4th International Conference on

Energy, Environment and Sustainable Development 2016 (EESD 2016)

100. Design and Development of Prototype Wind Concentrator

Turbine
Daniya Khan, Muhammad Shahzad Jamil. Muhammad Aqeel Tariq*
a
Department of Energy Engineering Hamdard University Main campus Karachi, Pakistan
E-mail address: dnkhan06@gmail.com

Abstract

Non-renewable energy resources have fueled the world’s industrial compound for far too long. It has reached
a point where the world is facing fast starvation in this sector. There are also other associated effects too
which also need to be carefully looked at just to make sure things are running smoothly. With increased
exploitation of these fossil fuels there are many environmental concerns like land pollution and air pollution
which in turn affect whole ecosystem. Therefore a trend is observed that these non-renewable energy
resources are replaced by renewable energy resources as Renewable energy is reliable, plentiful and will
potentially be very cheap once technology and infrastructure is installed. Wind energy is a clean fuel source
as it does not disturb the air quality like power plants that rely on combustion of fossil fuel. Therefore efforts
are made to improve the efficiency of wind turbines. A wind concentrator is an enhancement made to wind
turbine as it is a more efficient way to grasp wind energy. In the present study performance of savinious wind
turbine with wind concentrator was studied experimentally. Lab scale test setup was developed and the
experiments were performed by using forced air flow. It was observed that the application of concentrator is
resulted in improvement of coefficient of performance of the system. The present system generated a power
of 20 watt.
© 2016 “Daniya Khan, Muhammad Shahzad Jamil, Muhammad Aqeel Tariq”. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of
Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro,
Pakistan.

Keywords: wind turbine, wind concentrator, renewable energy, coefficient of performance

1. Introduction

Energy resources such as coal and oil are used to produce electric power since long time ago. But, this
process produce tremendous amount of greenhouse gases that primarily have serious environmental impacts.
These gases have terribly disturbed our ecosystem [1]. Due to these sever problems associated with health
and environment these fossil fuel are being depleted ,therefore scientists are showing their concerns towards
alternative energy resources such as solar , wind , hydro , biomass etc. These, alternatives are intended to
overcome the concerns related to fossil fuel. An important factor in global warming is carbon dioxide gas
emissions which are a major component of fossil fuel burning. So, energy extracted from renewable energy
resources (alternative energy resources) is produced without the undesirable out-turn innate in fossil fuel use.
In the search of clean and safe renewable energy sources wind power is undoubted one of the most beneficial
solutions [2]. But, the most irregular behaviour for the wind is its erratic nature. In addition, this variability
exists over an extensive diversity of scales both in space and time. This is important because energy that is
extracted from the wind varies with cube of wind velocity. Generally more wind is received on the top of
mountains rather than low level areas. The power of the wind is proportional to the cube of wind velocity.
The general formula for wind power is
%
# $ & '() * (1)

As wind energy is a clean fuel therefore efforts are made to improve the efficiency of wind turbines [3]. So
with relative and comparative studies of different research work done in past about the augmentation of wind
turbines efficiency include wind turbine concentrators and diffusers as well which were able to increase wind
velocity by 2 to 6 times [4]. The basic idea behind the concept is that wind concentrators are designed to
overcome the problems associated with the turbulent wind flow and low velocity regions by providing
structural and aerodynamic advantages. So it increase the velocity at outlet where turbine is placed.

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2. Aims and Objective of Our Project

Objectives of the present projects are

• The objective of this project is to design and build a concentrator that will increase the wind velocity
with factor of two. And is capable of producing power by using savonius wind turbine.
• To study performance of savonius wind turbine , installed in the concentrator frame work
• To measure the power output, torque and rotational speed.
• Performance, testing, analysis of designed wind turbine in natural as well as in forced air.

3. Design and Fabrication of Test-Setup

The whole concept of concentrator is based on the duct and nozzle theory which helps to enhance the wind
speed by two times of the inlet velocity. The inlet velocity strikes the wind turbine. Larger the mass of air it
will increase its inlet velocity.

Through various studies of preceding concentrator designs it was intended to design a duct type structure that
may be effective for either one-dimensional or multi-dimensional concentration of incoming air. The design
consists of conical frustums and a symmetric quad arrangement of rhombus plates. Figure 1 represents the
assembly of the whole test setup with labelled part. Figure 3 represents the structure of actual model.

Frustum

Flange Top and Bottom

Base

Turbine

Rhombus Pillars

Angle

-
Fig. 1. Design Model of Test Setup

3.1 Dimension & Calculation

The formula for calculating frustum is:

%
V$ , π , h.R & & 0 R & , R% 0 R% & 1 (2)
*

As, the volume of frustum with thickness 2.5 mm,

Slope = 23 inch

R1 = 29.5 + 2(0.0984) = 29.6968 inch, R2 = 11.5 + 2(0.0984) = 11.6968 inch, h = 15 inch

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1
)$ , 3 , 15(11.6968& 0 (11.6968)(29.6968) 0 29.6968& )
3
) $ 21458.218 m*

Fig. 2. Graphical Representation of Frustum

3.2 Design of Rhombus Pillars

The pillars are like rhombus shape welded with angle which is used to join the two frustums together one at
the top and one at the bottom. Figure 3 represents

Fig.3. Front Views of rhombus pillars

3.3 Flange top and bottom base

Sleeve length=0.0508 meter, Sleeve thickness = 0.0127 meter, Plate thickness =5x10ˆ-3 meterThe pictorial
view of flange top and bottom base is illustrated in figure 4.

Fig.4. Flange top and bottom base

3.4 Dimension of Shaft Used

Height = 2.4384 meter, Diameter = 0.0254 meter

3.5 Dimensions of pulley

Small Pulley Diameter: 12 x 10^-3 Meter

Large Pulley Diameter: 241.3 x 10^-3 Meter

Fig.5. Pulleys

3.6 Specifications of Permanent Magnet Generator Used

RPM = 2720 RPM, Power = 30 Watts, Voltage = 24 Volts, Current = 1.25 Ampere

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3.7 Analysis of Concentrator

Larger Radius (R1) = 29.5 inch, Circumference = 2πR1 = 2π (29.5) = 185.354 inch

Smaller Radius (R2) = 11.5 inch, Circumference = 2πR2 = 2π (11.5) = 72.256 inch

3.8 Area at the inlet of air

&∗9 ∗:; &∗9∗ &=.>
Height = 69 inch, R1 = 29.5 inch, Width = = = 46.347 inch
< <

(% $ h , b

$ 69 , 46.347 = 3197.943 inch2

3.9 Area at the outlet

&∗9∗ :@ &∗9∗ %%.>
Height = 38 inch, R2 = 11.5 inch , Width = <
= <
= 18.064 inch

So, A2 $ h , b $ 38 , 18.064 $ 686.432 inch2

Theoretical assumption is to be made for concentrator design. The wind speed is to be assumed 2m/s. Thus
the concentrator will concentrate it by according to continuity equation;

'(% )% $ '(& )&

Hence the equation remains:

(% )% $ (& )& ,

Where,

A1 = Area at the inlet of air = 3197.943 inch2 (Calculated), A2 = Area at the outlet of air = 686.432 inch2
(Calculated), V1 = velocity at inlet =2 m/s (assumed),V2 = velocity at outlet

(%
)& $ ∗)
(& %

3197.943 , 2
)& $
686.432
)& $ B. CDEF G⁄H

4. Material Selection

Factors that considered in selection of material are cost, strength, toughness, corrosion, reliable considering
all these factors mild steel is selected.

5. Blades of Savonius Wind Turbine

Blades of savonius wind turbine are made up of aluminum sheets figure 6 represents the four blade geometry
of designed savonius wind turbine. The length of each blade is 0.6858 meter.

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Fig. 6 Blades of wind turbine

6. Results and discussion

The aim of this project was to study the various factors on the performance of wind concentrator turbine in
the local wind at Hamdard University and with forced wind as well. Test results prove that the concentrator is
able to increase the wind velocity 2 times at the outlet of the duct where savonius turbine is placed on the
shaft between flange top and bottom space. The concentrator is tested with local wind to attain the optimum
concentration rate. As the wind fluctuates every single moment due to the power generation rate will not be
achieved. Due to this reason axial blower was used to get best power output. The designed test setup is able
to produce 20 watt of electricity. The concentrator is tested by using variable blades of savonius wind turbine
to study the effect of concentrator by varying blades the results in the graph as well as in tabular forms are
given below. The system developed for the present study was designed to provide flexibility for the change of
no of blades for savonius wind turbine. With this provision three different configuration of savonius turbine
were achieved i.e two blade, three blade and 4 blades. Experiments were conducted for all three setups by
varying the wind speed from the cut in speed 0.5 m/s to be maximum of 6.2 m/s.

Average Wind Speed at Hamdard University

Fig. 7. Average wind speed available in Hamdard University for 12 months [5].

6.1 Concentration ratio in natural wind without connecting load on 3rd march 2016

The setup was placed in open air to find the concentration ratio of the concentrator. The wind velocity at the
inlet of the concentrator and the outlet of the concentrator was recorded. The results are given in graphical
form below.

max velocity at outlet (m/s)

6.00
4.00
2.00
0.00
0.9 0.9 1.1 1.5 1.6 2.3 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.2
max velocity at outlet (m/s)

Fig. 8. Concentration rates in natural wind on 3rd march 2016

From the above results it was observed that for all the rated wind speed the concentration ratio is about twice
the inlet air which is nearly 50% of the theoretical calculation. This could be fiction effect of material used.

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6.2 Testing with two blades of turbine in forced air

Savonius wind turbine with two blades was placed in concentrator and the results obtained are represented in
and graphical form

POWER Vs RPM
30
POWER (WATT)
20
10 power
0 (watt)
48.8 52.8 82.8 90.4
RPM
.

Fig. 9. Graph of Power Vs RPM with two Blades

From the results it was found that the turbine can produce 9 watt at the 48.8 RPM with cut-in speed of 2.1
m/s which was observed by anemometer at the time of experiment and 20 wattat 90.4 RPM for the higher
speed of 6.2 m/s(noted with anemometer).

6.3 Testing With 3 blades in forced air

Savonius wind turbine with three blades was placed in concentrator and the results obtained are, represented
in and graphical form.

Fig. 10. Graph of RPM Vs Power with 3 blades

From the results it was found that the turbine can produce 5 watt at 42.7 RPM with the cut-in speed of 2.1
m/s and 18 watt for the higher speed of 6.2 m/s which was observed at the time of experiment with 82.7
RPM.

6.4 Testing with 4 Blades in Forced Air

Savonius wind turbine with four blades was placed in concentrator and the results obtained are represented in
and graphical form

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Power (watt)
20
15
10 Power
5 (watt)

0
38.8 41.4 61.1 68.2
.

Fig. 11. Graph of Power Vs RPM with 4 Blades

From the result it was found that the turbine can produce 3 watt at 38.8 RPM with the cut-in speed of 2.1m/s
and 15 watt for the higher speed of 6.2m/s at 68.2 RPM where cut-in speed is observed with anemometer at
the time of experiment.

7. Conclusions

From the experimental results it was concluded that

• The concentrators have a beneficial effect on the performance of savonius wind turbine in terms of
cut in speed.
• 2-blade configuration was found more efficient as compared to the other configurations.
• The performance of 3-blade configuration lies intermediate between 2 and 4-blade configurations.
• Cut-in speed= 0.5 m/s (for LED) at a distance of 4.2672 meter.
• Cut off speed=6.2 m/s (for 40 LED), at a distance of 0.9144 meter.

Acknowledgements

Dr. Ahmed Hussain (tenure track professor at NED)

Muhammad Shahzad Jameel

Muhammad Aqeel Tariq

References
[1] Non-Renewable energy Sources. [online]
http://www.conserve-energy-future.com/NonRenewableEnergySources.php.
[2] Importance of Renewable energy Sources. [online]
http://homeguides.sfgate.com/importance-renewable-resources-energy-79690.html.
[3] Wind Energy. [online]
http://wind-energy.ucoz.com/.
[4] Wind Concentrator. [online]
http://www.technology.stfc.ac.uk/ERU/testfacility_windconcentrator.html.
[5] Average Weather for Karachi Pakistan. [online]
https://weatherspark.com/averages/32864/Karachi-Sindh-Pakistan.

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113. Bioclimatic House Design Approaches in Rural Area of

Mirpurkhas Sindh

Rubab Khanzadaa*, Raheela Lagharib, Ali Raza Khosoc, Fida Hussain Siddiquic
a
Undergraduate student , Department of Architecture, Mehran UET, Jamshoro, 76062, Pakistan
b*
Lecturer , Department of Architecture, Mehran UET, Jamshoro, 76062, Pakistan
c
Lecturer,, Department of Civil Engineering,, Mehran UET, Jamshoro, 76062, Pakistan
Email Address: rkmuet@hotmail.com

Abstract

Nowadays the world is utilizing renewable energy alternatives in different sectors and industries due to
scarcity of natural resources. As residential houses consume a significant amount of energy, which
otherwise can be utilized in different sectors for the development of any country. In addition to this,
many regions all over the world are expected to become very hot due to rapid climatic changes. In this
situation a house is a place where people feel more relaxation. So if building designs ignore the climatic
conditions, than it can lead to serious human discomfort. Hence bioclimatic approaches in the design of a
house can contribute to increase the level of human comfort and significantly reduce the energy
consumption. This paper studies the various bioclimatic design considerations for an eco-friendly
residential house to get benefits of weather conditions in order to conserve energy and also to have
maximum human comfort. In this research, a rural area of Mirpurkhas, Sindh has been selected. The
research proposed various site selection criteria, keeping in view all the design approaches for a
bioclimatic house in the region. The result suggests different design criteria including passive design
techniques (such as: orientation w.r.t sun and wind, placement and size of windows), energy efficient
techniques (such as: wind catcher, vegetation, green roof, and shedding device etc.) and energy efficient
system (such as: biogas by biomass process and solar system for electricity and water treatment) in
design of a house. The results can also be utilize to design a bioclimatic house in other region of the
country with comparatively same natural climate.

