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Atoms
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“Mind-Map” Outline of Topic

This topic belongs to the branch of Science called “Chemistry”.
Chemistry is the study of matter and materials. Chemistry looks at the properties
of substances, and how substances can change into new forms.
Atomic
Protons, Number The
Electrons, Elements
Neutrons
Mass Numbers
&
R.A.M.
Atomic
Structure How
Scientific
History of Models are
Atomic Tested
Theory
Atoms
& Patterns of the
Elements Periodic Table
Introduction to Electrons in
Chemical Bonding their Orbits
Filling the
Orbits
Importance
Names &
of a Full
Formulas of
Outer Orbit
Simple Ionic
Compounds Electrons Electron
& the Configuration
Formation Periodic
of Ions Table
Years 9-10 Topic 15 Atoms & Elements 3 Usage & copying is permitted according to the
copyright © 2008 keep it simple science
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Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.
Cut out the boxes. Sort them into an appropriate lay-out on a page of your
workbook, then glue them down. Add connecting arrows and colour in.
Atoms Introduction to Atomic

& Chemical Bonding Structure
Elements History of
Patterns of the
Periodic Table Atomic
Electrons in Theory
their Orbits Electron The
Configuration Elements Formation
How Mass Numbers of Ions
Scientific & Filling the
R.A.M. Electrons
Models are Orbits Names &
& the
Tested Formulas of
Periodic
Protons, Importance Table Simple Ionic
Atomic Electrons, of a Full Compounds
Number Neutrons Outer Orbit
Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

Cut out the boxes. Sort them into an appropriate lay-out on a page of your
workbook, then glue them down. Add connecting arrows and colour in.
Atoms Introduction to Atomic

& Chemical Bonding Structure
Elements History of
Patterns of the
Periodic Table Atomic
Electrons in Theory
their Orbits Electron The
Configuration Elements Formation
How Mass Numbers of Ions
Scientific & Filling the
R.A.M. Electrons
Models are Orbits Names &
& the
Tested Formulas of
Periodic
Protons, Importance Table Simple Ionic
Atomic Electrons, of a Full Compounds
Number Neutrons Outer Orbit
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Everything is Made of Atoms

You should already be aware that everything is made of tiny “lumps” of matter
called “atoms”. Each atom acts as if it was a solid ball, but we know that
each one is made up of even smaller particles.
Structure of Atoms Protons, Electrons
In general terms, each atom is like this: & Neutrons
Electrons
in orbit The electrons are whizzing around the
around central nucleus, like miniature planets
the central around the Sun.
nucleus
Each electron, and each proton in the
nucleus, carries an electrical charge.
Protons
& Electrons carry negative charge.
Neutrons
in the Protons carry positive charge.
nucleus
However, this rather artistic image is The electrons have a lot of energy and
wildly inaccurate in size proportions, move rapidly. They would instantly fly
and in the numbers of smaller particles off in all directions except for their
shown. electrical attraction to the protons in the
nucleus.
Here is another “model” atom. Its
proportions are wrong as well, but it So, the orbit of an electron is the
does show electrons in different orbits, “balance” between its fast movement
which we believe to be accurate. and the electrical attraction pulling it
Structure towards the nucleus.
of an -
ATOM Protons in the nucleus repel each other
electron (-))
electrically, so why doesn’t the nucleus
fly apart?
Nucleus contains
PROTONS (+) and The protons and neutrons in the
NEUTRONS (0)
nucleus are held together by an even
more powerful force called simply the
We use various “models” to depict “strong nuclear force”. This force easily
atoms... none of the models is perfect! overpowers electrical repulsion.
How Small is an Atom?

A “medium-size” atom is less than one There are more atoms in a single grain
millionth of a millimetre in diameter. of sand, than there are grains of sand on
a whole beach!
There are about a million billion atoms
in a single grain of sand... that’s about If every atom in a grain of sand suddenly
1,000,000,000,000,000 atoms! became a sand grain, you’d have a pile of
sand several kilometres high!
Get the Picture?
®
Atoms & Elements

One Type of Atom = Chemical Element
A chemical element is a substance made entirely of identical atoms.
Element 1 Element 2 Element 3

The atoms of each element are all the same as each other.
The atoms of one element are different to the atoms of another element.
How are the atoms of different elements different?

The atoms of each element have a certain number of protons, electrons and neutrons.
For example, the atoms of Atoms of copper
aluminium all have: all have:
13 protons 29 protons
13 electrons 29 electrons
14 neutrons 34 neutrons
(not all shown here)
Every atom
Every atom of of copper
aluminium is the same. is the same.
Notice that in each case

Number of protons = Number of electrons.
This is true for every element, and defines that element.
Protons = Electrons = “Atomic Number”
Electrical Charges Balance Atomic Number Defines Elements
Remember it is the protons (+ve) and If you are told that a certain atom has
the electrons (-ve) which carry an (say) 8 protons, then you know it must
electrical charge. (Neutrons have no charge.) have 8 electrons and its “Atomic
Number” = 8.
Since the numbers of electrons and
protons are always equal, they cancel This is enough to identify it as an atom
out and so atoms have no overall of oxygen with the characteristic
electrical charge. properties of that element.
Actually, it isn’t quite true that every atom of an element is exactly the same.
The number of neutrons can vary. However, the number of protons & electrons
is always equal, and is a fixed number for each chemical element.
For simplicity (K.I.S.S. Principle!) we will continue to use the
concept that atoms of any given element are identical.
®
The Chemical Elements

