work–life balance.
2 Choose a work pattern or an occupation and devise strategies an employee could implement to ensure they have
work–life balance.
Leadership
Leadership roles generally mean more responsibility, and the expenditure of more time and energy.
Individuals may take on leadership roles in many areas, including employment, parenting, volunteering,
recreation and religion.
Unfortunately, leadership positions come with drawbacks. With responsibility, there is accountability.
In times of failure or success, the leader must show what decisions were made and why they were made.
High stress, or even elation, may impact on the leader’s emotional wellbeing. When hard decisions must be
made, which the group or team do not understand, the leader may experience separation. In these cases,
the leader must employ strategies, such as accessing support, to maintain their own and the group’s morale.
Parenting
Parenting is a role with no time boundaries. Parenting is a 24/7 job with
limitless responsibilities.
Children’s needs will differ depending on their age. Younger, more
dependent children will need support in all aspects of their lives. During this
time, parents may maintain work–life balance by accessing technology (such
as internet shopping) and informal support (for example, grandparents).
As children get older, they will rely on their parents less. This will increase
the time parents have for other roles, such as employment, or hobbies and
recreation.
Parenting can be costly, and the high costs of child care may influence
the number of other roles a parent may take on; for example, a parent may
choose to stay at home and look after their children rather than taking on paid
Kate Rayner
employment, as the financial benefits of employment may not outweigh the

childcare costs. In such cases, parents may look to increase their sustainable
Parenting has no time boundaries, but there are many living resources; for example, they may maintain a vegetable garden to save
supports available to working parents. on food costs and create an educational activity for children.

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Caring
Becoming a carer, either through planned or unplanned circumstances, will impact on an individual’s ability
to manage their work–life balance. The level of dependency of the person in care and how much support a
carer will need to provide will dictate how much time a carer has to fulfil their working role. In some cases,
an individual may have to use workplace structures like long-service leave, change their working pattern, or
even quit their job. In this case, formal supports such as Centrelink may assist them.
Volunteering
There are many areas in which an individual may
volunteer their time. Where they volunteer will usually
relate to their values. For example, individuals may
volunteer in legal aid, toy libraries and hospitals, or they
may volunteer as gardeners, Telecross phone operators,
language interpreters, drivers for the disabled, PCYC
sport coordinators or Little Athletics coaches.
As volunteering is in the not-for-profit-sector, there is
no financial benefit, which means financial employment
is usually required to fulfil basic needs. This can make it
difficult to maintain a work–life balance. To manage their
Kate Rayner
resources, individuals should identify how much time

they can donate prior to volunteering. Technology can
also assist them to meet their needs around the home. Little Athletics Australia uses parents as volunteers to run events.
Think it through
1 Create a list of technologies that could assist a volunteer to maintain their work–life balance.
Religion
Recognising a higher power in your life is a commitment. The level of commitment will dictate the time
spent and the roles an individual will adopt. An individual may have to adopt a set of behaviours or meet
expectations set out by the religious practice, such as prayer, baptism, confession, meditation, fasting,
pilgrimage or the observance of special days. Belief systems may dictate when these practices must be
observed, thus impacting on other roles such as work, parenting or study.
Recreation
A recreational activity is a non-work activity done for relaxation, enjoyment, or entertainment. Recreation
or leisure activities may create some responsibilities, though they are usually outweighed by the actual
activity. Therefore, this personal commitment can help create a work–life balance.
Study
Continuing education either at TAFE, university or another educational facility is a commitment with
external deadlines. Educational courses have a set timeline in which a planned set of outcomes must be
achieved. This requires individuals to spend time researching and absorbing information, attending classes
(either online or face-to-face), and completing assignments.
Some individuals may take on study directly after the HSC and balance their study with other roles, such
as part-time work. Others may study at night to further their career while fulfilling full-time employment
responsibilities during the day. Some new mothers may take on study while on parental leave, allowing
them to maintain and increase their skills – and perhaps their earning capacity – for when they return to
work full time.