© 2016 “Rubab Khanzada, Raheela Leghari, Ali Raza Khoso, Fida Hussain Siddiqui, Selection and/or peer-review under
responsibility of Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and
Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: Bioclmatic houses; Renewable Energy; Natural comfort; Mirpurkhas City; Rural Areas

1. Introduction

Bio-climatic house refers to the residential building that ensures efficient use of local, materials,
vegetation, renewable energy without depletion of nature. The aim to build the Bio-climatic House is to
introduce a safe living style in rural areas of Pakistan. Bioclimatic house uses less energy, water and
natural resources than a conventional building [1]. The nature plays an important role to achieve
bioclimatic design approach in a house building.

Recently, the global demand for energy is increased due to the industrial development and population
growth and it has become a serious cause of energy crisis all around the world especially in Pakistan [2].
Pakistan being a developing country is facing serious energy crisis such as electricity load shedding,
shortages of natural gas and petroleum etc. On the other side its geographic location and season throughout
years affect the country in two different ways .As Pakistan is located near the equator in northern
hemisphere with latitude of 30º00´ that’s why bit hot [3]. Secondly due to more sunny days and high wind
pressure, a lot of energy can be produced in the country but production of energy from these resources on
larger scale is bit costly. Huge amount of energy consumed by the use of artificial system (heating and
cooling) to control the indoor thermal comfort of building and the health and productivity can be affected

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by the room condition [4].

Hot climate is the cause of discomfort of house inhabitant. Rural areas face more problems (electricity
and gas) than urban areas. High temperatures, undesirable climatic conditions and wind tunnel effects
due to high rise buildings which are wrongly designed cause discomfort and unhealthy living conditions
in the urban areas [5].

The security of indoor comfort and respect for environment leads to natural bondage between
architecture and energy. Although conservation of energy is a vital issue nowadays but in case of
buildings, human thermal comfort is the primary focus. Without compromising the thermal comfort, the
energy conservation becomes a necessity rather than an option in both commercial and residential
buildings [6]. Human's physical and physiological health is vastly affected by the thermal comfort. The
weather conditions or the climatic parameters in building design i.e. air temperature, rainfall
(precipitation), relative humidity, wind velocity and direction and solar radiation etc. are very important
[7].
In this research a rural area of Mirpurkhas Pakistan (Doulat Laghari) is studied. Mirpurkhas has a desert
climate (hot and dry) with sun path east to west and wind direction is south-west to north-east [8]. Mainly
houses are made up of brick masonry and roof are constructed with tier and girders. The concept of
verandas, courtyard etc. is still famous there. Some houses are constructed with mud whereas some are
constructed with brick masonry.

This research conducts a questionnaire and unstructured interview from the vicinity people and identifies
few problems in that area such as: indoor and outdoor pollution, electricity deficiency, absence of gas etc.
Considering these problems, this research results in various possible solutions such as passive design
techniques (such as: orientation w.r.t sun and wind, placement and size of windows), energy efficient
techniques (such as: wind catcher, vegetation, green roof, and shedding device etc.) and energy efficient
system (such as: biogas by biomass process and solar system for electricity and water treatment).

2. Literature Review

A Bio-climatic House principles are based upon quality, natural comfort and energy efficiency. Bio-
climatic Houses also require the concept of renewable energy to achieve inhabitants comfort. While
delivering superior levels of comfort, the Bio-climatic house standard (such as building fabric to create a
comfortable internal environment, air flow across ponds to create natural cooling, orienting rooms in
different directions, optimizing use of the sun etc.) also protects the building structure [9].

2.1. Design Strategy

Design strategy is a policy for building which help to determine what the techniques can be used to make
building more comfortable and how these techniques will be applied. This process involves the
relationship between design and business strategies. Design strategies include form and placement of
building, thermal control, even lighting, cross ventilation, vegetation, selection of building materials. A.
C. Gallo (1994) researched that the underground wind catcher can be used in houses allowing the hot
scorching days to remain cool and cool nights to remain warm [10]. D. L. Zr and S. Mochtara (2013)
conducted the research in a tropical region of Jakarta and concluded that bioclimatic architecture like the
passive design strategies include orientation, window openings, sun shades, landscaping, ventilation etc.
is really beneficial for a sustainable design, to decrease energy consumption cost [11].

2.2. Climatic Factor

A host of interacting factors i.e. latitude, geography, elevation, nearby water, topography, ocean currents,
landscaping, and prevailing winds influences the climate of any particular place. M. K. Singh et al (2007)
studied North East region of India. The research is based on the bioclimatic classification of north east
India. Its regions are classified into cool and humid, warm and humid and cold and cloudy zones. These
classifications really help designers to design a good and sustainable building according to the need of
climate. These classifications are not merely some simple job, they are achieved by 30 years of research
and recordings, different bio charts and further studies. Many meteorological centres are spread all over
the region to conduct the studies, surveys and other observations so that every climatic zone would be

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designed according to its bio climatic features and according to proper solar and passive design mainly
regarding residential houses [12]. N. Mazhar et al (2015) compared microclimatic characteristics (air,
temperature and humidity) of two outdoor places of Lahore, Shalimar garden (green infrastructure) and
Alhambra art centre (hard surface courtyard) and concluded that vegetation have great potential to cool
outdoor spaces by shading and by evapotranspiration [13].

2.3. Energy Efficiency

The goal to reduce the amount of energy required to provide products and services is called energy
efficiency. For example home insulation makes a building consume less heating and cooling energy for a
comfortable temperature. The amount of energy required to attain the same level is reduced by natural
skylights. By adopting a more efficient technology, improvements in energy efficiency are achieved.
M. Medrano et al (2008) studied a new energy efficient institutional building (CREA). It is equipped with
many energy systems and passive measures such as solar arrays, thermal collectors, combustion engine
and chillers. Also the author concluded that natural CO2 is used to save energy and all these facilities lead
to a better energy saving building [14].

2.4. Thermal Insulation

By preventing heat gain/loss through the building envelope is an important technique to reduce energy
consumption in buildings. N. Gaitani et al (2005) studied bioclimatic principles for increasing the thermal
comfort for an outdoor space. For this purpose the author studied of two key points ‘comfa’ and ‘thermal
sensation’ which was carried out to calculate the thermal conditions of Athens. The study stated that the
bioclimatic design principles are for the better thermal comfort provision and the author figured out
various means of architectural considerations too, such as constructional materials, water bodies and
greenery infusion in the design [15].
F. M. Agugliaro et al (2015) focused on the strategies of bioclimatic architecture used in different
climatic zones to achieve maximum reduction in energy consumption. The author concluded areas with
similar climates could import certain bioclimatic architecture strategies that have been adopted in specific
countries similar to them. The strategies were proven to be efficient and provided large energy saving
measures related to solar protection, humidification or temperature increases [16].

3. Research Methodology

The research is started by identifying various problems (such as: thermal discomfort, unhealthy living
conditions, weighing in energy bills etc.) in locality of Mirpurkhas, Sindh, Pakistan. Researcher
discussed different problems of Pakistan related to energy crisis and thermal discomfort issues in
residential buildings especially in rural areas. To reduce energy consumption for thermal comfort in
residential building some techniques are addressed for varied seasons in this research. For this research a
rural area of Mirpurkhas Pakistan is selected. The rural area is examined for more data such as their
housing and living condition, energy crisis etc. A questionnaire survey is conducted within the vicinity
people to examine the problems of rural area. The research suggests different passive design techniques
which are used to orientate the building. Some energy efficient techniques are also suggested to gain
more comfort and reduce pollution such as wind catcher (to achieve cool air in covered spaces),
vegetation (for air filtration) and windows and their shading device with proper measurement (size,
shape, placement and projections).

4. Result

After extensive research, studies and surveys, the author examined various problems in the rural area of
Mirpurkhas such as; electricity scarcity, gas supply absence, environmental pollution and thermal
discomfort. This research suggest the possible and efficient solutions which includes:

4.1. Passive Design Strategies

The passive design strategies which are used in research are:

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4.1.1. Orientation

Orientation of building according to sun and wind i.e. drawing and dining room are placed in NE,
veranda and courtyard placed in South side to reduce heat intensity. Kitchen and biogas plant are placed
in North side opposite to wind direction so that the smoke of kitchen and smell of biogas plant may not
be disturb other rooms. Study room and staircase are placed in North side for maximum north light as
shown in fig. 1.

4.1.2. Wind Catchers

Another passive technique which are wind catchers, used to ensure the carriage of cool wind in hot day
time (as shown in fig. 2) for the covered areas to provide thermal comfort.

4.2. Energy Efficient System

To reduce energy consumption author suggests an off grid solar system (100% run on sun light) is
installed on the roof of house which generate electricity (as shown in fig. 3) on natural basis. This system
fulfilled the electricity need of house without use of WAPDA electricity and a biogas plant which will
produce gas through the utilization of dung (as shown in fig. 4). This gas is used for two purpose, one is
for cooking and second one is electricity.

4.3. Vegetation

The environmental pollution could be tackled by the vegetation (greenery) which would cool and filter
the polluted air (as shown in fig. 5) and make it healthy to breathe.

Fig. 1. Bubble Diagram of orientation

Fig. 2 Wind Catcher for cool air Fig. 3 Off Grid Solar System

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Fig. 4.Dung Utilization through Biogas Plant Fig. 5. Vegetation for Air Filtration

5. Conclusion

The rapid growth of today’s industrial world and increasing population demands for great amount of
energy which infect can be a cause of energy crisis in any country. The consequences are faced but rural
area suffers in majority put their living comfort in danger. For this purpose the author identifies various
problems of vicinity such as gas, electricity, thermal discomfort in the houses. The author after
examination suggested the best way to conquered these problems through the bioclimatic architecture
which itself is the promoter of nature and nature friendly ways. The research suggest various passive
design techniques (such as: orientation w.r.t sun and wind, placement and size of windows), energy
efficient techniques (such as: wind catcher, vegetation, green roof, and shedding device etc.) and energy
efficient system (such as: biogas by biomass process and solar system for electricity and water
treatment). Nature has always been the best remedy to every problem and the concept of bioclimatic
architecture prove to be the best and efficient solution to the problems faced by the rural area selected by
the author.

Acknowledgement

Firstly the author would like to express her heartiest gratitude towards ALLAH ALMIGHTY, without
His help certainly nothing is possible. Author would also like to thanks all the respected teachers and two
precious friends ZURIYA JAWAID and SANA NASEER for their help during research. The author is
thankful to DR. ASHFAQUE AHMED PATHAN for his continues guidance during the work.

References

[1] Hopkins. R, “A Natural Way of Building”. Transition Culture. [2002], Retrieved: 2007-03-30.
[2] J. Doyne & F. Lafond, "How predictable is technological progress". doi:10.1016/j.respol.2015.11.001. License: cc.
Note: Appendix F. A trend extrapolation of solar energy capacity [2015].
[3] Business Insider, "90% of People Live In the Northern Hemisphere - Business Insider". 4 May 2012. Retrieved 10
November 2015.
[4] Bauer & Michael. Green Building. Guide Book for Sustainable Architecture, Springer, Berlin [2007].
[5] Ferrante A & Mihalakakou G. The influence of water, green and selected passive techniques on the rehabilitation of
historical industrial buildings in urban areas. Solar Energy 2001; 70:245–53.
[6] M.K. Singh, “Development of Design Guidelines for Energy Efficient Buildings in North Eastern Region”, M. Tech.
Thesis, Department of Energy, Tezpur University, India, 2004.
[7] http://forexmirpurkhas.blogspot.com/2010/10/geography.html
[8] V. Valerie Et al. "The use of economic valuation to create public support for green infrastructure investments in urban
areas". Landscape and Urban Planning 103 [2011].
[9] A. C. Gallo, “ENEA”, Viale Regina Margherita 125, 00198. Rome, Italy [1994].
[10] D. L. Zr. “Application of bioclimatic parameter as sustainability approach on multi-story building design in tropical
area”, The 3rd International Conference on Sustainable Future for Human Security SUSTAIN 2012. [2013].
[11] M. K. Singh Et al. “Development of bio-climatic zones in north-east India”. Received 26 September 2006; received in
revised form 9 January 2007; accepted 22 January 2007.
[12] N. Mazhar Et al. “Thermal comfort of outdoor spaces in Lahore, Pakistan: Lessons for bioclimatic urban design in the

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context of global climate change”, Landscape and Urban Planning [2015].

[13] M. Medrano Et al. “Economics and climate change emissions analysis of a bioclimatic institutional building with tri-
generation and solar support”. Received 1 August 2006; accepted 28 December 2007 Available online 12 January 2008.
[14] N. Gaitani Et al. “On the use of bioclimatic architecture principles in order to improve thermal comfort conditions in
outdoor spaces”. Received 29 April 2005; received in revised form 26 July 2005; accepted 18 August 2005.
[15] F. M. Agugliaro Et al. “Review of bioclimatic architecture strategies for achieving thermal comfort”. Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews ,2015.