How Many Elements? The Periodic Table
We now know that about 90 chemical The best way to learn about the elements
elements occur naturally on Earth. is to study the “Periodic Table”, which is a
Another 20 (or so) can be made special list of all the elements.
artificially in nuclear reactors.
Your teacher may give you a copy, or show
Of these elements, many are very rare. you a wall chart.
Most of the familiar substances on
Earth are made from only about 20-30 of The first thing to do is to look through it
the most common elements. and see how many elements you have
hydrogen already heard of.
helium
1
The Periodic Table carbon 2
H oxygen He
of the Elements 6 8
calcium aluminium C O
iron 13
copper
Al
20 26 29
Ca Fe Cu
47
Ag
79 82
Au Pb
silver
lead
uranium gold
You may find many
more that you have
heard of. Here are
just a few that are 92
commonly known. U
How to read the information
13 “Atomic Number”
The elements are numbered, in order, across and then down the table.
This puts the elements in a numerical order, but it also tells you how
many electrons & protons in each atom.
Aluminium Name of the Element
Al Chemical Symbol
Each element has a short-h hand symbol. It is always one capital letter,
OR if 2 letters, always a capital followed by a lower case letter.
26.98 “Relative Atomic Mass” (RAM)

This gives the relative mass, or weight, of an atom of the element.
Why is the table such an odd shape?

Why not put the elements in a simple rectangular box table?
The Periodic Table has this shape so that elements that are similar to each other
are under each other, or in “groups” and “blocks’.
It is called “periodic” because it has patterns that re-occur in a regular pattern.
You will learn these patterns as you learn more about Chemistry.
®
The Mass of Atoms

Obviously a single atom has an extremely small mass if you measure it in grams.
In Chemistry we usually consider the relative mass of different atoms.
To find relative mass, we simply compare how many particles
each atom has within its structure.
Mass of Protons, Neutrons Atomic Mass Number
& Electrons
Atomic Mass = No. of + No. of
The mass of an atom depends on how Number Protons Neutrons
many particles it has within its This must be a whole number for any atom.
structure. (You can’t have half a proton!)
Example 1
It turns out that protons and neutrons
An atom of the element
are about the same mass. This amount lithium (Li) contains:
of mass is called the “atomic mass unit”
or “amu”. (1 amu is about 1 million billion 3 protons 3 p+
billionth of a gram, but let’s not go there.) 3 electrons 3 e-
4 neutrons 4 n0
Electrons are so light (1/1,800 amu) that, for
From this you can immediately state:
all practical purposes, they can be
ignored when working with atomic mass. Atomic Number = 3 (No. of p+ or e-)
and
The relative mass of an atom can be Atomic Mass Number = 7 (p+ + n0)
found by simply adding together the
number of protons and neutrons in the Example 2
The element fluorine (F) has
nucleus.
Atomic No. = 9 & At. Mass No. = 19
Particle Charge Mass
How many particles in a fluorine atom?
Proton +1 1 amu
Since Atomic No. = 9,
Electron -1 1/ it must have 9 p+and 9 e-.
1,800
(ignore it)
Since Mass No. = 19, and it has 9 p+,
it must have 10 n0.
Neutron 0 1 amu
Mass Numbers & R.A.M.

The “Mass Number” for an individual atom is always a whole number.
The “Relative Atomic Mass” (RAM) listed on the Periodic Table is usually not.
What’s going on?
Let’s Keep It Simple!
In fact, the number of neutrons in the If you want to know the Mass Number
atoms of an element can vary, so the for any element:
Mass Numbers can be slightly different • Read the RAM for that element from the
among the atoms of one element. Periodic Table. (example: Zinc, RAM = 65.37)
• Round-off to the nearest whole number. (= 65)

The RAM shown in the Periodic Table is
the average of these slightly different • Take this to be the Atomic Mass Number
Mass Numbers. for the element. (example: Zinc = 65)
®
Worksheet 1
Atoms & Elements Student Name.............................................
Fill in the blank spaces. The atoms of one element are
k)................. to atoms of another element
Everything is made up of a).................... because they have different numbers of
Each atom is made of smaller particles. l)....................., ....................... and
b)...................... (carry a +ve charge) and ............................
c)....................... (no charge) are in the
central d)............................. In orbit The number of m)...................................
around this are the e)............................, or ........................ in an atom is called the
which carry f)....................... electrical n) “.....................” Number. The elements
charge. are arranged in order of this number in
the o).............................. Table.
The number of g)...................... is always
equal to the number of h)........................., The relative mass of an atom depends
so electrical charges are i)....................... on how many p)........................ plus
......................... it contains. (The
An element is a substance made up q).......................... are not counted
entirely of j).......................... .................. because their mass is insignificant).
Worksheet 2 Student Name.............................................

Describing Atoms & Elements You will need to refer to a
Complete the blanks in the table. Periodic Table to do some of this.
Element Symbol Atomic Atomic Mass number of
name Number Number protons electrons neutrons
Boron B 5 a).................... b)............. c)............. 6
Sodium Na 11 d).................... e)............. f).............. 12
Argon g)............ h).............. i)..................... j).............. 18 22
k)................... F 9 19 l)............. m)............. n)...........
Iron o)........... 26 56 p)............. q)............. r)............
Uranium s)........... t)............. 238 92 u)............. v)............
w).................. x)........... y)............. z).................... aa)........... 38 50
ab)................ ac).......... 79 197 ad)........... ae)............ af)............
ag)................. Pb ah).............. ai)...................... aj)............. ak)............ al)............