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Hobbies
A hobby is a leisure pursuit or activity based on a person’s interests. Sewing, cars, gardening, scuba diving,
trekking, sculpting, photography, interior decorating, cooking, genealogy, blogging, video gaming, bird
watching, coin collecting, fishing and camping are just a few examples of hobbies. Each of these are based
on a person’s interests and, although they take time and energy, engaging in these activities may foster
work–life balance.
Individual strategies for managing multiple roles

Negotiating and sharing roles
Roles must be negotiated and shared by those family members with the capabilities to do so. For instance,
in families with two working parents, household responsibilities must be shared equally depending on an
individual’s strengths and abilities. Rosters that list each family member’s chores and the times they should
be completed help set clear expectations for busy parents and children. Parents may use positive and
negative consequences to ensure expectations are met.
Within workplace, volunteer, religious and educational settings, individuals working in teams may also
negotiate and share roles. This may be done to recognise each individual’s weaknesses and strengths.
Working with an individual’s strengths means tasks will be completed and goals met in an efficient and
productive manner, thus saving on time and energy output.
Managing resources
Resources can be interchanged or substituted. Their intelligent use can assist individuals to effectively
manage their multiple commitments. By using sustainable resources, individuals are able to reduce
spending and support the environment as well.
Interchangeability of resources
The tasks that parents prioritise will be influenced by financial resources, family values and goals. Strategies
that could be used to save time include:
• using labour-saving devices, such as microwaves and rice cookers
• car pooling (this usually takes more time, but can save on petrol and toll costs)
• interchanging finance; for example, paying for electricity but saving time by using a dryer instead of
hanging out clothes (however, this is not a sustainable use of resources)
• paying for cleaners, rather than using time and energy
• shopping over the internet
• cooking at home rather than buying takeaway (to save money).
Sustainability
To remain sustainable, a resource needs to be able to replenish itself at an equal or faster rate than that at
which it is consumed – therefore it is not likely to run out. In some cases, sustainable living may take more
time and energy, but can save on money. In many cases, there is an initial economic outlay, followed by
significant savings. Examples of sustainable practices include:
• using solar energy rather than electricity
• reading the newspaper on a tablet rather than in printed form
• using a smart phone to take a photo rather than printing out information
• having a compost bin for kitchen and bathroom scraps (such as hair and tissues) that can later be used
in the garden
• refilling and reusing ink cartridges
• having chickens in the yard; chickens are a natural fertiliser, they produce organic eggs daily and
consume all the bugs and weeds; they can also be fed on food scraps and provide activities for children.
Many of these sustainable behaviours not only help the environment, but can contribute to a more
‘simple’ life for individuals. Simplicity can support work–life balance.

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Using technology
Over the years, technology in the home has assisted
individuals. Labour-saving devices are those appliances
and products that reduce the energy output of humans.
The time taken to complete traditional domestic duties
can be significantly reduced, though this does come at
the expense of financial resources.
• The internet assists with grocery shopping,
budgeting advice, product advice, quick education
and 24-hour news and current affairs.
• Technological advances in some fabrics and textiles
has made washing and ironing easier. For instance,
wrinkle-free garments and wrinkle guards on clothes
Alamy/BWAC Images
driers have eliminated the need for ironing.
• The fast-food industry has become a multi-billion-
dollar one. In dual-income families and single-parent
homes, parents may have less time to prepare
and cook healthy meals that adhere to the dietary Busy workers can save time but still prepare healthy and fresh meals
guidelines. This may result in a higher frequency of by using pre-prepared salads and vegetables.
going to fast-food outlets or buying takeaway.
• Supermarkets also have many fresh foods that could be considered labour saving. Chopped up fruits
and salads, marinated meats and pre-cooked meals requiring only reheating all save on preparation
and cooking time.
• Technology in cooking appliances (for example, blenders and dicers) has reduced preparation time and
cleaning time. For example, non-stick teflon has eliminated the harsh scrubbing of pots and pans.
Accessing support
In Australia, many formal support networks, such as child care, are available to
employees; however, many of these supports come at a cost and require parents
to budget and allocate resources to use them. For those who may not have the
extra income, informal support networks are a useful alternative. Relying on
friends, relatives and neighbours can give busy parents a more cost-effective
substitute to a paid service. Other advantages of using informal support networks
over a structured service include:
• access on short notice as no appointment is necessary
• family, friends or relatives can be trusted
• the favour can often be reciprocated
• bonds that can be created
• informal support networks may be physically closer.
Think it through
1 An individual may not ask for help because they feel like a burden or do not know
who to ask. Describe the steps you would put in place to resolve these issues.
Kate Rayner
2 Create a table of formal and informal support networks that individuals could access
in a range of situations. Use the column headings given in the sample table below.
Support network Formal/informal Role of the Aspect of wellbeing One of the major benefits of accessing an informal
support network it supports support is the bond that is created.