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Design and Analysis of cross flow impulse turbine for water stream
near Trapi village KPK Pakistan.
Muhammad Umer Farooqa, Dr.Saeed Badshahb, Muhammad Imanc,Abdu Rafaid Dr. Ather
Masoode
International Islamic University, Islamabad
1
muhammad.umer@iiu.edu.pk, 2saeed.badshah@iiu.edu.pk, 3muhammad.imran@iiu.edu.pk, 4abdur.rafai@iiu.edu.pk, 5athar.masood@iiu.edu.pk

Abstract

Pakistan is investing handsome amount in favor of setting up and evaluating the hydropower and hydro potential sites
in Pakistan. This study is useful in calculating different selected turbine related parameters, their mutual relations and
constraints effected by flow rate and head. The project can be beneficial and may be used as a reference for fabrication
of a cross flow impulse turbine for energy generation on small scale.

© 2016 “Muhammad Umer Farooqa, Dr. Ather Masoodb, Muhammad Imanc,Abdu Rafaid” Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of
Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: Head, Flow rate, Analyses, modeling.

1. Introduction

This article is about our work oriented to design and analysis of cross flow water turbine from the rural site of a seasonal
spring at Trapi village situated about 160 km(s) from the capital Islamabad, Pakistan. Such turbine are applicable where
there is very low head and flow rates are available. This turbine is also used for domestic purposes where there is no
supply of electricity epically in mountain region i.e. remote areas. We have edge over fabrication of turbine due to
simple geometry and it is performance is not too much dimensions sensitive. The article is based on designing an impulse
water turbine and its feasibility. The core work of this project is based on design, model and analyses of cross flow
Impulse water turbine. This article intends to explore and optimize energy generation the hydro potential sits of Pakistan
to contribute countering the energy crises of the state

1.1 Cross flow Turbine: The Cross flow turbine comprises of a rotor like wise to a drum with a solid disk at each
end and joining the two side disks [1]. A jet of water enters with a certain velocity the top of the rotor glides through
the curved blades, flushes out on from far bottom end of the rotor by passing through the blades. The shape of the
blades is fabricated in such a way that on each passage between the periphery of the rotor the Water transfers some
of its momentum and force, before falling away with little residual energy [2].
1.1.1 Runner: Runner blades are manufactured from pipe sections and these are also fabricated or milled. Blades are
connected by two discs called side discs on the shaft. If mass of turbine exceeds, bracing is sublimated to discs if
required depending on the stress conditions and calculations. The shaft runs through the runner as one piece. The
optimal running speed of the turbine is depends on the optimal running speed of the generator. If generator speed
is estimated to be 1500 rpm the turbine is to be drags to have an optimal running speed up to at least 750 rpm [3].
The running speed may be increased by reducing the runner turbine diameter or increasing the head if available.
Decreasing the diameter will increase the complexity of manufacture and cost so the running speed may be kept
slightly less than 750 rpm [3].
1.1.2 Draft Tube: The draft tube is key module for manipulating the difference between runner and downstream

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water level. During the turbine Operation the air cavitation in the casing is injected in flushed out along with
the water. Thus a vacuum is formed. With respect to exterior atmospheric pressure there is increment in suction
column. And to counter this a provision is mounted which is a simple venting valve which is free of friction
and the sole purpose of it controls the vacuum in the turbine casing to stabilize the energy potential.
1.1.3 Nozzle: The nozzle is the component with rectangular cross section area, discharges the water which
impinges entire width of the turbine and usually enters the wheel at an angle of 16o w.r.t. tangential direction
of the periphery of the rotating drum. The rectangular shaped jet is wide, and not too much deep. The water
impinges on the blades mounted on the rim of the wheel, flows and glide over the turbine blade and leaves
it, passing through the empty space between the middle parts of rim, enters the blade at lower side inner side
of the rim, and discharges from the outer rim periphery. A variable area of nozzle is required for the alteration
of jet thickness. That is the reason the optimal jet thickness could not be determined without experiment. This
shall be done with a variable guide vane which has person to be locked into place with a basic ratchet system.

Characteristics of Cross Flow Turbines [4]:

• Cross flow runners have a definite operating ‘range’ transitionally between Propeller and Pelton of turbine
types.
• Running at speeds calculated by the head they are operating (between 300 to 1500rpm).
• The head at which the cross flows is the best choice (with manageable operating speeds of between 500 to
1,000rpm)
• The turbine uses the head about 5-6 meters at minimum power (1-10kW) but up to 100 meters head can be
suitable for higher powers up to 500 kW.
• This turbine have a speed as low as 300rpm for a runner operating at a low head and as high as 1,500rpm for
medium range and small runner operating at high head.
2. Technical Terminology:

Some technical terminologies which are use are as follows [5]:

Pitch circle Diameter of runner= Dp

Outer Diameter of Runner = Do

Root Circle Diameter of Runner = Dr

Shaft diameter of Runner = d

Figure 1 Parts of turbine runner [2].

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Pitch circle Diameter of runner [6] The diameter of turbine runner from which the radius or curvature of blade is
drawn.

Outer Diameter of Runner [6] It specifies that diameter of Runner at which turbine Blade intersects the side metal
plates on the inner rim.

Root Circle Diameter of Runner: It is the Maximum Diameter of Turbine Runner, at which the Blade intersects the
side Plate at the outermost edge [6].

Shaft diameter of Runner: The Shaft passes through the runner. The Diameter of Shaft depends upon the maximum
or outer diameter of the turbine runner [6].

The velocity triangle: The blades of turbine under goes from the following forces and fluid shows the following
velocity behavior. All paths are shown diagrammatically forming triangles known as velocity triangles.

Figure 2 Velocity Diagram for Cross Flow Turbine [7]

Cross flow blade profile:

The curve of the blade must be chosen from a circle whose center lies at the intersection of two perpendiculars,
to the direction of relative velocity at and the other to the tangent to the inner periphery intersecting at.

Formulas used:
The calculation starts first by calculating net head. Other formulas used for carrying out various turbine
parameters are following afterward:
A. Calculation of the net head:
This includes the calculations and measuring the net head of the hydro-power plant and its water flow rate [8].

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Hn = Hg – Htl (m)
Where Hg = the gross head which was the vertical distance between water surface level at the intake and at
the turbine. Htl = total head losses due to the open channel, trash rack, intake, penstock and gate or value.
These considered losses equivalent to 6% of gross head.
B. Calculation of the water flow rate (Q):
The water flow rate can be calculated by measuring river or stream flow velocity (Vr) and river cross-sectional
area (Ar), then:
Q = Vr x Ar (m3/s)
C. Relation of power produced by Turbine (Pt):
In terms of wattage the electrical can be calculated as:
Pt

D. Relation for turbine efficiency (ηt):

The maximum turbine efficiency can be calculated as:
Ƞ = 12×#2×(1+&)×'()2*
E. Relation for the turbine speed (N):
The Turbine speed can be calculated with the formula below:
N = 513.25×./0.745√23 (r.p.m)
F. Calculation of runner outer diameter (Do):
The outer diameter of runner can be calculated using the following formula:
Do = 40×./4 (m)
G. Calculation of blade spacing (tb):
The tangential blade spacing can be calculated using the below formulae
tb = 0.147× Do
The tangential spacing (tb) is given as:
tb = 35)6/71 = 8×9()6/71
Where β1 = blade inlet angle = 30° when α = 16°.
H. Calculation of the radial rim width (a):
It is the difference between the outer radius (ro) and inner radius (ri) of the turbine runner, so it is equal to
the blade spacing and can be given as:
A = 0.174×Do (m)
I. Relation for the runner blade number calculation (n):
The number of the runner blades can be determined as
n = π× Do3;
J. relation for calculating water jet thickness (tj):
It is also defined as nozzle width and can be calculated as
3<=0.233×>?×√./ (
K. Relation to determine Runner Length (L):
The runner length in meters can be calculated as:
L = >×450×√./ (m)
Calculation of the distance between the water jet and the center of the runner (Y1):

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Y1 = 0.116 × Do
L. Calculation of the distance between water jet and the inner periphery of runner (Y2) [9]:
Y2 = 0.05 × Do
M. Calculation of inner diameter of runner (Di):
Di = Do - 2× a
N. Calculation of blade radius of curvature (rc):
rc = 0.163 × Do
O. Calculation of blade inlet angle (β1):
Tanβ1 = 2× tanα
P. Calculation of the blade exit angle (β2):
The blade exit angle should be of β2 = 90˚
Q. Calculation of Diameter of shaft (dshaft):
The shaft diameter can be calculated by the formula as under.
dshaft = 0.22 × Do
R. Calculation of Absolute Velocity of water (V1):
The absolute velocity can be calculated by the formula as follows.
V1 = c √2@./

Where “C” is the roughness coefficient of nozzle.

Site perimeters and constants values:

Symbolic
S.no. Perimeter Quantity Units (S.I.)
Representation
1 Net Head Hn 9 Meter(s)
2 Flow rate Q 1.3 m3/sec

Constant Values:

S.no. Symbolic Constant quantity Quantity

Perimeter
Representation
1 Blade roughness coefficient ψ 0.98(unitless quantity)
2 Nozzle roughness coefficient C 0.98(unitless quantity)

Derived values of turbine from reference site values using formulae:

Symbolic
S.no. Perimeter Quantity Units (S.I.)
Representation
1 Turbine power Pt 100.47 watts
2 Efficiency Ƞt 87.8 percentage
3 Turbine speed N 263.15 R.P.M.
4 Specific turbine speed Ns 32.92 R.P.M.
5 Runner outer diameter Do 0.45 meters
6 Blade spacing tb 0.0783 meters
7 Thickness of jet entrance te 0.03915 meters
8 Radial rim width a 0.783 meters
9 Number of blades n 18 meters
10 Water jet thickness tj 0.1305 meters
11 Runner length L 0.76 meters
12 Distance b/w water jet and shaft center Y1 0.0522 meters
13 Distance b/w water jet & periphery of runner Y2 0.0225 meters
14 Inner diameter of runner Di 0.2934 meters
15 Radius of curvature of blade ri 0.07335 meters
16 Water inlet angle Β1 30˚ degrees

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17 Water exit angle Β2 90˚ degrees
18 Angle of attack α 16˚ degrees
19 Diameter of runner shaft dshft 0.099 meters
20 Absolute velocity of water V1 13.02 cubic meter/sec
Degrees/minuts/
21 Centre angle of Blade δ 73˚52’7.06”
seconds

Modeling of Cross flow Turbine

The software used for modeling is Autodesk AutoCAD which is drafting and modeling computer application. The
version used here is Autodesk AutoCAD 2012.
Starting from the scratch
The modeling is simple first I have created a 2d profile of turbine pictorially demonstrated below. Runner
outer and inner periphery circles and middle circle equivalent to shaft diameter.

Figurer-3 Start of 2D sketching

Blade Profiling:
Formation of Blade with the help of angles derived through previously mentioned formulas

.
Figure -4 Drafting of blade profile

Blade Profile insertion in runner profile:

The blade profile is inserted in the runner profile with the help of move command

Figure -5 Placement of blade profile.

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Blade array generation on runner periphery:

Figure-6 Usin array command.

Extruding and export:

Figure-7 Extruding the blades and sidediscs.

Extruded, trimmed, moved and thicken command are used and transformed the 2d image to 3d and finalize the
modeling. The finished model is exported in IGES format to in order to import it to analyses software.
Casing Modeling:
Casing modeling is done in the same way as the runner.

Figure -8 A view of entire assembly.

Analyses of cross flow turbine

Import
The software package used here is ansys 16.1 version. The IGES generated by AutoCAD is imported in Ansys.

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Figure -9 Import of geometry using IGES

Casing Stress Analyses

Material Selection:
Steel is used as the material for casing and turbine
Meshing
The mesh is generated in the ANSYS workbench mesh module. Unstructured mesh with tetrahedral
elements is created. Total number of elements created are 236255.

Figure -10 Mesh view of turbine casing

.
Figure -11 Total nodes and elements.

Boundary Conditions:
Pressure
P = ρgh

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Where p is the pressure, ρ is the density, g is the gravitational constant with value = 9.81 m/sec2. h is the height of the
water column above the turbine.
Using the following values for our calculations
ρ= 1000 kg/m3
g= 9.81 m/s2
h= 9 m
The pressure comes out to be = 8.86 e 4 pa
Constraint Boundary condition:
The turbine casing is constrained by applying fixed supports at the top and bottom ends as shown below

Figure - 12 Supported and pressure applied surfaces.

Results:
The stress analysis of the casing gave the results pressure in Figure above Von mises stress failure criteria is used
which is presented below.
The deformation, stress, strain and factor of safety contours are presented below.
The maximum deformation is seen to be in the middle of upper part of casing and is equal to 0.82mm. Stress induced
due to applied pressure in the casing is approx. = 98.9 Mpa and is present near the top fixed constrained condition. The
corresponding strain induced due to applied pressure in the casing is approx. = 0.000585 Nm/m and is also present
near the top fixed constrained condition.
ABCDE FGHCFF
Factor of safety => n =
IGHCFF BJEKLCE EKC GM DMNEBJO
Yield stress = 250 Mpa
Stress induced in the casing due to loading = 98.9
PQR
n= = 2.527
ST.S
The factor of safety shows that our casing under the applied loading is safe and is below the failure limit. However, In
order to further reduce the deformation, stress and strain we can reinforce our casing by applying ribs in the center of
the upper part of casing as shown in the figure

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Figure -13 Casing total Deformation.

Figure -14 Casing equivalent Stress.

Figure -15 Casing equivalent elastic strain.

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Figure -16 Casing factor of safety.

Runner Stress Analyses

Geometry Import:
Below is the view of imported geometry of runner from AutoCAD.

Figure Error! No text of specified style in document.-37 Runner IGES import.

Results: The runner has eighteen blades equidistant mounted on the side discs. The assigned fixed supports are the
interfacing areas between the shaft and side disc. The shaft is suppressed from analyses due to computing power
issues.