®
History of Our Understanding of Atoms, part 1

The history of Chemistry and our understanding of “elements”
was covered in an earlier topic. Here we focus on knowledge of atoms.
Democtritus
Ancient Greek, 400 BCE
Democritus imagined that he had a John Dalton
“magic” knife and could keep cutting a English, 1808
substance into smaller and smaller Dalton’s experiments with Chemical
pieces. He wondered if he would reach Reactions showed that substances
an ultimately small particle that could always reacted and combined in fixed
not be cut any more? ratios by weight.
He decided that matter was probably He reasoned that each element must have
made of ultimate “units” of matter. He unique atoms which react and combine
called them “atomus”, which means with each other in simple ratios.
something that cannot be cut or
divided. Atomic Model H
Unbreakable Cu
Atomic Model spheres. Each
Unbreakable element has different
atoms with different Pb
particles; a
different particle for each weights and properties.
different substance.
For about 90 years during the 19th century, there was little progress on the
knowledge of atoms. Chemical Science made progress: many new elements were
discovered, the Periodic Table was invented, new processes and
new substances were discovered, but nothing new about atoms.
The key to progress was electricity...
Joseph Thomson, English 1897

Studying the
mysterious If every atom contains negative
“cathode rays”, particles, there must be a positively
Thomson charged material in every atom to
identified a balance the electrical charge.
small particle
Atomic Model
with a negative
electrical Cathode Ray Tube, + +
Thomson proposed
charge. ancestor of the TV set.
the “plum-pudding”
He had discovered the electron. model in 1904. +
He proved that exactly the same He suggested that
+
particles (electrons) were present in each atom was a solid
every kind of atom tested. This ball of positively-charged
suggested that all atoms contain these material with electrons embedded in it.
small negative particles.
®
History of Our Understanding of Atoms, part 2

Ernest Rutherford, English (born New Zealand) 1911
Rutherford and his team set out to test The result was totally unexpected! Most of
the “plum-pudding model” of the atom the α-particles went straight through the
by experiment. They used the newly target atoms. A few were deflected much
more than expected.
discovered science of “radio-activity”
to bombard some atoms with alpha- Atomic Model
particles. To explain these
results
Alpha-particles have a positive charge, Rutherford
so Rutherford expected that the suggested
positive part of atoms might cause a that atoms
slight deflection to the speeding alpha- were mostly
particles. He had already calculated the empty space
expected result, if the plum-pudding with a tiny, dense,
model was correct. positively-charged
nucleus in the middle. The electrons
must orbit around the nucleus.
Rutherford thought it likely that there were individual positively-charged particles
in the nucleus. They were named “protons”. Their existence was confirmed by
experiments a few years later. It was realised that there had to be an extremely
powerful force holding the protons together against the electrical
repulsion they would exert on each other.
Niels Bohr, Danish 1913 In the 1920’s it became clear that protons and
electrons could NOT account for all the mass of
Bohr worked out mathematically that atoms. There must be another type of particle,
the electrons in Rutherford’s model probably with no electrical charge... neutrons.
must be in precise, layered orbits.
James Chadwick, English 1932
This arrangement instantly explained
the mystery of “spectral lines” which Chadwick devised a clever experiment
are observed when atoms absorb or to prove the existence of the
emit energy. It also explained the hypothetical “neutrons”.
“valency” of different elements and Sure enough, he found them!
how chemical bonds can form.
Atomic Model
Atomic Model Atomic nucleus contains
Electrons are in precise protons and neutrons.
orbits which have
an exact amount of Electrons orbit the
energy. nucleus in “Bohr”
energy levels.
Only a certain maximum number of
electrons can fit in each orbit. Much more has been learned about
Einstein’s Theory of Relativity (1915)
atoms since the 1930’s.
gave a possible explanation for the “nuclear force” However, the atomic model above is
which might hold the nucleus together. still useful for you to learn Chemistry.
The first “atom bomb” proved the theory correct. This is the model we will use here.
®
Worksheet 3
History of Atomic Theory Student Name.............................................
Fill in the blank spaces. Ernest h).............................. tried to test
this model in 1911. His famous
The earliest known theory of atoms was experiment with i)...................-particles
put forward by a).............................., an led to the idea that atoms must have a
ancient Greek. tiny j)............................., with the
electrons k)........................... around it.
The first modern atomic theory was
proposed by b)............................. in 1808. Neils l).......................... (1913) showed
He suggested that each chemical mathematically that the orbits must
c).............................. was made up of have exact amounts of m).........................
identical, unbreakable spheres. and each can hold a maximum number
of n)..................................
Almost 100 years later, the d)...................
was discovered by e)......................... His The positive charge was found to be
model was called the f) “................ carried by o).........................., but the
Pudding Model”, because it involved known particles could not account for
each atom being a g)..........................- all the p)...................... of atoms. The
charged sphere with electrons discovery of the q)....................... by
embedded in it. r)................................ (1932) gave us the
model still useful for Chemistry.
Worksheet 4 Student Name.............................................