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Utilising workplace structures
When managing roles, individuals need to recognise what support structures exist within the workplace.
Having knowledge, overcoming pride and being able to negotiate will impact on an employee’s ability to
effectively access these structures.
Using the structures when necessary can enable an employee to meet their needs and the needs of
those around them. For example, an individual working through a grievance procedure may find support
by accessing the appropriate trade union. This may also save the employee in legal costs, as paying union
members may have free access to legal advice and representation. This will impact on an employee’s
economic wellbeing.

1 Outline a work–life balance.
2 Explain why is it important to have work–life balance.
Think it through
1 Explain why work–life balance can be difficult for some people to achieve.
2 Discuss the implications for individuals when they take on more than one of the roles on pages 328–30.
3 Examine situations where each of the following strategies can be used.
• Negotiating and sharing roles
• Managing resources
• Technology
• Accessing formal support
• Accessing informal support
• Utilising workplace structures
4 Evaluate the accessibility of the above strategies for a range of workers.
YOUTH EMPLOYMENT
Issues that impact on youth employment
The United Nations defines youth as those aged between 15–24 years (United Nations Department
of Economic and Social Affairs, 2013). Youth is usually a time of transition between formal education
(schooling and tertiary education) and employment. For young people, this is a significant time of change.
Youth need to learn the skills to adapt from a financially dependent teen to an independent working adult.
Many of these skills cannot be learned in a classroom; they are instead built on life experiences and hands-
on experiences within a workplace.
Personal management skills required in the workplace

Whether you are working in a workplace with thousands of people or with 10, or even by yourself, it is
important to develop the skills of planning and organisation, clear communication, effective decision-
making and problem-solving. These skills are essential to a workplace running effectively and efficiently.
Refer to the table on page 13 in Chapter 1. Each of the human resources in the left column can directly
relate to the following personal management skills.
• Planning
• Organisation
• Communication
• Decision-making
• Problem-solving

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Use the following websites (or discover your own) to examine what types of skills are needed within the workplace.
You can link to the websites directly via http://cafs.nelsonnet.com.au.
• Australian Blueprint for Career Development • My Career Action plan (MYCAP)
• Victorian Government Department of Education • Australia’s Careers Online Australian Blueprint for
Career Development
and Early Childhood Development (search for the • Jiig-cal Australia: Career Voyage
Victorian Government
employability framework) • Australian JobSearch Department of Education
• myfuture • Career FAQs and Early Childhood
Development
myfuture
Steps taken to prepare and plan for a career My Career Action Plan
It is important to look at careers and career development early in life. Understanding the many types of (MYCAP)
occupations and roles within a workplace will begin the process of developing a career plan. Starting this Australia’s Careers
Online
process later in schooling creates pressure and may lead to poor decisions.
Jiig-cal Australia
The process of preparing and planning for a career can be broken down into three main areas:
Australian JobSearch
1 study
2 training and hands-on experience Career FAQs
3 marketing yourself.
See the mind map below to further understand the process. Aspects of this process will change
depending on the chosen career, but ‘marketing yourself’ will apply no matter what your choices are. By
acknowledging each of these areas and applying them, a young person can optimise their employment
prospects. For a detailed understanding of how to plan for a career, see the case study below.
Interview
Resumes
skills
Employability Marketing Careers

skills yourself advisor
Private
colleges
Steps taken to
University/ TVET/VET
Study prepare and plan
TAFE courses
for a career
School School-based Training and Volunteer

apprenticeships hands-on experience work
Apprenticeships Work experience/

and traineeships work placement
Steps taken to prepare and plan for a career
CASE STUDY
PLANNING FOR A CAREER
Planning for a career involves studying and/or on-the-job training in a particular field. Regardless of the
method chosen to plan for a career, it is important to gain skills in ‘marketing yourself’ to optimise your
employment prospects.
STUDYING
School
School is the most important place to begin your career development. There are many subject choices
available to help you create an idea of your likes and dislikes; whether you might prefer to work indoors or
(continued)