.
Figure -18 Turbine equivalent stress

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Figure -19 Turbine total deformation

Figure -20 FOS for runner

Conclusion:
Pakistan is investing the hand some amount in favor of exploration and installation of hydropower plants. Our objective
(proposal problem statement) was to design and analyses the turbine for the hydro potential sit and its feasibility study.
We take a site (seasonal stream) at the location named Trappi which is about 155 kilometers from capital Islamabad in
KPK province. The turbine can be designed as per the perimeters the head and flow rate available on site. The turbine
can be operated at very low head and flow rate. It can also installed on domestic level also. The turbine is ideal for the
home cottage industry especially in current power crises of the country. One of the novel idea is to build a small reservoir
of water in which water is collected all day and during night by running the power plant we power up the street lamps
of nearby highway in peak hours(for e.g. motorway interchange, road crossing traffic signals etc.)
We designed the turbine, analyzed it and we can also fabricate it locally. It seems a little mile stone but through
implementation of further more number of these projects we cope with the energy crises. The most important fact is that
the hydro power is the cheapest of all other resources and fossil fuels should kept secondary option because of huge cost
and to reduce environmental hazards (Ozone depletion, greenhouse effect and pollution).
We have also fitted the casing with rib supports by which we counter deformation and drag the factor of safety further
towards the safe side.
Cross flow turbine power plants are much feasible because Pakistan has countless sits especially in the Pohotwar platue
region, Baluchistan and KPK areas due to the presence of glaciers in northern areas, which melts during the summer
and at lower stream (Pohotwar platue, Baluchistan and KPK areas) if these plants are installed contributes a lot in power
short falls of state.

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References:

1. Knowles, M., I. Burdon, and B. Beith, Micro Energy Systems: Review of Technology, Issues of Scale and Integration. 2004: John
Wiley & Sons.
2. Paish, O., Small hydro power: technology and current status. Renewable and sustainable energy reviews, 2002. 6(6): p. 537-556.
3. Buchelt, B., Water turbine. 1985, Google Patents.
4. Durgin, W. and W. Fay, Some fluid flow characteristics of a cross-flow type hydraulic turbine. Small Hydro Power Fluid
Machinery, 1984: p. p7783.
5. Zidonis, A. and G. Aggidis, Pelton turbine: identifying the optimum number of buckets using CFD. Journal of Hydrodynamics,
2015.
6. Nakase, Y., et al. A study of cross-flow turbine (effects of nozzle shape on its performance). in Proceedings of the Winter Annual
Meeting ASME, Phoenix, AZ, USA. 1982.
7. Khosrowpanah, S., A. Fiuzat, and M.L. Albertson, Experimental study of cross-flow turbine. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering,
1988. 114(3): p. 299-314.
8. Nasir, B.A., Design of high efficiency cross-flow turbine for hydro-power plant. International Journal of Engineering and Advanced
Technology (IJEAT) ISSN, 2013: p. 2249-8958.
9. Chattha, J.A., et al. Design of a cross flow turbine for a micro-hydro power application. in ASME 2010 Power Conference. 2010.
American Society of Mechanical Engineers.
10. Imran, M., Pre-stress and Free Vibration Optimization of Composite Ocean Current Turbine Blade. International Journal of
Science, Engineering and Innovative Research, 2015. 3: p. 1-5.
11. Bhutto, A.W., A.A. Bazmi, and G. Zahedi, Greener energy: Issues and challenges for Pakistan-hydel power prospective.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2012. 16(5): p. 2732-2746

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131. Parametric Study of Three Blade Vertical Axis Micro

Hydro Turbines (VAMHT) by changing Blade
Characteristics
Intizar Alia, Dr. Tanweer Hussainb,*, Hosh Muhammadc,Dr. Saad Sami Al Khfajid
a
Teaching Assistant Dept.of Mechanical Engineering Mehran UET Jamshoro, Pakistan
b
Associate Professor Dept.of Mechanical Engineering Mehran UET Jamshoro, Pakistan
c
Masters studuent Dept.of Mechanical Engineering Mehran UET Jamshoro, Pakistan
d
HoD of Dept of Foreign Academic Degrees Assessment Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research Bhagdad Iraq
*Email Address: tanweer.hussain@faculty.muet.edu.pk

Abstract

As the concerns about rising fossil-fuel prices, energy security and climate-change increase, hydrokinetic
power plays a vital role in producing local, clean and inexhaustible energy to supply world rising demand
for electricity. But in order to obtain optimum power output from hydropower efficiency of system
components is highly important. Therefore in this research parametric study of Vertical axis Micro
Hydrokinetic Turbine (VAMHT) is carried out in FLUENT to analyze effect of pitch angle and blade
profile on turbine performance. Different models were developed in gambit software at pitch angle of 0o,
5o and 10o for two different airfoils of NACA0015 and NACA0020. Simulation is done to solve
Reynolds-Averaged Navies-Stokes (RANS) equations through finite volume method on unstructured
mesh. Study uses k − ω SST turbulence model to predict the values of various performance parameters
such as torque, lift, drag as well as pressure and velocity contours near turbine blades. Parametric study
reveals that maximum torque is obtained at 0 degree pitch angle and increase in pitch angle results
decrease in torque produced. Study also found that blade profile NACA0020 have better performance
than NACA0015.

© 2016 "Intizar Ali,Dr. Tanweer Hussain, Hosh Muhammad & Dr. Saad Sami Al Khfaji" Selection and/or peer-review under
responsibility of Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and
Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: Pitch angle; Run-of-the-river (ROR)

1. Introduction

Rising energy demand increasing global warming and depleting fossil fuels have given great thrust for
rapid development of renewable energy extraction. Out of the all renewable energy resources
hydroelectric power is one intensive source to extract energy at the large quantity. In addition to that it
was investigated that it provides power at very low cost in comparison of other energy resources like
nuclear, thermal, wind as well as solar power [1-5]. From last few years most of the developing countries
are putting their efforts to enhance hydro power extraction to lessen the threat to carbon emission.
Specially for producing electrical energy hydropower is one of the favorable regulatory power sources
that is easily control as well as adjust gates of dams. Hydropower regulation performances are
comparable with plants burning coal and petroleum products. For the prosperity and development of any
country it has become mandatory to produce clean, cost efficient and sufficient power.

Pakistan is a country having abundant hydropower resources with potential of about 41000 to
45000MW[6]. Whereas Pakistan is producing 6555MW power from hydropower resources which only
accounts for 34% of their energy supply. As still there is lot of potential for hydropower which has to be
harnessed. In generally there are three hydro-power producing techniques such as Conventional dams,
Run-of-the-river (ROR) and Pumped-storage hydroelectricity (PSH). But, all the three hydropower
techniques requires high capital cost, complex structure, more negative effects on environment and is
highly whether dependent[7-9].Therefore in order to meet rising energy demand, lot of research isgoing
on micro-hydro power technologies but still they are at developing stages. Since at present Pakistan is

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under high energy crises due to various financial and technological issues. Hence this research is
conducted to enhance efficiency of well-known Darrieus turbine which is relative simple, requires low
maintenance cost, easily manufactured as well as can be installed in existing irrigation channels and
canals. This type of power generation system does not require drive system and can be used to produce
clean, local electricity for remote areas as well as rural electrification purpose up to few hundred
kilowatts[10]. Since other micro hydro power techniques require some catchment for waters storage and
to produce water head, if water level changes rate of flow would be affected. For those cases if water
level can be estimated then power generation capacity can be estimated [11-13]. But VAMHT power
producing characteristics are very different from those turbines which generate power by exploiting
potential energy of water. These turbines produce power by utilizing kinetic energy of flowing water
without creating any interruption in flow. These turbines don’t require so much civil structure and can be
easily removed during or for maintenance purpose. Hydrokinetic power is generally believed to be zero-
head power but still its share to share to world total energy demand is still very less. Few years ago
hydrokinetic power have got importance to harness it. However from literature Vertical axis micro-hydro
turbine uses basic structure of wind turbine to extract energy from water. Three straight blade H-
Darrieus turbine has got extreme importance in wind power generation. Few years ago in 80s and 90s
several turbine models was developed by using double and multiple stream tubes to predict performance
of these turbines[14-19]. Sometime later number of wind tunnel experiments was carried out to analyze
effect of Tip speed ratio (TSRs) on turbine performance at low wind speed. Their researches enhanced
turbine efficiency [20-23]. During 1974 in response to energy crises American government decide to
launch research on alternative energy resources including research on wind turbines. At the same time in
a group of researchers at Sandia National Laboratory in Albuquerque at New Mexico conducted various
experiments on wind tunnel as well as on full models scale. From their models one turbine reaches to
40% efficiency which is very near to horizontal axis wind turbines that is 45% [24].Recently research
was conducted on high solidity and low TSR Darrieus turbines through various wind tunnel or water
channel experiments but their experiments results showed to have a lower measured efficiency 25 to
30%[22, 23]. From extensive literature review it is concluded that lot of research is being conducted on
Darrieus turbine by considering effect of solidity, tip speed ratio and number of blades etc. for
considering it as wind turbine. However very less research were conducted on Darrieus turbine for using
it as hydro turbines and still there is lot research needs to analyze as well as to optimize turbine
performance by using water as working fluid. Therefore this research mainly focuses on parametric study
of Darrieus turbine on the bases of hydropower production. This research seeks to explore
• Effect of blade pitch angle on its torque performance
• Blade profile effect on turbine efficiency
• Visualization of Flow behaviour in the vicinity of turbine at various pitch angles.

2. Micro-turbine concept

The turbine exploited in this research basically produce power in same way that of wind turbines. In
these types of turbine at the first instant wind energy is converted into mechanical energy through than
that energy would be converted into electrical energy though generator. These turbines exploit kinetic
energy of moving water rather than potential energy.
Simple construction and installation, which were the perceived benefits of using micro-hydro turbines in
this study, allow micro-hydro turbines to be installed in any type of canal or irrigation channel without
affecting the water flow. Micro-hydro turbines can exist individually in electrical power supplies.
Available water power can be calculated by using an equation.
1
Pw = ρ AU ∞3 (1)
2

Where ρ , A and U ∞ represents density of water (Kg/m3), swept area of turbine (m2) and free stream
velocity of flowing fluid in (m/s). The equation (2) is used to determine output power at the end of
generator after encountering the turbine performance, generator and bearing efficiency.

1
P=K ρ AU ∞3 (2)
2

K = C pηbη g (3)

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C p = turbine power coefficient

η b = Bearing efficiency
η g = Generator Efficiency
Turbine power coefficient is the ratio of generated power to available water power and can be calculated
by equation
Tω
Cp =
1
ρ AU ∞3 (4)
2

As this research uses torque optimization for that torque coefficient corresponding to turbine radius can
determined through following formula.

T
Cm =
1
ρ AU ∞2 R
2 (5)

Another important design parameter is the tip speed ratio of turbine that can be calculated if angular

velocity, radius as well as free stream velocity of flowing stream fluid is known
ωR Cp
λ= =
U∞ Cm (6)

3. Numerical Simulation

3.1. Turbine Modelling and Gird generation

In this research Darrieus turbine is selected because it is simple, easy to manufacture and requires less
maintenance. The turbine size is kept in such a way that it can be installed in existing canals as well as in
irrigation channels. Three bladed vertical axis turbines are designed with two different airfoils and at
three different pitch angles. All the three blades are connected with central axis through arms in the
turbines. Fig. 1 shows the turbine designed at 0o pitch angle and its specification is given in table#1.Three
dimensional model of turbine is imported and fluid domain of appropriate size is generated in order to
predict realist behaviour of flow around turbine as well as get accurate turbine performance. The gird
generation is next most important step in Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) analysis of turbine. For
that solid turbine model is subtracted from flow domain and processed for mesh generation. Mesh is
generated in ANSYS ICEM where fine size tetrahedral mesh elements are used to generate large number
of control volumes. Unstructured mesh is generated through patch conforming algorithm to get finer
mesh in areas of interest.

Table 1. Geometric details of micro Hydrokinetic turbine

Geometry of turbine Dimensions
Blade pitch angles O
Blade length 1.5m
Turbine diameter 1.5m
Number of blades 3
Blade chord length 0.15m

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(a) (b)

Fig. 1. (a) Three dimensional geometry of turbine (b) Meshing of turbine

3.2. Governing Equation & Turbulence Modeling

The fluid flow governing equations includes the conservation of mass, momentum as well as energy.
Equations derived by using these principles are generally complex Partial Differential equations (PDE)
which encounters small-scale fluctuation occurs in flow which make them even more difficult to solve
analytically. In order to simplify those equations Reynolds averaging technique is applied. Here
Reynolds average Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations along with turbulence models are numerically solved
by using FLUENT. According to Reynolds averaging rule the solution variables in exact Navier-Stokes
(NS) equations are decomposed in time averaged and fluctuating parts. By using averaging velocity of
fluid in X-direction is

ui = ui + ui′

Where ui and u i′ are average and fluctuating parts of velocity respectively. Following equations are
obtaining by substituting all the flow variables by time averaged components in exact continuity and
momentum equations results following equations.

∂
( ui ) = 0
∂xi (7)

∂ ∂p ∂   ∂ui ∂u j  ∂
∂x j
( ρ u i u j ) =
∂ xi
+  µ 
∂ x j   ∂ x j
+
∂xi
  +
∂
( − ρ u i′u ′j )
  x j
(8)

The equations 1 and two are known as Reynolds average Navier-Stokes equations. Additional terms in
above equation are encountering the effect of turbulences. The last term − ρ ui′u ′j ( ) in equation 2 is
called Reynolds stresses. Reynolds stress ( − ρu′u′ ) terms should be modelled by selecting appropriate
i j

turbulence model to get accurate results [25]. To select best turbulence model various researches are
conducted which come know that k − ω model provides good results then k − ε model for near wall
problems [26-28]. Though k − ω model is better but its great sensitivity for the ω values near ir-
rotational boundaries creates problem in case of shear flows. But this problem was solved by Menter’s
k − ω SST model which combines merits of k − ω and k − ε model for near the wall and away from
wall flows[29, 30]. The Shear Stress Transport (SST) model proved to be very helpful for encountering
the effects in boundary layer and flow separation regions and also number of researches proved that
k − ω SST turbulence model highly suitable for vertical axis turbine simulation[31-35], transport
equations of k − ω SST model are[36].