Atomic Models 2.
The following diagrams show some For each model P,Q,R,S,T name the
modern atomic models. scientist associated with the model.
+
Q Choose from scientists in this list.
+ Cu H Rutherford, Thomson, Einstein, Chadwick, Dalton,
P Bohr, Newton. (Not all will be used)
+
+ R Pb Model Scientist
P .......................................
S T
Q .......................................
R .......................................
S .......................................
1. T .......................................
Use the letters P,Q,R,S & T to list the
models in correct time order. 3. List the 3 atomic particles in the order
in which they were discovered.
.......... ............ .............. ............ .............. ..................... ....................... .....................
®
How Scientific Models are Tested

The history of atomic research contains several good examples of the general
methods of Science itself. It shows how scientists put forward ideas to explain the
known facts. These “models” are then tested by experiments. If the experimental
results seem to support the model, it gains a little more acceptance. If the results
contradict the model, it may be rejected and the whole process begins
again with a new, or modified, model.
Rutherford’s Testing of Testing Models

the “Plum-Pudding” Atom with Mathematics
Rutherford’s famous
J.J.Thomson put experiment led
forward his “plum-
pudding” model of + + to the
development of
the atom in 1904. It a new atomic
seemed a totally
reasonable idea
+ model.
which fitted with all

the known facts of the
+ The atom now
had a tiny
time. nucleus with the
little electrons in
Ernest Rutherford set up an experiment orbit.
to test Thomson’s idea. He was NOT
trying to prove it wrong. He thought it Niels Bohr set out to analyse this orbital
was a good model and was looking to arrangement mathematically using a
add evidence to prove it correct. But, it new idea called “Quantum Theory”. This
had to be tested... that’s good Science. had been developed in 1900 to explain
certain aspects of energy radiation.
When the experiment produced
unexpected results, Rutherford was Bohr found the model only
sure the experiment had been done worked if the electrons
incorrectly and ordered it to be done were in fixed orbits at
again and again. precise energy levels.
Only when he was convinced that the Importantly, his mathematics also
unexpected results were valid did he explained perfectly a strange
realise the truth... Thomson’s model phenomenon called “spectral lines”
was wrong! which had been known in detail for over
30 years, but could never be explained.
This doesn’t mean Thomson had failed.
His model was a good one for what was Bohr’s orbits also explained perfectly
known in 1904. When Rutherford found the observed details of chemical
out more facts, the Thomson model had “valency” which governs how atoms
to be discarded and replaced. join together when compounds are
formed.
Thomson would have been pleased that
his model led to the Rutherford When a theoretical mathematical analysis
experiment which brought Science a leads to a perfect description of an
step closer to the whole truth. observed set of facts like this, scientists
know that the model must contain some
We are still learning. truth, no matter how weird it might be.
Years 9-10 Topic 15 Atoms & Elements Usage & copying is permitted according to the
copyright © 2008 keep it simple science 13 Site Licence Conditions only
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Patterns of the Periodic Table, part 1

To understand the chemical elements better, you need to study the
Periodic Table and learn about some of the “groupings” of elements.
Here is a quick review of some facts covered in previous topics.
Solids, Liquids & Gases at room temperature (25oC)

G Liquids
Solids G
G G G G
G G
The vast majority of Only 2 elements are
L G
elements are solids G liquids at room
at room temperature. L G temperature...
All the unshaded These bromine

elements (element 35)
boxes in this fit in here.
diagram represent This “block” of elements are detached
and
the solid elements. simply so the table fits more mercury
conveniently on a page or chart. (element 80)
Gases
All the gases are clustered in the top right corner, except hydrogen.
These gases also include some elements which are very important
to living things, (e.g. oxygen) or are commonly encountered
in general chemistry (e.g. chlorine).
Metals & Non-Metals

Hydrogen
see note below No Comparison of Properties
n-
M
et Metals Non-metals
Me al
s • Shiny appearance • Most not shiny
tal
s
• All solids • Some solid, many
(except mercury) gases, 1 liquid.
These
elements
fit in here.
• Good conductors • Most are poor
of electricity. conductors.
This “block” of elements are detached
simply so the table fits more
(exception = carbon)
conveniently on a page or chart.
• Malleable & Ductile • Brittle, not malleable
Hydrogen does not clearly fit in with the “metal- nor ductile.
non-metal” classification and is often shown
detached from the table. Hydrogen has the “Malleable” means it can be hammered
physical properties of a non-metal, but often or pressed and flattened into thin
acts chemically like a metal.
sheets. “Ductile” means it can be
The elements marked with a dot on the diagram
stretched and drawn out into wires,
above are sometimes called “metalloids”. They especially when hot.
have some metal-like properties (e.g. shiny) and
some non-metal properties (e.g. brittle) and If you tried to make a thin “foil” or a wire
some in-between properties. For now, we will from any solid non-metal it would
consider them as non-metals. shatter like glass.
®
Patterns of the Periodic Table, part 2

To understand the chemical elements better, you need to study the
Periodic Table and learn about some of the “groupings” of elements.
Transition Metals
Active Metals
Transition Metals
Li Be Active Metals
Na Mg
K Ca
Rb Sr
Cs Ba
Fr Ra
In the centre block of the table are