ISBN: 9780170347990
outdoors, or prefer to work with your hands or on computers. Basic numeracy, literacy and technology skills
are taught through all key learning areas at school, and these skills provide the basis of employment.
TVET/VET courses
TVET (TAFE-delivered Vocational Education and Training) courses are those that allow school-aged
students to gain workplace skills and build on their chosen career while still at school. TVET courses are
held offsite at a local TAFE.
VET courses are vocational education and training courses that are delivered by qualified teaching staff
within a school. Many VET and TVET courses are competency-based courses, which means student must
show they have the skills that are taught throughout the course. There is also a workplace component to
many of these courses, which allows students to access and meet prospective employers.
These courses provide students with the opportunity to complete units that count towards their HSC and,
in some cases, their ATAR (Australian Tertiary Admission Rank).
University/TAFE
Many young people choose to go to university or enrol in a TAFE course. Either option will allow the young
person to gain an understanding of the theories and content behind their chosen career.
TAFE courses are usually skill-based courses, and often provide a stepping stone to access a university
course for further career development.
University degrees are just the beginning of an individual’s career path. Some may start a course, and
then decide to change degrees, or complete a double degree to further enhance employment opportunities.
Some university degrees provide on-the-job training, such as teaching or nutrition and dietetics.
Private colleges
Private colleges are funded by the user, and are institutions where students gain a national accreditation
in their chosen field. Private colleges often have direct access to university courses, whereby students
from the private college use their accreditation to gain credits for their degree, allowing them to finish the
degree earlier.
TRAINING AND HANDS-ON EXPERIENCE

School-based apprenticeships
A school-based apprenticeship is a paid position within a workplace with an employer. It enables those who
are still enrolled in school to complete their HSC, combining school subjects with vocational training and
paid employment. These apprenticeships can last from 2–4 years and enable a young person to begin their
career while having the benefit of remaining at school for socialisation purposes and stability of routine.
The apprenticeship will usually continue on a full-time basis after formal schooling has been completed.
Work experience/Work placement
Work experience is unpaid work in a self-chosen work setting. Work placement is a compulsory placement
within a business that relates to a TVET or VET course. It is usually completed to gain an understanding
of the roles and duties of an occupation. There are usually restrictions regarding the types of workplaces
people can attend; however, a career advisor can help with information about this. For example, to be able
to access work sites for many trade positions it is compulsory to obtain a ‘National White card’ – this is
issued by a registered training organisation and indicates that a person has undertaken general induction
training for construction work.
Work experience/work placement provides young people with the opportunity to network and meet
future employers; you should use this time to learn and display employability skills (see below).
At the completion of work experience and work placement, your employer will complete a review of your
work. This can be used as an important part of your resume.
Traineeships and apprenticeships
Instead of going onto full-time tertiary study, young people may undertake a traineeship or apprenticeship.
These combine paid employment and compulsory vocational training.
Traineeships are offered in many areas, including business administration, real estate, accounting
and information technology. Apprenticeships are offered in areas such as building and construction,
horticulture, engineering and hairdressing.
(continued)