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∂ ( ρ k ) ∂ ( ρ kui ) ∂ ∂k
+ = (Γ k ) + G% k − Y k + S k
∂t ∂ xi ∂x j ∂x j
(9)

∂ ( ρω ) ∂ ( ρωui ) ∂ ∂ω
+ = ( Γω ) + G%ω − Yω + Dω + Sω
∂t ∂xi ∂x j ∂x j
(10)

4. Computational Method/methodology

This study presents a novel numerical method of predicting turbine performance for unknown tip speed
ratio. From the literature it was found that numbers of simulations are performed by assuming tip speed
ratio. In this research numerical simulation of H- Darrieus hydrokinetic turbine is carried out in which
turbine is assumed to stationary and torque due to force of flowing fluid is determined and optimized for
three different pitch angle and different airfoils. CFD analysis is performed on FLUENT to solve
Reynolds average Navier-Stokes (RANS) with turbulence models on unstructured mesh. This study
solves partial differential equations governing fluid flow are generally linearized through implicit scheme
because it converges more quickly than explicit scheme solver [37]. SIMPLE pressure-velocity coupling
solution method is used to compute flow properties. Steady state simulation is performed by using
pressure-based solver because flowing fluid is liquid water which incompressible.

5. Results and discussion

In this research CFD analysis of micro hydro turbine is carried out study effects of various deign
parameters on turbine performance. For that purpose several turbine models are simulated at three
different pitch angles as well as at two different air foils. Results are presented as follow.

5.1. Effect of pitch angle for air foil NACA0015

In order to determine effect of pitch on turbine performance the airfoil NACA0015 is tested for three
different pitch angles such as 0o , 5o and 10o .Static pressure and velocity distributions on near the blades
are shown in Fig 2, and 5 at different pitch angles. From pressure contour it is observed that pressure
increase in front of blade whereas decreases on backside of turbine blade. This causes wake on the
backside of turbine.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2. (a) Pressure variations near Turbine the blades at pitch angle 0 degree (b) Velocity Vector near Turbine blades
at pitch angle 0 degree.

5.2. Effect of pitch angle for air foil NACA0020

In this case air foil NACA0020 is selected to analyse effect of pitch angle for that purpose CFD
simulation of three different pitch angle turbine model is conducted. Pitch angle of 0o, 5o and 10o are
selected to analyse their effect. Static pressure and velocity distributions on near the blades are shown in
Fig 2, and 5 at different pitch angles. From Fig. 6 it is observed that velocity of flowing water decreases
when it comes closer to turbine because its pressure rises near the turbine blade. This decrease in velocity
remains till to the point where fluid regain its kinetic energy.

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(a) (b)
Fig. 3. Illustration of (a) Pressure variations near Turbine the Pressure variations near Turbine the and (b) Pressure
variations near Turbine the at pitch angle 5 degree.

CFD simulation of three blades micro- hydrokinetic turbine also predicted numerical values of different
turbine performance parameters such as torque, lift and drag coefficient. But out of them this research is
more interested in analysing the effect of air foil thickness as well as pitch angle on torque production.
Numerical simulation results reveals that increasing pitch angle from 0 to 10o results decrease in torque
production for both of the airfoils. CFD simulation also reveals that blade profile NACA0020 have better
performance than NACA0015. The comparison of variation in torque produce for two different airfoils at
three different pitch angles given in table 3 and Figure 8.

Table 2. Showing comparative analysis of torque by changing blade pitch angle

Turbine blade pitch angles Torque generated on NACA 0015 Torque generated on NACA 0020
0 degree 220.1 Nm 265.12 Nm
5 degree 212.23 Nm 256.64 Nm
10 degree 190.3 Nm 235.57 Nm

5.3. Comparative Analysis of Torque with Varying Blade Angle

300

250
Torque (Nm)

200
Torque (Nm) for
airfoil NACA0015

150 Torque (Nm) for

airfoil NACA0020

100
0 5 10
Pitch Angle of blade (Degrees)

Fig. 3. Illustration of Comparative Analysis of Torque with Varying Blade Angle and airfoil

6. Conclusion

CFD simulation of Three bladed Vertical Axis Micro hydro Turbine (VAMHT) is carried out in order to
find the analyse the effect of pitch angle and airfoil on torque production. In this study six different
turbine models was developed in gambit and simulated in FLUENT 14.5. Numerical simulation of three
bladed vertical axis micro hydrokinetic turbine simulation results reveals that increasing pitch angle from
0 to 10o results decrease in torque production for both of the airfoils. CFD simulation also reveals that
blade profile NACA0020 have better performance than NACA0015. Through CFD simulation it was
concluded that 0o pitch angle is capable of providing best results and airfoil NACA0020 has better
performance, therefore study suggest that turbine should be designed by keeping 0o pitch angle.

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References
[1] Chacra, F.A., et al., Impact of energy storage costs on economical performance in a distribution substation. IEEE
Transactions on Power Systems, 2005. 20(2): p. 684-691.
[2] Pérez-Díaz, J.I., J.R. Wilhelmi, and L.A. Arévalo, Optimal short-term operation schedule of a hydropower plant in a
competitive electricity market. Energy Conversion and Management, 2010. 51(12): p. 2955-2966.
[3] Santolin, A., et al., Techno-economical method for the capacity sizing of a small hydropower plant. Energy Conversion
and Management, 2011. 52(7): p. 2533-2541.
[4] Shafie-Khah, M., M.P. Moghaddam, and M. Sheikh-El-Eslami, Price forecasting of day-ahead electricity markets using
a hybrid forecast method. Energy Conversion and Management, 2011. 52(5): p. 2165-2169.
[5] Yuan, X., et al., Optimal self-scheduling of hydro producer in the electricity market. Energy Conversion and
Management, 2010. 51(12): p. 2523-2530.
[6] resources, M.o.P.a.N., Pakistan Energy year book, H.d.i.o. Pakistan., Editor. 2010.
[7] Deane, J.P., B.Ó. Gallachóir, and E. McKeogh, Techno-economic review of existing and new pumped hydro energy
storage plant. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 2010. 14(4): p. 1293-1302.
[8] Hammons, T.J., P. Naidoo, and L. Musaba, Run of river bulk hydroelectric generation from the Congo river without a
conventional Dam. Natural Resources, 2011. 2(01): p. 18.
[9] Margeta, J. and Z. Glasnovic, Role of water-energy storage in PV-PSH power plant development. Journal of Energy
Engineering, 2011. 137(4): p. 187-197.
[10] Sun, Y. and Q. Gao, The design and operation of 700MW class Totally Air-Cooled Hydroelectric generators, in IEEE
EUROCON 2009. 2009.
[11] Cheng, C., et al., Short‐Term Hydroscheduling with Discrepant Objectives Using Multi‐Step Progressive Optimality
Algorithm1. JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 2012. 48(3): p. 464-479.
[12] Taormina, R., K.-W. Chau, and R. Sethi, Artificial neural network simulation of hourly groundwater levels in a coastal
aquifer system of the Venice lagoon. Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence, 2012. 25(8): p. 1670-1676.
[13] Wu, C., K. Chau, and Y. Li, Predicting monthly streamflow using data‐driven models coupled with data‐preprocessing
techniques. Water Resources Research, 2009. 45(8).
[14] Beans, E.W., Approximate aerodynamic analysis for multi-blade darrieus wind turbines. Journal of Wind Engineering
and Industrial Aerodynamics, 1987. 25(2): p. 131-150.
[15] Grylls, W., B. Dale, and P. Sarre. A theoretical and experimental investigation into the variable pitch vertical axis wind
turbine. in Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium on Wind Energy Systems, Amsterdam, The Netherlands. 1978.
[16] Mays, I. and B. Holmes, Commercial development of the variable geometry vertical axis windmill. International Power
Generation, Surrey, UK, 1979.
[17] Paraschivoiu, I., Wind turbine design: with emphasis on Darrieus concept. 2002: Presses inter Polytechnique.
[18] Strickland, J.H., Darrieus turbine: a performance prediction model using multiple streamtubes. 1975, Sandia Labs.,
Albuquerque, N. Mex.(USA).
[19] Templin, R., Aerodynamic performance theory for the NRC vertical-axis wind turbine. 1974, National Aeronautical
Establishment, Ottawa, Ontario (Canada).
[20] Armstrong, S., A. Fiedler, and S. Tullis, Flow separation on a high Reynolds number, high solidity vertical axis wind
turbine with straight and canted blades and canted blades with fences. Renewable Energy, 2012. 41: p. 13-22.
[21] Gosselin., R., Control of flow separation on vertical axis wind turbine blades, in Departement of Mechanical
Engineering. 2008, University of Sheffield.
[22] Li, Y. and S.M. Calisal, Three-dimensional effects and arm effects on modeling a vertical axis tidal current turbine.
Renewable energy, 2010. 35(10): p. 2325-2334.
[23] Howell, R., et al., Wind tunnel and numerical study of a small vertical axis wind turbine. Renewable energy, 2010.
35(2): p. 412-422.
[24] Pope, K., I. Dincer, and G. Naterer, Energy and exergy efficiency comparison of horizontal and vertical axis wind
turbines. Renewable Energy, 2010. 35(9): p. 2102-2113.
[25] Wilcox, D., and 1998, Turbulence Modeling for CFD, DCW Industries. Inc. La Canada, California, 1993.
[26] Ferreira, C.S., et al. Simulating dynamic stall in a 2D VAWT: modeling strategy, verification and validation with
particle image velocimetry data. in Journal of physics: conference series. 2007. IOP Publishing.
[27] Wang, S., et al., Numerical investigations on dynamic stall of low Reynolds number flow around oscillating airfoils.
Computers & Fluids, 2010. 39(9): p. 1529-1541.
[28] Castelli, M.R., A. Englaro, and E. Benini, The Darrieus wind turbine: Proposal for a new performance prediction model
based on CFD. Energy, 2011. 36(8): p. 4919-4934.
[29] Dai, Y.M., N. Gardiner, and W.-H. Lam. CFD modelling strategy of a straight-bladed vertical axis marine current
turbine. in The Twentieth International Offshore and Polar Engineering Conference. 2010. International Society of
Offshore and Polar Engineers.
[30] Menter, F.R., Two-equation eddy-viscosity turbulence models for engineering applications. AIAA journal, 1994. 32(8):
p. 1598-1605.
[31] Chong, W., et al., The design, simulation and testing of an urban vertical axis wind turbine with the omni-direction-
guide-vane. Applied Energy, 2013. 112: p. 601-609.
[32] Lim, Y., W. Chong, and F. Hsiao, Performance investigation and optimization of a vertical axis wind turbine with the
Omni-direction-guide-vane. Procedia Engineering, 2013. 67: p. 59-69.
[33] Nobile, R., et al., Unsteady flow simulation of a vertical axis augmented wind turbine: A two-dimensional study. Journal
of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 2014. 125: p. 168-179.
[34] Almohammadi, K., et al., Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) mesh independency techniques for a straight blade
vertical axis wind turbine. Energy, 2013. 58: p. 483-493.
[35] Mohamed, M., A. Ali, and A. Hafiz, CFD analysis for H-rotor Darrieus turbine as a low speed wind energy converter.
Engineering Science and Technology, an International Journal, 2015. 18(1): p. 1-13.
[36] Kumar, T.M.P. and D. Chatterjee, Numerical study of turbulent flow over an S-shaped hydrofoil. Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part C: Journal of Mechanical Engineering Science, 2008. 222(9): p. 1717-1734.
[37] Guide, F.I.U. FLUENT 6.3.2, User Guide. 2006.

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138. Speed Breaker Power Generator

Ali Azama,*, M. Aqeel Aslamb, Shoukat Alia, F.Q. Yousef-Zaib
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Swedish College of Engineering & Technology, Rahim Yar Khan, 64200, Pakistan.
b
Department of Electrical Engineering, Swedish College of Engineering & Technology, Rahim Yar Khan, 64200, Pakistan.
*E-mail address: ali.azam3629d1@gmail.com

Abstract

It is very significant to design pollution free energy generation system. Speed breaker Power Generator
(SBPG) is the most emerging technique which produces electrical power with minimum input. An
experimental study to generate the electricity by SBPG is described in this paper. In this system, a rack
and pinions mechanism is used for the production of electricity. When a car reaches on the speed breaker,
the rack moves downward to generate linear to rotary motion using pinions. The rotary motion is
transferred to DC generator which generates DC power which is stored in batteries same as in solar
technology. The generated power can be used for the domestic purpose or commercially, which are
present near the speed breaker. This examined that SBPG is generating 273.24W on single push under
the application of 400kg. In an hour, passing 100 cars of 400kg can generate 54.59 kWh. This
mechanism utilizes both downward as well as the upward motion of the rack.

© 2016 “Ali Azam, M. Aqeel Aslam, Shoukat Ali and F.Q. Yousef-Zai” Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of
Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro,
Pakistan.

Keywords: Power generation, speed breaker, rack and sprocket pinion.

1. Introduction

During last few decades, electrical energy is the basic requirement of human beings. The ratio of
electricity requirement is increasing day by day. But we know that the resources for power generation are
limited, and this has caused the energy crisis. The increasing power demand results reduce in
conventional resources for power generation and increase the pollutants emissions. It is a need of time to
think about non-conventional energy resources or renewable energy resources which are eco-friendly to
the environment. In order to minimise the emission of greenhouse gases, renewable energy technologies
are widely used for electricity generation. Solar and wind technologies are frequently used for electricity
generation. Fig. 1 is rearranged in MS Excel that shows power generation in Pakistan by each sector [1].