On the far left side of the Periodic Table located most of the common, well
are 2 columns of metals which are known metals including iron, copper,
different to most other metals. gold and silver.
They are relatively soft and low density. These are “typical” metals. Most are
hard and shiny and many have very high
More importantly, they are chemically melting points.
very active and will ignite and burn
violently in air. Included here are metals we use for
tools and machinery, electrical elements
Some will even explode if dropped into and appliances. We use these metals to
water. These have to be stored in build bridges, ships and skyscrapers.
containers filled with oil to keep air and
moisture away. Except for lead, tin and aluminium, all of
our most useful metals are here.
The far right column The Inert Gases “Inert” means “to not
of elements are move or do
all gases. anything”.
Inert Gases He
Ne
Their most important Here it refers to
Ar
property is that they Kr being chemically
do NOT react Xe inactive. These
chemically with Rn elements will not
anything, so they interact with others.
never form chemical
compounds. Soon you will
find out why.
Practical Uses for Inert Gases
Helium has such low density that it is “lighter than air” and will lift a balloon. It cannot
burn, so it is much safer than hydrogen. Argon is used in welding. A cloud of inert gas
blankets the hot metal and prevents corrosion in air. Neon fills the tubes of “neon lights”.
®
Electron Orbits
It is the electrons which control Chemistry.
How an atom interacts with others to form compounds and undergo chemical
reactions, all depends on the number of electrons and how they are arranged.
Filling the Orbits

As you go across each row of the Periodic Table, each element has one more
electron than the previous. The lowest electron orbits are always filled first.
1st Orbit can hold only 2 electrons
H He Once an orbit is
full, electrons H 1st Orbit He
begin filling the Li Be 2nd Orbit B C N O F Ne
+ 2+ next higher Na Mg 3rd Orbit Al Si P S Cl Ar
orbit.
Hydrogen Helium Name

Atomic Number
1 2
1 2 Electron Arrangement
in orbits
2nd Orbit can hold 8 electrons
4+ 6+ 8+ 10+
Li B N F
Be C O Ne
3+ 5+ 7+ 9+
Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5 2.6 2.7 2.8
3rd Orbit can hold 8 electrons

(This is not quite true, but for simplicity, you should accept this for now)
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar
Sodium Magnesium Aluminium Silicon Phosphorus Sulfur Chlorine Argon
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18
2.8.1 2.8.2 2.8.3 2.8.4 2.8.5 2.8.6 2.8.7 2.8.8
Beyond the 3rd orbit things become more complicated.

You do not need to know the details.
®
Electrons in the Outer Orbit

If you consider just the number of For the elements in the far right column
electrons in the outer orbit of each (Inert Gases) you should note that their
element, another pattern appears on the outer orbit is full.
Periodic Table. Full
No. of Electrons Outer
in Outer Orbit Orbits
Here are the data for the elements on the
previous page. 1 1st Orbit 2
2 2nd Orbit 3 4 5 6 7 8
3rd Orbit
No. of Electrons in Outer Orbit
1 1st Orbit 2
Ign
or
1 2 2nd Orbit 3 4 5 6 7 8 To e the
o c se
1 2 3rd Orbit 3 4 5 6 7 8 om El
pli eme
ca
ted nts.
!
Each row of the Periodic Table

lists elements which are
filling the same orbit.
See the pattern?
This pattern is continued downwards Each column lists elements
through the table. Elements in the same which have the same
column have the same number of number of electrons
electrons in their outer orbit. in their outer orbit.
The Importance of a Full Outer Orbit

Energy Levels How Atoms Get
A Full Outer Orbit
As Niels Bohr worked out in 1913, the All the other elements do NOT have a
orbits of the electrons around the full outer orbit. To achieve the “perfect”
nucleus are not just places for electrons stable energy state atoms can either:
to hang out, they are “Quantum Energy
Levels” within the atom. • GAIN ELECTRONS to fill up
their outer orbit.
In the strange world of
quantum energy,
Ne 10+
OR
an atom achieves great
energy stability if its An Inert • LOSE ELECTRONS and
outer orbit is full. Gas Neon
completely shed their outer orbit.
10 Their “new” outer orbit becomes
All the Inert Gas elements already the one underneath, which is full
have a full outer orbit. They are very 2.8
and “perfect”.
stable and have no need to do anything
to become “perfect”. As you will see, to gain or lose electrons
atoms must interact with each other.
That is why they do not react with
anything and do not form compounds.
The result is Chemistry!
®
Worksheet 5
Periodic Table Student Name.............................................
Answer the following questions.
For some write numbers or letters on
the blank Periodic Table, as instructed.
1. Use letter “i” (as many as needed) to

show clearly where the “inert gases” are
located.
2. Mark one square with the letter “G” to

show an element that is a gas at room 6. Use letter “A” (as many as needed) to
temperature, apart from the inert gases. show clearly a column of metals which
are chemically very active.
3. Rule a line to show the (approx) dividing
line between metals and non-metals. 7. Mark one square with “X” to show the
element which has exactly 7 electrons in
4. Use number “4” (as many as needed) its 3rd orbit.
to show a column of elements which all
have 4 electrons in their outer orbit. 8. Mark one square with “22” to show
the element with Atomic Number = 22.
5. Draw a circle around part of the table
where the “transition metals” are found.
Worksheet 6
Electron Arrangements Student Name.............................................
Answer these questions from “first 2. Use the letters A,B,C, etc from Q1 to
principles”, without referring to the answer the following.
Periodic Table.
a) Which element(s) is/are inert gases?
1. Complete this table.
Element Total Electron b) Which element occurs on the
electrons Arrangement
Periodic Table in the same column as
example 11 2.8.1 element “E”?
A 7
B 15 c) Which element occurs on the Periodic
Table in the same column as element
C 2.8.8.1
“J”?
D 18
E 9 d) Which element(s) is/are “Active
F 10 Metals” which occur in the 2 left-hand
columns of the Periodic Table?
G 17
H 20
I 16 e) Which elements have an incomplete
2nd orbit of electrons?
J 12
®
Atoms Form Ions