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Young people can access traineeships and apprenticeships through direct contact with employers, state-
based Master Builders’ Associations or private companies such as 1300apprentice, which will have access
to a large number of employers and will help to provide placements. The Australian Government provides
monetary incentives to employers who hire apprentices, which compensate the employer for their time and
training costs. Incentives help to encourage employers to hire young, unskilled people rather than older
trained workers.
Volunteering
Following study, or combined with study, many young people volunteer in their chosen field. This valuable
experience shows a potential employer that you possess the skills required to work in the field, or you are
willing to learn them. Despite the lack of payment, the skills learnt are an invaluable aid to accessing a job
in your chosen career.
MARKETING YOURSELF
Once you have studied and/or undertaken training, you need to present yourself in a marketable way to
prospective employers. Marketing yourself is important whether you are applying for a retail entry-level job,
a managerial job at a volunteer agency or for your first job in your chosen career.
Résumés
Marketing yourself on paper is the first step in getting your foot in the door, so your résumé must present
you in the best possible way, and clearly outline your studies and experience, as well as your finest
achievements. Reading others successful résumés and looking at different ways of formatting a résumé can
help you to create something that is clear and easily read. There are many online and computer programs
that are step-by-step résumé builders.
Your résumé must include your contact details, including your email address. Therefore, ensure your
email address is suitable for a prospective employer. It should comprise of your first and last name or
initials, if possible, and should not include inappropriate words or anything suggestive. For example,
‘Princeofhearts_101@hotmail.com’ and ‘babe-a-licious@gmail.com’ send the wrong message.
Additionally, ensure that you remove any incriminating or compromising photos or posts from the internet
on social media sites such as Facebook. Employers may look at prospective employees’ Facebook and
Twitter accounts.
Core skills for work
The Core Skills for Work Framework (CSfW) (previously known as Employability Skills for the Future) was
produced in 2013 by the Australian Government. It describes a set of non-technical skills, knowledge and
understandings that underpin successful participation in work (p. 1). Ten skill areas are clustered into
three groups:
• Cluster 1: Navigate the world of work
› Manage career and work life
› Work with roles, rights and protocols
• Cluster 2: Interact with others
› Communicate for work
› Connect and work with others
› Recognise and utilise diverse perspectives
• Cluster 3: Get the work done
› Plan and organise
› Make decisions
› Identify and solve problems
› Create and innovate
› Work in a digital world
People who possess these skills display employability and are highly desired by employers. Personal
attributes that relate to these skills and increase the chances of employment include loyalty, commitment,
honesty, enthusiasm, reliability, common sense, humour, adaptability, confidence, ability to deal with
pressure and having a balanced attitude about work and home life. Demonstrating punctuality, initiative,
tech-savviness, and your ability to work within a team and self-manage will help you to market yourself
for your chosen job.
(continued)

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Questions
1 Access the myfuture website. You can link to this directly as http://cafs.nelsonnet.com.au.
2 Click the ‘Getting started’ tab and then ‘Prepare to apply for jobs’.
3 Click ‘Learn more’ to see the tips for creating a résumé and attending job interviews.
myfuture 4 With a partner, create a set of interview questions that relate to a job of your choosing.
5 Put your partner through a mock interview. Ask them to think about:
a how they would dress for the interview.
b what time they would get to the interview.
c how would they address the employer/panel when they first arrived.
6 Look for their strengths and weaknesses according to the interview tips from the myfuture website.
7 Provide your partner with an appraisal.
Predominant patterns of work of young people

The pattern of work a young person will adopt will vary according to their individual needs and
circumstances. However, some clear trends have been established. The time of year, job type and overall
career choice will impact on the working patterns of young people.
Time of year
The participation of young people in the labour force will depend of the time of year. There are certain
seasons within the year that create peaks in participation. From April to October there is usually a small
change in participation, and from November to March there are major increases in participation. These
increases coincide with school and university holidays, the completion of formal education for HSC leavers
and the Christmas/holiday period.
Job type
The type of job a young person takes on will usually dictate the working pattern. There is a large percentage
of young people working in the service industry (that is, in hospitality and retail. Many of these jobs are
demand-based so employers require workers during peak seasons such as the Christmas/holiday period).
Today there is also a 24-hour demand in places such as fast-food restaurants and large retail outlets.
Workers will generally be hired as casual employees.
Career choice
For young people who have left school and taken up traineeships (for example, in real estate or child care) or
apprenticeships (for example, in carpentry or hairdressing), working patterns will differ from those combining
work and study. These workers can be hired full time, part time, or as school-based apprentices (SBAT). The
number of hours an SBAT works, and when they work, differs between states and territories – some may
complete the paid work on weekends, while others will be required to work during the school week.
For individuals working towards careers that require university degrees or other tertiary studies, a
balance must be achieved. These young people will require flexibility within their work pattern.
Think it through
On 13 December 2013, the Sydney Morning Herald reported that Australians were projected to spend $18 billion
on Christmas, with a further $4.3 billion to be spent on entertainment and going out during the holiday period
(Business day, 2013).
1 What does this mean for employment during the Christmas period?
2 When minimum wages are based on age, who is most likely to benefit from this spending?
3 With the increase in online shopping over the Christmas period, propose what might happen to youth
employment during the Christmas period in the future.
4 Why is there a large proportion of young people in the hospitality and retail industries?
5 Examine why employers may choose to hire casual employees rather than full-time or part-time workers during
the Christmas period.
6 Explain the impacts (positive and negative) that working casual hours may have on the wellbeing of young workers.