5.80% Nuclear
35.20%
29% Natural Gas
Hydel
Other
1%
29.90% Oil
Fig. 1. Power generation in Pakistan by sector in 2014
Speed-breakers are movement quieting devices generally introduced to decrease speed related
mischances [2]. Speed breakers are intended to be rolled over at a foreordained agreeable rate while
bringing on surpassing inconvenience at higher rates. The diminishment in normal vehicular speed
essentially enhances the security of individuals in the neighbouring territories. These devices are most
common in developing countries [3]. Consequently, speed-breakers are regular in numerous developing
countries, including India, Chile, Egyptian Empire, Ghana and Pakistan [4].

The flow of traffic on rushed load is control by the use of Speed Breakers. The annual rate of motor

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vehicle growth in Pakistan is increasing day by day. The weight of vehicles in term of potential energy
can be utilized for electricity generation purposes [5]. In this paper, we developed a method of generating
electricity using speed breaker on the roads. To obtain maximum power, the flow of moving vehicles is
very important. In this mechanism, a rack and pinions are used. This mechanism converts the kinetic
energy of moving vehicles into electric energy with the help of speed breaker on the roads. This is
generating many kilowatts of power by using downward as well as the upward motion of rack.
Downward motion is caused by load and upward motion is due to restoring force utilizing store power in
springs.

2. Methodology of working

When a car reaches on speed breaker, rack moves downward to generate linear motion [6]. Two pinions
are attached to a rack which converts the linear motion of rack into rotary motion. Both pinions have
unidirectional motion, like as bicycle sprocket. Two gears are mounted on pinion shaft’s to transfer
mechanical power to the common shaft having one gear. At final shaft, a flywheel is used to provide
uniform motion. A belt is used to transfer mechanical motion of the common shaft to DC generator. The
complete gear box is dipped in lubrication oil sump to minimize frictional losses. There are no chances of
slipping between rack and pinions due to guide slots. DC generator generates DC power which is stored
in batteries same as in solar technology [7]. The generated power can be used for the domestic purpose or
commercially, which are present near the speed breaker.

2.1. Rack and pinion mechanism

The rack and pinion mechanism in AutoCAD 2013 is illustrated in Fig 1. Fig 1(a) shows that when a car
reaches on the speed breaker, it applies its weight on the speed breaker. The rack is connected with the
speed breaker and two pinions mesh across the rack. Due to the weight on the speed breaker, rack moves
downward and linear motion is obtained. It rotates the pinions which are attached on the both sides of the
rack. At this point, linear motion of rack converts into angular motion. Only right sided pinion transfer
power and pinion mashed on left side keep rotating without transfer of power. Fig 1(b) and Fig 3
represent that four springs help the speed breaker to move upward and thus only left sided pinion transfer
power and pinion mashed on right side keep rotating without transfer of power a complete cycle of linear
to rotary motion is obtained. The pinions were designed to work as sprocket of the bicycle. At load, one
side of pinion engages and another side of pinion disengage. Similarly, restoring force engages another
side of the pinion and first side of pinion disengage. They transfer power in forward as well as the reverse
stroke of speed breaker respectively and provide continuous angular motion.

(a) (b)

Fig. 1. Right sided pinion power transfer (a) and left sided pinion power transfer (b).

Fig 2 display working principle of rack and pinion mechanism and internal mechanism of SBPG in
AutoCAD 2013. Gear of different teeth and diameter are mounted on both pinion’s shaft to maximize the
number of revolutions. A gear mounted on the common shaft is placed between both pinion’s shafts. The
flywheel is mounted on the common shaft. It keeps the rotation of the shaft in uniform angular motion. It
stores the jerky rotations of pinion’s shaft. Mechanical rotation is used to rotate the shaft of the generator
through a belt. The shaft of maximum RPM (common shaft) is coupled with DC generator. A DC

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generator produces direct current [8]. According to Faraday's law of induction when coil moves inside
the magnetic field, it generates electric current [9]. It rotates the rotor of the generator and in this way, the
electricity is generated.

(a) (b)

Fig. 2. Rack and pinion mechanism (a) 3D internal mechanism of SBPG (b).

Fig 3 represents the 3D model of SBPG mechanism is in AutoCAD 2013. Fig 3(a) identify 3D model by
offing road and speed breaker. Four springs [10] are used to provide the upward motion. Utilizing energy
(under the application of restoring force when the load is removed) rack moves upward and regain its
original position. Two Support platforms for spring are welded to the frame to support the springs. Three
supporting bars support whole mechanism. Guide slots lead speed breaker in the straight line and save it
from trouble. Rubber beadings are used around the edges of SBPG to prevent water and dust from
entering into it [11]. Fig 3(b) illustrate the complete 3D model of SBPG mechanism.

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(a) (b)

Fig. 3. 3D model of SBPG by offing road and speed breaker (a) 3D Model of SBPG (b).

2.2. Prototype Model

Fig 4 represents a prototype model of SBPG system. This was developed by our team for the purpose of
participation in DICE Automotive 2015. We presented this model in DICE Automotive 2015 SSME
NUST Islamabad.

Fig. 4 Prototype model of SBPG

3. Experimental study and results

Consider 100 cars of mass 400kg pass over a speed breaker in an hour. The height of rack is 14cm, the
diameter of the final pulley is 18mm and having revolution speed (N) is equal to 37 RPM. Down word

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motion of speed breaker is due to the weight of moving the vehicle and upward motion of speed breaker
is take place due to the utilization of energy from springs. Each car pushes speed breaker two times.
Force = F = mg (1)
F = 400 x 9.8 = 3920N
r = 9mm
T = r x F (Nm) (2)
T = 9x 10-3 x 3920
T = 35.28 (Nm)
P = T.ω (3)
P = 35.28 x 2πN/60
P = 35.28 x (2 x 3.14 x 37)/60
P = 136.62 W
Total generated in forward and reversed stroke.
P = 2 x 136.62 W
P = 273.24 W
Revolution in one minute = 200/60 = 3.33rev/min
Power generated per minute = 273.24 × 3.33
= 909.89 W (minute)
Power generated in one Hour = 909.89 x 60
= 54.59 KW (hour).
Different masses are applied on the speed-breaker and the measured the electrical power. Fig 5 shows the
linear relationship between the load and produce power.

Fig. 5. Power variation due to load (kg)

4. Conclusions

This is generating many kilowatts power by using downward as well as the upward motion of rack. With
the help of speed breaker mechanism, linear motion of rack is converted into rotary motion of pinion and
thus is used to rotate the shaft of DC generator. It generates 273.24 watts with 400kg of load and 14cm of
the height of the rack. DC voltages charge the batteries during the passage of moving vehicles. Using
inverter (DC to AC conversion), we will be able to use batteries power for other useful applications. It
can be implemented on the toll plazas, highways. Guide slots and lubricating oil sump is required to
minimise friction losses. The initial cost of this arrangement is high but after the first cost, it will be free
energy system.

Acknowledgements

We highly acknowledge Prof. Dr. Abdul Shakoor Khan (HOD Mechanical Engineering Department),
Prof. Dr. Fazli Qayyum (Principal Swedish College of Engineering & Technology) for their continuous
help and support in this work. We also greatly acknowledge Mr. Tufail Ullah Butt (Chairman Swedish
College of Engineering & Technology) for providing financial support.

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References
[1] P. E. Yearbook, "Hydrocarbon Development Institute of Pakistan," Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources,
Government of Pakistan, p. 39, 2001.
[2] D. Zaidel, A. Hakkert, and A. Pistiner, "The use of road humps for moderating speeds on urban streets," Accident
Analysis & Prevention, vol. 24, pp. 45-56, 1992.
[3] F. K. Afukaar and J. Damsere-Derry, "Evaluation of speed humps on pedestrian injuries in Ghana," Injury Prevention,
vol. 16, pp. A205-A206, 2010.
[4] I. Sayer, C. Baguley, and A. Downing, "Low-cost engineering measures in Egypt, Ghana and Pakistan," PLANNING
AND TRANSPORT RESEARCH AND COMPUTATION, vol. 352, 1991.
[5] J. Slatkin, "Roadway electric generator," ed: Google Patents, 2001.
[6] W. P. Le Van, "Method and apparatus for generating electricity by vehicle and pedestrian weight force," ed: Google
Patents, 1976.
[7] M. Ramadan, M. Khaled, and H. El Hage, "Using speed bump for power generation–Experimental study," Energy
Procedia, vol. 75, pp. 867-872, 2015.
[8] P. A. Weber and J. P. Braaksma, "Towards a North American geometric design standard for speed humps," Institute of
Transportation Engineers. ITE Journal, vol. 70, p. 30, 2000.
[9] C. E. Schramm, "Green Road: Harvesting Wasted Vehicular Kinetic Energy," WORCESTER POLYTECHNIC
INSTITUTE, 2016.
[10] V. Dmitriev, "Electric Power Generating Speed Bump," ed: Google Patents, 2012.
[11] P. kumar Periasamy and S. J. Abraham, "Simple generator," ed: Google Patents, 2008.

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155. Review on aerodynamic design optimization of small Horizontal

Axis Wind Turbine
Intizar Ali, Dur Muhammad, Wali Muhammad and Kishore Kumar
Department of Mechanical Engineering Mehran UET Jamshoro, Pakistan

Abstract

Wind is clean, non-exhaustible, low cost energy source, for its efficient utilization Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines
(HAWT) are the best choice but large HAWT produce high noise, alter global climate conditions and requires the
large area with optimum wind conditions. It thrusts for using high efficiency small wind turbines that can produce
comparable power to large less efficient turbines. Small HAWTs are simple, portable with self-starting characteristics
widely used for independent power production. Aerodynamic design improvement is one of best method of enhancing
turbine efficiency by changing turbine design characteristics without significant increase in weight and cost. This work
reviews the influence of various aerodynamic design parameters like airfoil geometry, winglets addition, chord wise
pitch and twist distribution and effect of pitch angle on the starting as well as overall performance of small HAWTs.

© 2016"Intizar Ali, Dr. Dur Muhammad & Wali Muhammad" Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and Environmental
Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: “Airfoil;Starting Characteristics;Wind energy; Aerodynamics of turbine"

1.Introduction
Increasing global warming, rising level of greenhouse gases and increasing fossil fuel prices leads to invest on clean
and low cost small wind turbines [1].Small HAWT are simple, compact, portable and produce low noise [2]. These
turbines do not rely on external power to start rotation and independent power production purposes[3]. Small HAWT
can be installed on farms, remote areas, house roofs as well as on boats [4]. Due to all above advantages, Small
HAWT are gaining much attention from researchers[5-9]. As it is a well-known fact that large HAWT are installed at
areas with having optimum wind conditions but small HAWT can produce sufficient power output even at low wind
speed they require less torque to start rotation[4, 10, 11]. Small HAWT solely rely on aerodynamic forces to start up
rotation as well as uses tail vane for passive yawing. For the classification of small HAWT on basis of power
generation refer to[1, 12, 13].

As the small HAWT operate at very low height and slow speed, because of topologies and obstacles to slow moving
fluid laminar flow is rapidly changed to turbulent one that highly affects its efficiency and performance
characteristics[4, 14]. For efficient working of turbine their starting characteristics are the key measurement
parameters therefore considerable attention is given on starting characteristics [4, 15] . Due to small rotor size small
HAWT is able to generate very low torque which may be insufficient to start turbine [12]. Therefore to achieve
maximum power production lot of attention is given to minimize cut-in-speed of small HAWTs[13, 15, 16]. To
improve starting characteristics aerodynamic design improvement is unique as well as bet way to solve this problem
[17, 18]. The aerodynamic design optimization is method to get highly efficient turbine without any significant
increase in weight as well as cost. Aerodynamic optimization is linked with the improvements and selection of
optimum number of blades, airfoil profile, pitch angle, Angle of Attack (AoA), chord and twist distribution as well as
any aerodynamic shape change in blade [19]. Number of researches were conducted to predict efficiency of HAWTs
their research reveals that HAWTs mostly operate with efficiency from 20 to 45%[4, 20]. But it was also found that
small HAWT operate with 30% or 35% efficiency in comparison with large HAWTs which operate at 45% this means
that lot of research needs to improve efficiency of small HAWTs in order to operate it with optimum performance to
achieve Betz limit of efficiency 59.2% [4].