The easiest way to understand how atoms can achieve a full outer orbit,
and what happens after that, is to carefully study some examples.
Metal Atoms Non-Metal Atoms
Lose Electrons Gain Electrons
Consider an atom of the metal sodium. Here’s an atom of the non-metal chlorine.
Na Cl
It has just 1 electron
in the outer 3rd orbit.
It has 7 electrons
Gaining another in its outer 3rd orbit.
11+ 17+
7 electrons is far
too difficult. If it gains 1 more
electron , the outer
Instead, if it were to orbit would be full.
lose 1 electron, its outer Sodium Chlorine
orbit would become the 11 17 Can you see what’s
full 2nd orbit. going to happen?
2.8.1 2.8.7
r
nsfe
tra
on Cl-
Na+ lectr
e The sodium atom loses its outer electron.
The chlorine atom gains an electron.
11+ Both atoms have achieved a full outer orbit. 17+

LOOK!
Sodium
Ion
Ions
(Atoms with an electrical charge) Chloride
Ion
2.8 The sodium atom has The chlorine atom has
lost an electron. gained an electron. 2.8.8
It now has 10 electrons (e-), but it has 11 It now has 18 electrons (e-), but it still has 17
protons (p+) in the nucleus. protons (p+) in the nucleus.
This means that it has a surplus This means that it has a surplus
electrical charge of 1+. electrical charge of 1-.
This is now called a “sodium ion”, and it This is now called a “chloride ion”, and it
behaves differently to a sodium atom. behaves differently to a chlorine atom.
These ions now become stuck together These ions are “chemically bonded”
because of their electrical attraction for
each other. (There’s never just 2; Na+ Cl- together. They form the compound
billions of Na+ and Cl- ions join.) sodium chloride, formula NaCl
®
Ionic Compounds
When atoms become ions and stick together, they form a new substance.
This is a chemical compound, with different properties to the original elements.
Ionic compounds form crystals, made of billions of ions stuck together.
The diagram represents part of a crystal
of salt. Salt is the ionic compound Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+
sodium chloride, NaCl.

Cl- Na+ Cl- Na+ Cl-
In a real crystal there would be billions
of ions in a 3-dimensional “lattice”.
Na+ Na+
Cl- Na+ Cl-
The “sticks” joining the ions represent
the “ionic chemical bonds” holding the
ions together. In reality, the bond is the The compound is totally different to the
force of electrical attraction due to their elements it is made from.
opposite charges.
Sodium: shiny, silver, soft metal. Good
The formula “NaCl” indicates that the conductor. Reacts violently
ions stick together in a ratio of 1:1 (in with water.
equal numbers). Chlorine: yellow-green gas. Poisonous.
Non-conductor.
Other ions may join in a different ratio. Salt: White crystals. Dissolves in
water. Good on chips!
Another Example: MgCl2

Here is what happens if atoms of magnesium and chlorine react to form a compound.
With 2 electrons Mg Cl
in the outer orbit,
a magnesium
atom needs to
lose 2 electrons.
Cl
12+ 17+
It can do so by
reacting with 2
chlorine atoms. 17+
Each chlorine Magnesium atom (Mg) 2 chlorine atoms (Cl)
becomes a become
gains 1 electron to magnesium ion (Mg2+). 2 chloride ions
fill its outer orbit. Notice the charge is 2+ (2 x Cl-).
because 2 electrons Notice the change
are lost. of name.
Chloride Chloride The result is the formation of 2 chloride ions for

ion Magnesium ion
ion every 1 magnesium ion... a ratio of 1:2.
MgCl2.
Cl-
That’s why the compound formula is
Mg2+ Cl-
(Of course, there will actually be billions
of ions in the crystal lattice)
®
Valency
The “valency” of an element refers to its “combining ratio”
when it forms compounds with other elements.
For simple ionic compounds, the valency of each element is the same as the
electrical charge that the ion gets when it achieves a full outer orbit of electrons.
3 electrons in 6 electrons in
5 electrons in These all have
outer orbit. outer orbit.
outer orbit. 7 electrons in
Lose 3. Gain 2.
Gain 3. their outer orbit.
Ion charge 3+. Ion charge 2-.
Ion charge 3-. They gain 1
electron, so the
Active Metals ion has charge 1-.
all have either
1 or 2 electrons in
their outer orbit. 1+ Inert Gases
Charge on Ion. 0
full outer orbits.
2+ 3+ 4 3- 2- 1-
“Valency”
They lose the
outer electron(s) They do not gain
and form an ion or lose electrons.
The
with charge se c They do not form
ann
(Mo Lea ot b ions. They do not
re rrn in ep
1+ or 2+ st a
are div red
and idu icte form compounds.
can ally d.
be .
ign
ore This is why they
d)
are “inert”.
What about atoms with 4 electrons? Do they gain or lose? It depends!