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Rights and responsibilities of young people in the workplace
The rights and responsibilities of young people in the workplace are the same as the rights of all employees.
These relate to rates of pay, leave entitlements, safety, on-the-job training, protection from unfair dismissal,
protection from discrimination and to having a contract amended to fit the award (see page 316).
However, because of a lack of education and a fear of job loss, young people may be vulnerable to
unscrupulous employers. It is important for young people to know:
• there is no legal minimum working age
• you may be asked to complete a trial or probation period, but by law you must be paid; trial periods are
most commonly for 3 or 6 months
• you may be asked to complete work experience, but you should complete it through a registered
educational agency such as a school, TAFE or university to ensure you and the employer are covered by
insurance; this means that if there is an incident or injury in the workplace, you will be supported
• prior to accepting a job, you should see, in writing, the duties of the job, the rate of pay, the number
of hours you will be working per week, and the work pattern you will be working by (e.g. full-time, part-
time, casual)
• you must be paid in money – your employer may not pay you in goods or services
• apprentices need to be registered through an authorised Australian Apprenticeship Centre, and in a
registered training organisation
• unless required by law (for example, for tax purposes), your employer cannot make deductions from
your pay without your written permission; therefore, if the cash register is short or you accidently break
something you are not expected to cover this.
CASE STUDY
FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO YOUTH UNEMPLOYMENT
Youth are at a disadvantage when it comes to employment. Their lack of skills, experience and work-related
connections make it difficult to access employment. The employment opportunities that are on offer are low
skilled and may be low paying. However, they are suitable for many young people who are balancing study
and other commitments.
Social factors such as technology may contribute to youth unemployment, as advancements in technology
can make redundant roles that were once suitable for young workers.
• The installation of self-service machines within supermarkets and shopping centres have limited the
demand for cashiers or ‘check-out chicks’. Workers in such roles are generally under 24 years.
• There has been a significant decrease in the demand for retail assistants with the continued rise of
internet shopping. Today we can shop online for anything, including groceries, clothes, electronics, books
and car parts. Many retail jobs were previously filled by unskilled workers under the age of 24 years.
Advancements in technology can also have positive effects. Young people are now able to access jobs
online, and benefit from email or SMS alerts. This means that when new jobs come up, young people can
see them and respond quickly.
Questions
Answer the following questions to gain a greater understanding of the issues youth face.
1 Create a list of roles a young person may commit to; for example, school, part-time job, sporting
commitments, music lessons.
2 Discuss the positives and negatives of young people having jobs.
3 Evaluate the statement ‘Work supports young people to manage multiple roles’.