2. Aerodynamics design of turbine

Aerodynamic design is the highly important step in design of turbine because performance of turbine is greatly
influenced by its aerodynamic body profile. Aerodynamic design is based on airfoil (that is basically blade profile)
shape as well as their twist and pitch angle of the blade. Airfoil is the complex two-dimensional body that causes

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increase in pressure at lower surface and to produce lift is which in turns causes to generate torque. The primary goal
of best aerodynamic design is to enhance torque production and to reduce noise generation. Increase in lift or torque
productions results to enhance power coefficient[10, 21]. In cases of small HAWT it is always desirable to increase
(L/D) ratio in order to obtain best starting characteristics by producing high torque at low wind speeds, it also
improves power coefficient [15, 21, 22].
1 − (C D / C L ) c o t φ
η A ero = (1)
1 + (C D / C L ) c o t φ

ta n φ =
(1 − α )
λ r (1 + α )
(2)
Where φ is the inflow angle and λr = ω r / Vo is local speed ratio at any point on blade[23]. From equation (1) it is
analyzed that L/D ratio and inflow angle are the controlling parameters of aerodynamic performance. From the
literature related to small HAWT it was analyzed that turbine having less radius posses more difficulty in starting
whereas increase in radius provides better stating characteristics. Starting characteristics mainly depend of
aerodynamic torque generated and the resistive torque of drive system. Resistive torque is directly proportional to cube
root of turbine radius R3 [12]. Resistive torque is the cumulative torque offered by whole drive train mechanism. For
rotor to rotate its aerodynamic torque should be more than resistive torque. Following expression is used to calculate
the minimum cut in speed of turbine [24].
1
 2TR  2
Uc =  
 N B ρ R I cp 
3
(3)
where,
1
I cp = ∫ cr ∗ sin(2θ p ) (1 − cos 2 θ p ) dr
rs
(4)
NB is number of blades, ρ density of air (kg/m3), TR denotes resistive torque (Nm), R blade radius (m) and Icp (chord
pitch integral).The plan type blade geometry and pitch distribution (Icp) of small wind turbine solely dependent on
estimation of cut-in wind speed. In order to reduce the starting problem, variable pitch and high flow angle often fixed
to expose are rarely terms of small wind turbines. when blade is rotating at 90o angle of attack then its performance
has negligible dependence on thickness and camber. In that situation airfoils behaves like flat plate[24].
CL = 2cos α sin α and C D = 2sin 2 α (5)
The parameters related with optimization of blade geometry are important, because when once optimized then similar
power could produce by shorter rotor blades as compare to one that is larger in diameter and not optimize.
Aerodynamic optimization of rotor is very important when it is coupled with optimization of twist distribution and
chord, number of blades, selection of airfoil geometry, and the tip speed ratio (TSR) for more power extraction from
low wind areas. Blade element momentum theory BEM depends on twist distribution, edgewise (blade thickness)
distribution and flap wise (chord) distribution. Chord distribution along the blade span obtain from Eq. (6).
4π rF sin φ
C (r ) =
{
N B CL ( λr + tan φ ) / (1 − λr tan φ )  − (CD / CL )} (6)
In above equation cd/cl (minimum drag-to-lift ratio of the airfoil section), F (tip loss factor), λr=λo (local speed ratio at
radial distance (r) along the blade), λ=ωR/Vo (design tip-speed ratio) and Vo (free stream wind velocity at hub height).
The twist of the zero lift line is given by below equation which is from twist distribution[18].
θ P = ( ( Rα t / r ) − αt ) − k (1 − r / R)
(7)
θP ,r and αt denotes pitch angle, radial location and AOA at the tip of the blade respectively. whereas k is the
acceleration factor and is greater than zero. In equation (6) αo , ϕ, and θt represent AOA at zero lift, in-flow angle and
pitch angle at the tip respectively.

3. Airfoil design modification

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3.1 Airfoil design for Small HAWT Applications

The central idea behind the design of small HAWT is to develop turbines which can operate at low wind speed,
generate low noise so that it can be installed at urban areas. For turbine to operate at low wind speed requires special
airfoil sections for their blades because the at low speed separated flow failed reattach in case usual airfoils and results
in loss of aerodynamic performance [21, 25]. To operate turbine at optimum speed low Reynolds number (Re) airfoil
are design which operate below Re = 500,000[22, 26, 27]. The number of researches were conducted to design
efficient airfoil for low Re applications. Researches finally concluded that low Re number airfoils should be thinner as
compared to high Re number airfoil [12, 22, 28] to reduce adverse pressure gradient at the upper surface of airfoil [21,
27]. In past lot of research was conducted for designing of low Re applications approximately 17 airfoils belong to
family of thinner airfoils were tested at Re 105 to 5x105. To optimize performance nose radius and cusping of trailing
edge was increased this results significant improvement in its performance at low Re. increase in nose radius causes to
decrease in adverse pressure gradient and increase in cusping results increase in aerodynamic loads in cusped region
[22, 28, 29]. After some time [30] tested 6 different airfoils (E387, FX 63-137, S822, S834 and SH3055) at Reynolds
number 105 to 5x105 and found that airfoils (SH3055 and FX 63-137) achieve highest coefficient of lift equal to 1.8 in
this range of Re. T. Urban 10/193 airfoil is designed and modelled on x-foil and their study found that maximum value
of CL was obtained in the Re range of 6x104 to 106 [15].

Recent research was conducted to optimize low Reynolds number airfoil for application of small HAWT which has to
operate within wide range of Re number from 38,000 to 205,000. For that purpose S1210 and S1223 airfoils are
selected to optimize their basic geometry by increasing trailing edge thickness. The series of test were conducted to
compare number of low Re number airfoils for Reynolds number values 55,000, 100,000 and 148,000 through x-foil
results are shown in Fig. 1. Test results reveal that airfoil AF300 attained highest value of CL and L/D ratio.
Experiments also reveals that for Re=38000 and angle of attack ranging from 0-18o coefficient of lift varies from 0.41
to 1.05. another test result was conducted on AOA 14o test results showed that CL increases with Re number and
maximum value of CL found to be 1.86 for Re=205,000. It is also found that addition flat back trailing were proved to
be beneficial to avoid flow separation, increase strength along with reduction in weight of blade. Reduction on weight
in turns reduces inertia and improves starting characteristics that are highly important for small HAWT turbines which
operate at low wind speed. It is also concluded that addition of flat back trailing edge results in increasing stall angle
up to 14o means that turbine blade can operate at high angle of attack without stall this proved to be beneficial for
improving aerodynamic performance[31] .

(a) (b)
Fig. 1. Drag polar plots and (b) Variations of lift coefficients of s1223 and s1210 airfoils and their variants with different trailing edge
thicknesses at Re =148,000.[31]

3.2 Effect of Airfoil-camber line modification

For proper and efficient design of airfoil for small HAWTs various methods were developed but pressure inverse
method was found to effective. This method is applied to design high lift airfoil with uniform pressure load along
chord of turbine blade with inlet angle of 4o in Reynolds number range of 3x105 to 1x106. T Urban 10/193 airfoil was
design for that eight iteration are required to attain convergence. From the study it was analyzed that pressure load
distribution increase slowly up to 20% of axial chord length starting from leading edge and decreases towards tailing
edge, load remain constant in the remaining blade section. It is also analyzed that lift and drag production are affected
by transition point. Near the trailing edge transition occurs at small angle of attack in the vicinity of suction side. It is
also observed that transition point is shifted towards trailing edge along with increase in AOA for three different
Reynolds numbers. T. urban 10/193 turbine blade section have unique characteristics that have high lift with moderate
drag coefficient and soft stall uniqueness because of better design T.urban 10/193 blade section, as an isolated airfoil,

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confirmed maximum lift and moderate drag with soft-stall uniqueness, due to a reduction of adverse pressure gradient
on the upper side [15]. Study was conducted to design three bladed small wind turbine by using thin airfoil section and
for tip speed ratio (TSR) of 3. The new thinner airfoil was generated from NACA4418 airfoil, the upper surface of
newly designed airfoil is very closed to base airfoil but the wing profile of both airfoils is entirely different from one
another [32]. The newly generated airfoil has 11% camber and 8.5% thickness at 0.35 and 0.10 of chords respectively.
Whereas airfoil NACA4418 having 4% camber and 18% thickness at 0.40 and 0.30 chords respectively. Author
conducted series of tests where it was found that thinner airfoil achieves higher value of Coefficient of lift (CL ) than
that of NACA 4418 and 2.04 maximum value of CL was observed at 12o AOA. On the other hand, value of CD is near
about same for both of the airfoils and for wide range of AOA, in some test was found that CD value of thin airfoil is
higher than that of airfoil NACA 4418. Research results also showed that L/D ratio of thin airfoil is much higher than
that of original NACA 4418 airfoil. Besides, for negative AOA L/D ratio is negative and near equal to zero for airfoil
NACA 4418 and newly designed thin airfoil respectively shown in Figure 2.

(a) (b)
Fig. 2.Relationship between (a) lift–drag coefficients and (b) lift–drag ratios with angle of attack[32]

To improve airfoil performance, number of experiments as well as CFD simulations was conducted on seagull airfoil
for the wide range of Re 100,000–200,000 [33]. Research results reveal that seagull airfoil showed better performance
than airfoil NACA 4412 and it is capable of avoiding flow separation characteristics better than that of airfoil NACA
4412. As the Fig. 3 compare the performance of the number newly generated airfoils with original seagull airfoil
where it was found that the original profile showed better performance than newly generated airfoil. Finally analysis
showed that seagull airfoil can provide better aerodynamic performance during special circumstances and is better to
use at turbine blade tip.

(a) (b)
Fig. 3(a,b) Comparison chart of aerodynamic characteristics of seagull and the transformation airfoils at Re=1x105 [33]

Research was carried out to improve the performance of low Reynolds number airfoil, for that purpose number of low
“Re” airfoils were combined and tested at three different Reynolds numbers for AoA from 0-22o [34]. Where xfoil
results are validated with wind tunnel test results and it was found that airfoil SG6043_Eppler 422 has better
aerodynamic performance than combination of other low Re airfoils. In order to analyze effect of various parameters
numerical study was conducted and validated with experimental results. Validation study showed that numerical
results and experimental results have better closeness for higher value of Re and stall angle for the airfoil was found
to be 15o. from numerical simulation it author concluded that combined airfoil SG6043_Eppler 422 have better
aerodynamic characteristics than other airfoils and it is highly suitable for Small HAWTs. Moreover, maximum value
of L/D ratio is obtained at 8o AoA hence this angle should considered as designed AOA in design of turbine blade.

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4. Effect of chord and twist distribution on performance of SWT rotor
The small HAWT was design and manufactured by using two different airfoils (FX66-S-196 and NACA63-621) to
analyze aerodynamic characteristics on the outboard and inboard region[35]. By using Eq. (6) and (7), the twist
distribution and chord were find out, thickness of blade at root and tip was kept 210 mm and 25 mm respectively and
their thickness varies with linear distribution. The pitch angle of blade was determined by Eq. (7) pitch angle at tip
was kept 0o and 2o and at root 22o as shown in Fig. 4. In case of pitch regulated turbine this designed blade produce
power up to rated value. Beyond this range output characteristics of blade were controlled through a special type of
controller that dumps excessive power. At starting speed of HAWT rotor produce more power as wind speed increases
but it produce less power as compared to our expected. However rotor will produce more power as compared to our
expected at operation in high wind speed. Moreover, highest power coefficient(Cp) was found to be 0.412. Another
researcher designed 500mm diameter and 18o pitch angle small HAWT by using airfoil NACA2404[2]. The designed
turbine was tested for wide range of wind speeds from 8-12 m/s and it was found that mF500 given high efficiency.
Average Cp was found near about 0.36 and 0.25 for 8 and 12 m/s free stream velocity respectively. Therefore it’s clear
that UF500 shows good result with low (TSR) and the usage should be extend to use low wind resources and
maximum Cp= 0.40 were achieved at tip ratio of 2.7. Another study designed and manufactured turbine by using
airfoils NACA23012, NACA4412, NACA0012 and NACA4415 and 310mm diameter[36]. Every blade model rotor
have different properties such as blade angle, blade numbers, blade to hub angle and twisting angle. This study shows
a strong correlation between blade angle, number of blades with Cp and rotor rotation rate. Highest correlation of Cp
was found with blade profile, blade twist and wind speed. NACA 4412 profiles with 5o grade blade angle, 0o grade
twisting angle are used to fabricate rotor models. Comparing double angle had high rotation rate with those fabricated
by using NACA 4415 profile with 18 grade blade angle, 0 grade twisting angle and four blades which had high Cp,
3077rpms rotation rate with a Cp rate up to 0.425 are shown by rotor model. Blade performance was analyzed by
using NREL' slow speed airfoils S 822 and S 823 that are used on root and tip of the rotor respectively to improve the
low speed HAWT blade [37]. Original blade root are is kept smaller to optimized radial variation of the chord length
whereas radically decline curve achieved when twist angle is optimized inflexion line is contained by initial one.
These changes are obtained by using modelling on the optimized blade and root area which contains of softer external
curve. In optimized blade root area transferred from flat surface to circular surface due to which aerodynamic
performance of blade is improved. Optimized blade have loosely outsized twist angle than initial blade at tip and
middle as shown in Fig 5. For installing blade angle BEM theory is used and for maximizing chord length genetic
algorithms is used. It has been optimized to improve the rotor Cp of the original rotor in each case on the (TSR). When
wind speed is less than 5 m/s at 50 rpm some remarkable changes occur, by optimizing blade aerodynamic
performance was improved as shown in Fig 6.Optimized wind rotor blade have higher Cp than the original blade [38].
Maximize the Cp by using BEM method by operating at variable speed of designed two bladed rotors of 3.5 m which
were use NACA 5317 airfoil. The design geometric parameters are good in rang for fabrication. The pitch angle is
almost linear and has a net variation of 13.3 linear in Fig 7. According to exiting wind turbine rotor performance is
good and acceptable, the Cp(max) being 0.5 is used to lower the complexity of small HAWT rotor manufacturing. A
double bladed rotor was design for working to work at low wind speed limit of 3 to 6 m/s which involves of AF 300
flat back airfoil. The 2-bladed rotor was especially design to eliminate laminar separation bubbles to achieve higher at
very low Reynolds numbers which also helps in structure stability of bubbles and improve over competence of
turbine[39]. The twist and taper were shared to the low Reynolds number for airfoilAF300 section which is based on
BEM theory Eqs.(5 and 6), these Equations are used in low wind speed to increase the aerodynamic performance. The
double bladed rotor attained the values of Cp like 0.1, 0.217 and 0.255 at respective wind speed of 4, 5 and 6 m/s
whereas for three bladed rotor achieve wind speed like 0.052, 0.112 and 0.15. The peak Cp achieved by the double
bladed rotor which was design at 6 m/s at 0.29 wind speed. In for controlling pitch angle the chord length distribution
is used and with the help of decreasing weight and size while maintain the higher Cp for blade [32]. With BEM theory
blade shapes have improved and for thin airfoil chord length has become shorter as compared to optimum design. The
thickness of chord length has been improved from 8.5 % of the chord and blade tip to 18.5 % although maintained the
stiffness of blade the pervious chord length of thin tailored airfoil blade was 230m from blade to blade tip to r =1.6 m
and at the cut-off r = 0.4m and then altered linearly for modification up to 230 mm at r = 1.6m. At relative twist angle
of 27o as shown in Fig 8, with optimum twist angle from 34o to 7o at the blade tip. The automatically controlled wind
turbine with the parameters of such as average wind speed of 10m/s and a maximum wind speed of 19m/s shown a
safely condition for running with a Cp of 0.14 and average output of generator 1105W.