Elements at the top of the table (e.g. carbon) act like
non-metals and gain electrons. Valency = 4-.
Those lower down (e.g. tin, lead) are metals and lose electrons. Valency 4+.
Ions & Valencies of Some Common Laboratory Elements

METALS NON-METALS
(lose electrons) (gain electrons)
Element Symbol Electrons Valency Element Symbol Electrons Valency
in outer orb. (ion charge) in outer orb. (ion charge)
Hydrogen H 1 1+ Fluorine F 7 1-
Sodium Na 1 1+ Chlorine Cl 7 1-
Potassium K 1 1+ Bromine Br 7 1-
Iodine I 7 1-
Magnesium Mg 2 2+
Calcium Ca 2 2+ Oxygen O 6 2-
Barium Ba 2 2+ Sulfur S 6 2-
Aluminium Al 3 3+ Nitrogen N 5 3-
Phosphorus P 5 3-
All these can be easily predicted
from the Periodic Table.
Carbon C 4 4-
®
Naming Simple Ionic Compounds

When atoms gain or lose electrons to form ions, they then get stuck together by
their electrical attraction to form a “crystal lattice” of ions.
This forms a new “compound”, totally different to the original elements.
What is the name of each compound?
Names of Metal Ions Names of Non-Metal Ions

Metal atoms lose 1 or more electrons to Non-Metals gain electrons to form ions.
form an ion. The name of the ion is the Their name always changes to end in
same as the atom. -IDE.
e.g. Sodium Sodium e.g. Chlorine Chloride

atom ion atom ion
Names of Compounds
Simply put the two ion names together, with the metal always first.
Examples:
Compound of sodium + chlorine = “sodium chloride”
Compound of barium + oxygen = “barium oxide”
Compound of sulfur + aluminium = “aluminium sulfide”
Formulas for Simple Ionic Compounds

A chemical formula uses the symbols of the elements to describe a compound.
The symbols identify which elements are involved,
and shows the ratio in which the ions combine.
Steps to Write a Formula Examples
Compound of:
aluminium & sulfur & sodium
1. Write down the symbols of the bromine
elements involved, with the metal
always first. Al Br Na S
2. For each element, consider its
valency, or the charge on its ion. Al3+ Br-
Work out the simplest ratio which gives need 3 x Br Na+ S2-
equal amounts of (+ve) and (-ve) charge. for each Al
Br- Br- Na+

need 2 x Na
for each S
3. Write suffix numbers after each
symbol to show this ratio.
Number one (1) is not written. AlBr3 Na2S

(It is assumed from the symbol.) aluminium bromide sodium sulfide
®
Worksheet 7
Atoms Form Ions Student Name.............................................
Fill in the table from “first principles”, without referring to the Periodic Table.
Element Total Electron Gain or How Ion Valency Metal or
electr. Arrange. Lose e-? many? Charge? Non-met?
example 3 2.1 lose 1 1+ 1+ metal
example2 8 2.6 gain 2 2- 2- non-met.
A 13
B 17
C 10
D 19
E 11
F 16
G 12
H 2
I 7
J 18
K 9
L 20
Worksheet 8
Student Name.............................................
Names and Formulas
1. What is the name of the 2. What is the formula of 3. What is the name of a
compound made from the each compound in Q1? compound if its formula is:
elements:
a) KBr
a) barium and fluorine? a)
..............................................
.............................................. .............................................. b) Al2S3
b) sodium and iodine? b)
..............................................
.............................................. .............................................. c) BaO
c) hydrogen and sulfur? c)
..............................................
.............................................. .............................................. d) Na3N
d) chlorine & aluminium? d)
..............................................
.............................................. .............................................. e) MgI2
e) oxygen & calcium? e)
..............................................
.............................................. .............................................. f) H2O
f) sulfur and barium? f)
..............................................
.............................................. ..............................................
®
Topic Test Student Name............................................. Score = /30

Atoms & elements You will need to refer to the Periodic Table to
answer some questions in this test.
Answer all questions
in the spaces provided. 3. (4 marks)
The following diagrams show some
1. (5 marks) modern atomic models.
Match each description to an item from the R
list. To answer, write the letter (A,B,C, etc) P Cu H
of the list item beside the description.
Q
Description matches with List Item Pb
a) Particles in atoms with no
electrical charge. ............. + +
b) Don’t count these when adding S T +
up the Mass Number. .............
c) An atom that has lost or +
gained electrons. .............
d) Scientist who described electrons
in energy-level orbits. .............
e) Element with full outer orbit. Use the letters P,Q,R,S & T to list the
............. models in correct time order in the history
of Atomic Theory.
List Items Not all will be used.
Some may be used more than once. .......... ............ .............. ............ ..............
A. neutrons D. inert gas
B. Einstein E. electrons
C. ion F. Bohr 4. (6 marks)
Write the name and formula for a
2. (9 marks) compound made up of:
A certain atom has 15 protons and 16
neutrons in its nucleus. a) magnesium & fluorine
a) How many electrons? .................. ............................................... ..................

b) oxygen & potassium
b) What is its Atomic Number? ..................
............................................... ..................
c) Name the element. ................................... 5. (6 marks)
The letters P,Q,R,S &T are
d) What is its Mass Number? ..................
NOT the correct symbols
T
for the elements shown. Q R
e) How would the electrons be
arranged in orbits in this atom? ................. S
f) What would this atom do to achieve a full P
outer orbit?
........................................................................ Which of the indicated elements (P,Q,R,etc):
g) What is this element’s valency? a) is/are metal(s)?
................. ..............................
h) Would you expect this element to b) is an inert gas? .................
conduct electricity? Explain your answer. c) would form an ion by losing 1 electron?..............
d) has a valency of 2-?
.......................
®
Answer Section Worksheet 4