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Think it through
Read the news.com.au article ‘Gen Y in grip of unemployment crisis as jobless rate soars, Centrelink data reveals’
by Natasha Bita (7 August 2013). You can link directly to this article via http://cafs.nelsonnet.com.au. Answer the
questions that follow.
news.com.au 1 Create a list or highlight all the factors outlined in the article that have impacted on youth unemployment.
2 What is the conundrum young people face when trying to ‘break into the workforce’?
3 What does a young person need to do to be ‘job ready’?
4 How has previous government policy impacted on trainees and apprentices?
5 Examine why there might be such high rates of youth unemployment in Sydney’s central west and Fairfield–
Liverpool areas.
REFERENCES
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Pregnancy and employment transitions, Australia, Nov 2011 (Cat.
No. 4913.0). Canberra: ABS.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2012). Employee earnings and hours, Australia, May 2012 (Cat no. 6306.0).
Canberra: ABS.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2013). Labour force, Australia, Oct 2013 (Cat. no. 6202.0). Canberra: ABS.
Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2014). Labour Force, Australia, Jan 2014 (Cat no. 6202.0). Canberra: ABS.
Business Day (2013). $18b in Christmas spending. The Sydney Morning Herald, 13 December. http://www.
smh.com.au/business/retail/18b-in-christmas-spending-20131213-2zauy.html.
Coalition of Australia. (2013). The Coalition’s policy to create jobs by boosting productivity. Canberra.
http://lpaweb-static.s3.amazonaws.com/13-09-04%20The%20Coalition%27s%20Policy%20to%20
Create%20Jobs%20by%20Boosting%20Productivity%20-%20policy%20document.pdf.
Commonwealth Government Departments of Industry, Innovation, Climate Change, Science, Research
and Tertiary Education; and Education, Employment and Workplace Relations (2013). Core Skills for Work
Developmental Framework. Canberra: Commonwealth Government Australia.
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HSC OPTION:

9 HSC OPTION: INDIVIDUALS AND WORK 291

Getty Images/Mike Harrington

Reasons people work

292 NELSON COMMUNITY AND FAMILY STUDIES

S Safety and Security To meet specific needs

V Value To meet value and status needs

To meet specific needs

S Safety and security

9 HSC OPTION: INDIVIDUALS AND WORK 293

294 NELSON COMMUNITY AND FAMILY STUDIES

Understanding the glossary word: compare and contrast

9 HSC OPTION: INDIVIDUALS AND WORK 295

Check for understanding

296 NELSON COMMUNITY AND FAMILY STUDIES

Labour force: population

Full time Part time

Concepts about the labour force (ABS, 2014)

Check for understanding

9 HSC OPTION: INDIVIDUALS AND WORK 297

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2013). Barriers and incentives to

labour force participation, Australia (Cat. No. 6239.0).

Labour force participation, by sex, 1983–2013

From this 1983–2013 graph, we are able to see that:

Timeline of major events impacting on Australia’s labour force

Australian Bureau of Statistics. (2011). Australian Social Trends,

298 NELSON COMMUNITY AND FAMILY STUDIES

Labour force participation across the life span

9 HSC OPTION: INDIVIDUALS AND WORK 299

Characteristics of full-time work

Advantages Disadvantages Suitability to individuals across the life span

Characteristics of part-time work

Advantages Disadvantages Suitability to individuals across the life span

300 NELSON COMMUNITY AND FAMILY STUDIES

Characteristics of job sharing

Advantages Disadvantages Suitability to individuals across the life span

Characteristics of casual work

Advantages Disadvantages Suitability to individuals across

9 HSC OPTION: INDIVIDUALS AND WORK 301

Advantages Disadvantages Suitability to individuals

Advantages Disadvantages Suitability to individuals

302 NELSON COMMUNITY AND FAMILY STUDIES

Advantages Disadvantages Suitability to individuals

Advantages Disadvantages Suitability to individuals across

Advantages Disadvantages Suitability to individuals across

9 HSC OPTION: INDIVIDUALS AND WORK 303

Characteristics of working remotely

Advantages Disadvantages Suitability to individuals across

Working remotely away from the office

304 NELSON COMMUNITY AND FAMILY STUDIES

Check for understanding

P Point or topic sentence (where possible, use a syllabus term)

Section of response What to include in the section

9 HSC OPTION: INDIVIDUALS AND WORK 305

Social factors leading to changing work patterns Changing work patterns

306 NELSON COMMUNITY AND FAMILY STUDIES

Effects of education/retraining on patterns of work

• The high costs of retraining have caused

9 HSC OPTION: INDIVIDUALS AND WORK 307