1. R, P, T, Q, S
Worksheet 1
2.
a) atoms b) Protons P = Thomson
c) neutrons d) nucleus Q = Bohr
e) electrons f) negative R = Dalton
g) protons h) electrons S = Chadwick
i) equal/cancelled j) identical atoms T = Rutherford
k) different
l) protons, electrons and neutrons
m) protons or electrons Worksheet 5
n) Atomic o) Periodic
p) protons plus neutrons G i
q) electrons A A 4 G G G i
A A 4 X i
A A 22 4 i
A A 4 i
Worksheet 2 A A 4 i
A A
a) 11 b) 5 c) 5
d) 23 e) 11 f) 11
g) Ar h) 18 i) 40 j) 18
k) fluorine l) 9 m) 9 n) 10
o) Fe p) 26 q) 26 r) 30
s) U t) 92 u) 92 v) 146 Worksheet 6
w) strontium x) Sr y) 38 z) 88 aa) 38 1. (missing info. shown only)
ab) gold ac) Au ad) 79 ae) 79 af) 118 A 2.5
ag) lead ah) 82 ai) 207 aj) 82 ak) 82 al) 125 B 2.8.5
C 19
D 2.8.8
Worksheet 3 E 2.7
F 2.8
a) Democritus b) John Dalton G 2.8.7
c) element d) electron H 2.8.8.2
e) Thomson f) Plum- I 2.8.6
g) positively h) Rutherford J 2.8.2
i) alpha j) nucleus 2.
k) orbiting l) Bohr a) D, F
m) energy n) electrons b) G
o) protons p) mass c) H
q) neutrons r) Chadwick d) example, C, H, J
e) A, E
®
Worksheet 7
Element Total Electron Gain or How Ion Valency Metal or
electr. Arrange. Lose e-? many? Charge? Non-met?
example 3 2.1 lose 1 1+ 1+ metal
example2 8 2.6 gain 2 2- 2- non-met.
A 13 2.8.3 lose 3 3+ 3+ metal
B 17 2.8.7 gain 1 1- 1- non-met.
C 10 2.8 neither 0 no ion 0 non-met.
D 19 2.8.8.1 lose 1 1+ 1+ metal
E 11 2.8.1 lose 1 1+ 1+ metal
F 16 2.8.6 gain 2 2- 2- non-met.
G 12 2.8.2 lose 2 2+ 2+ metal
H 2 2 neither 0 no ion 0 non-met.
I 7 2.5 gain 3 3- 3- non-met.
J 18 2.8.8 neither 0 no ion 0 non-met.
K 9 2.7 gain 1 1- 1- non-met.
L 20 2.8.8.2 lose 2 2+ 2+ metal
Worksheet 8 Topic Test

Q1.
1.
a) barium fluoride
a) A b) E c) C d) F e) D
b) sodium iodide
c) hydrogen sulfide
2.
d) aluminium chloride
a) 15
e) calcium oxide
b) 15
f) barium sulfide
c) phosphorus
d) 31
Q2.
e) 2.8.5
a) BaF2
f) gain 3 more electrons
b) NaI
g) 3-
c) H2S
d) AlCl3
3. Q, T, P, R, S
e) CaO
f) BaS
4.
a) magnesium fluoride, MgF2
Q3.
a) potassium bromide
b) potassium oxide, K2O
b) aluminium sulfide
c) barium oxide
5.
d) sodium nitride
a) T,S,P
e) magnesium iodide
b) R
f) hydrogen oxide... WATER!
c) T
d) Q

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Year 11-12 Science Courses

All Topics Available as PHOTOCOPY MASTERS and/or KCiC

“Mind-Map” Outline of Topic

Atoms Introduction to Atomic

Make your own “Mind-Map” TITLE PAGE.

Atoms Introduction to Atomic

Everything is Made of Atoms

How Small is an Atom?

Atoms & Elements

Element 1 Element 2 Element 3

How are the atoms of different elements different?

Notice that in each case

The Chemical Elements

How to read the information

Aluminium Name of the Element

26.98 “Relative Atomic Mass” (RAM)

Why is the table such an odd shape?

The Mass of Atoms

Mass Numbers & R.A.M.

• Round-off to the nearest whole number. (= 65)

Worksheet 2 Student Name.............................................

Boron B 5 a).................... b)............. c)............. 6

Sodium Na 11 d).................... e)............. f).............. 12

Argon g)............ h).............. i)..................... j).............. 18 22

k)................... F 9 19 l)............. m)............. n)...........

Iron o)........... 26 56 p)............. q)............. r)............

Uranium s)........... t)............. 238 92 u)............. v)............

w).................. x)........... y)............. z).................... aa)........... 38 50

ab)................ ac).......... 79 197 ad)........... ae)............ af)............

ag)................. Pb ah).............. ai)...................... aj)............. ak)............ al)............

History of Our Understanding of Atoms, part 1

Joseph Thomson, English 1897

History of Our Understanding of Atoms, part 2

Worksheet 4 Student Name.............................................

How Scientific Models are Tested

Rutherford’s Testing of Testing Models

which fitted with all

Patterns of the Periodic Table, part 1

Solids, Liquids & Gases at room temperature (25oC)

All the unshaded These bromine

Metals & Non-Metals

Patterns of the Periodic Table, part 2

In the centre block of the table are

Filling the Orbits

Hydrogen Helium Name

2nd Orbit can hold 8 electrons

Lithium Beryllium Boron Carbon Nitrogen Oxygen Fluorine Neon

3rd Orbit can hold 8 electrons

Beyond the 3rd orbit things become more complicated.

Electrons in the Outer Orbit

Each row of the Periodic Table

The Importance of a Full Outer Orbit

1. Use letter “i” (as many as needed) to

2. Mark one square with the letter “G” to