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(a) (b)
Fig. 4.(a) Blade thickness distribution and (b) graph of the zero lift line twist [35]

(a) (b)
Fig. 5.Comparison of optimized chord distribution and twist of the blade with the original [37]

(a) (b)
Fig. 6.(a)Comparison of performance of the optimized wind rotor with the original [37](b) Geometry parameters of the blades[38].

(a) (b)
Fig. 7 .Distribution of chord length and twist angle [32].

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 4th International Conference on
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(a) (b)
Fig. 8.Geometry parameters of the blades [38].

5. Effect of blade winglet on turbine performance

At present wing tip vortices is one of highly major issue that hinder to increase aerodynamic efficiency of turbine.
Wing tip vortices causes increase in drag as well as enhance noise production. From literature it was concluded that
winglets causes increase in aerodynamic performance but their effect is analyzed for particular flight conditions [40].
[41, 42] numerically analyzed effect blade winglets on turbine performance. Winglets were added on pressure side and
suction side their research reveals that winglet addition on both sides causes 1.4% increase in power produced along
with 1.6% increase in thrust at speed of 6m/s.[43] carried out research on small HAWT to analyze effect of winglets
on turbine performance. Airfoil SG6051 is selected for turbine blade because it possesses high L/D ratio[44]. Their
experimental work reveals that upwind winglet increased 27% in L/D ratio[43].

6. Effect of pitch angle on starting performance

Starting wind speed is key parameter at design stage of small HAWT because low starting speed made it attractive for
use in low wind speed areas. For that purpose number of researches was conducted by considering various parameters
but out all those parameters pitch angle effect is significant. [45] carried out research on 5kw wind turbine to analyze
effect of pitch angle on its starting performance. Their research reveals that pitch angle greatly affect starting as well
as operation performance and large pitch angle proven best starting characteristics for 8m/s wind speed. Small three
bladed HAWT of diameter 1m was designed for power output of 600W by scaling down 2.5m diameter and 5kw
turbine. This turbine shows 80% more power output in combination with new generator over the original and starting
wind speed also reduced to 2.5 m/s. Performance of turbine was analyzed for the range of pitch angles from 0 to 35o
with the increment of 5o [10]. Analysis results found that 0o pitch angle turbine with 5m diameter produced highest
power of 5kw at wind speed of 10m/s. But at 0o pitch angle turbine shows poor starting characteristics. Results showed
that increase in pitch angle improves starting characteristics and 20o pitch angle turbine was found to have best staring
characteristics. The starting wind speed (cut-in speed) of two different power of turbines (600w[46] and 5kW) were
investigated on the bases of chord pitch integral by field test[24]. Comparison of field test predicated starting wind
speed with field test measurement in Eq. (4) and (3) result shows that the predicated cut-in speed is more than the
actual cut-in speed. At starting high angle of attach occur, the drag and lift is predicated by using Eq. (5). The causes
of over estimation is the short of information and insensitivity of pitch angle. The chord pitch integrand (Icp) are lower
in tip region and higher in root, hence it shows that the power producing torque comes from near the blade tip. And the
high solidity near the hub contributes to generate starting torque. The initial performance of HAWT turbine with three-
bladed, 2m diameter, 600W was validated and investigated through the comparison with calculations employing a
quasi-steady blade element analysis and measured field test[16]. Re is very low, during the idling period, when, α is
higher than 40 than the hub region generates more torque as compared to blade tip. The average wind speed for
starting rotation is 4.6 m/s but its varied between 2,5 and 7 m/s and normally its coincide with increasing wind speed.
Besides, most power extracted torque found near the tip zone and most starting torque near the hub side [16, 46], so it
is possible to maintaining good power performance by optimize starting performance. By varying pitch of blade
between the limits 15o,18o and 20o the performance improvement is study and the starting wind speed (cut in speed)
and the best result was found at 18o pitch angle [39]. The results of chord distribution to have higher solidity as
compared to the baseline blade that have fast start up and low starting wind speed. The starting wind speed based on
10 s average data at the optimize pith angle that was 3.24 m/s whereas instantaneous starting wind speed was 2.34 m/s,
related to the starting wind speed 3.58 m/s that measured of rotor with the baseline blade ash shown in Fig. 9.

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(a) (b)
Fig.9.(a) Average power output of the turbine at various wind speeds and pitch angles. (b) Average power coefficient of the turbine as a
function of wind velocity at various pitch settings [39]

7. Conclusion

In order to improve turbine performance number of aerodynamic changes and their effect is discussed in paper. The
number of design parameters which highly affects turbine is observed and following key points were concluded on the
basis of available literature.
• Turbine blades with upwind winglet cause 27% increase in Lift-to-Drag (L/D) ratio[43].
• Thinner trailing edge airfoil for turbine blades have high L/D ratio, generate low noise along with
improvement of starting characteristics [31, 47].
• Low chord thinner airfoils improve (Cp) beside that they provide easy pitch control. The seagull airfoils
provide best results against separation and it was found to be best choice for blade tip profile[32, 48].
• It is observed that optimum pitch angle would be different for different airfoils and airfoil NACA5317
provides the best results as compared to the airfoils like NACA4412, NACA4415, AF300, and NACA63-
621(root), F66-S-196(tip)[31, 35]
• It was found from literature that blades with 20o pitch angle have best starting characteristics but they are also
affected by turbine blade radius as well as design of hub [10, 16, 46]
• The highest Cp can be achieved (near about 0.5) for blade with airfoil NACA5317 and 13.3o pitch angle[38].

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36. Vardar, A. and I. Alibas, Research on wind turbine rotor models using NACA profiles. Renewable Energy,
2008. 33(7): p. 1721-1732.
37. Zhang, J., Z. Zhou, and Y. Lei. Design and research of high-performance low-speed wind turbine blades. in
2009 World Non-Grid-Connected Wind Power and Energy Conference. 2009. IEEE.
38. Carlos, G.G., et al. Design of a 3.5 meters rotor two bladed horizontal axis wind turbine. in Electronics,
Communications and Computer (CONIELECOMP), 2010 20th International Conference on. 2010. IEEE.
39. Singh, R.K. and M.R. Ahmed, Blade design and performance testing of a small wind turbine rotor for low
wind speed applications. Renewable Energy, 2013. 50: p. 812-819.

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40. Maughmer, M.D., Design of winglets for high-performance sailplanes. Journal of Aircraft, 2003. 40(6): p.
1099-1106.
41. Johansen, J. and N.N. Sørensen, Aerodynamic investigation of winglets on wind turbine blades using CFD.
2006.
42. Lee, J.H., et al., Computational methods for performance analysis of horizontal axis tidal stream turbines.
Applied energy, 2012. 98: p. 512-523.
43. Ali, A., et al., An aerodynamic study of a domestic scale horizontal axis wind turbine with varied tip
configurations. Procedia Engineering, 2015. 105: p. 757-762.
44. Selig, M., UIUC Applied Aerodynamics Group. 2013, Department of Aerospace Engineering.
45. Bechly, M., et al. Field testing of a prototype 5 kW wind turbine. in British Wind Energy Association Annual
Conference. 1996.
46. Wood DH and R. T. Design and testing of high performance blades for a 600 W horizontal axis wind
turbines. in The first Australian wind energy conference. 1999. Newcastle.
47. Göçmen, T. and B. Özerdem, Airfoil optimization for noise emission problem and aerodynamic performance
criterion on small scale wind turbines. Energy, 2012. 46(1): p. 62-71.
48. Limin, et al., The investigation of the airfoil for the small wind turbine based on the seagull airfoil, in Power
and Energy Engineering Conference (APPEEC). 2011.

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164. Computational studies on the effects of employing water filled

bags and glass as a chimney’s material on performance of solar
chimney power plant
Aakash Hassana,*, Majid Ali a, Adeel Waqas a
a
U.S Pakistan Center for Advanced Studies in Energy (USPCAS-E), National University of Science and Technology (NUST) Sector H-12, Islamabad
44000, Pakistan
* Corresponding author: aakashhassan@gmail.com

Abstract

Energy plays a role of backbone for socio-economic development of a country. Pakistan is among underdeveloped
countries and is facing worst energy crisis from previous few decades. Renewable and sustainable energy sources can
play a vital role to minimize these crises. High solar energy potential and available deserted wastelands in Pakistan
urge to develop novel technologies like solar chimney power plants, which have versatile applications in thermal and
electrical energy sectors like electricity production, ventilation in buildings and crops cultivation etc. Solar chimney
power plant (SCPP) or solar updraft tower is a renewable type power generation technology, having a promising
potential for large scale usage of solar energy. It operates on the basis of three technologies namely, the greenhouse,
chimney and wind turbine. Greenhouse effect and stack effect of chimney induces an air flow, driving wind turbine
coupled with generator thereby generating electricity. In this study a comprehensive three dimensional CFD analysis
of SCPP, utilizing the dimensions of first working Spanish prototype has been explicated in ANSYS FLUENT to
examine heat transfer and fluid flow patterns. Numerical models were incorporated with solar load, DO (discrete
ordinates) and RNG k-ɛ turbulence models. The numerical results were compared with the reported experimental
results of Spanish prototype and were found to be in good agreement, testifying the numerical models adopted for
predicting the performance of SCPP. On the basis of robustness of numerical models, several simulations were
performed to study the effects of employing water bags beneath the collector and glass as a chimney material. Fluid
flow, pressure, and temperature distribution were analysed and the results depicted that these two methods raise the
overall velocity and temperature distribution inside SCPP. Computed results reveal that use of water filled bags and
glass as a chimney’s material enhances the overall performance of SCPP approximately by 4% and 7% respectively.

Keywords: Pakistan; Solar chimney power plant; CFD; Numerical simulations

1. Introduction

Needless to say, energy plays a role of backbone for the socio-economic development of any country. Incessantly
rising population and high living standards ask for endless energy resources to fulfil heightening energy demand.
Pakistan is among underdeveloped countries and is facing worst energy crisis from previous few decades, seeing more
than 12 hours of power outages especially during summer, with shortfall reaching up to 5000MW [1]. The shortfall is
even more drastic in Southern Punjab and Sindh’s rural areas, therefore demands continuous progression in the energy
sector to break through this crisis. A sustainable solution can be found in improving environmental friendly renewable
power generation sector i.e. hydro, the wind and solar etc. In particular, solar energy is an entirely clean and green
renewable energy source and the reason lies in the fact that it is free from greenhouse gas emissions and other waste
materials. Amongst other renewable energy sources, solar energy is more attractive because of easy installation of
solar panels and sunlight abundance, specifically in a country like Pakistan where the sun brightens up all year in most
of the cities. Solar energy can be converted into electrical energy by two modes, by photovoltaic effect using solar
cells and by solar thermal generators driven by steam produced from large-scale solar concentrators. In spite of being
too much advantageous, these two technologies also have some drawbacks like high cost, complicated manufacturing
of solar cells and abundant supply of water for steam generation in solar thermal technology are named only a few. In
addition to these two, there is another technology which is free from such types of pitfalls, moreover, possessing the
same capability of producing electrical energy from the sun with efficacy, namely as “Solar Chimney Power Plant” or

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“Solar Updraft Tower”. In this technology, by using solar collector and updraft tower air flow is induced which is used
to drive a wind turbine generating electricity. A schematic diagram of solar chimney power plant demonstrating its
different parts including water filled bags and the generic procedure is shown in fig.1.

Fig.1. Schematic diagram of solar chimney

The basic idea of generating electricity from this technology was first suggested by J. Schlaich. Later on in 1983 J.
Schlaich along with his team built first working prototype of SCPP in Manzanares Spain. This prototype had the
capacity of producing 50 kW, with collector radius of 122m, chimney height of 200m and chimney radius of 5m. This
prototype operated successfully for almost eight years. Afterwards the results obtained from Manzanares plant and
working principle of solar chimney was described in detail by J. Schlaich [2-3]. This concept attracted many
researchers and they utilized this technology in many other applications. Solar chimney concept was also applied in
buildings to enhance the natural ventilation [4-5]. In 2000 Ganon and V. Backstorm presented a thermodynamic
analysis of solar chimney including system loss and studied effects of variables on overall performance [6]. Y.J. Dai,
H.B. Huang, and R.Z. Wang proposed a solar chimney power plant subjected to supply electric power to remote
villages in Northwest China. They calculated the output electric power of a solar chimney power plant having 200m
chimney height, 10m chimney diameter and 500m collector diameter by using a theoretical model. They concluded
that this power plant can supply monthly 110-190kW all over the year to nearby villages [7]. During the last decade,
due to the development of new computer software and hardware technology, computer aided engineering (CAE) tools
like computational fluid dynamics (CFD) became much popular among designers and engineers to solve problems.
Computational fluid dynamics (CFD) has become a vital component in design of a system due to its enormous
advantages, like foreseeing performance before actual operation of system, time reduction, cost reduction, powerful
visualizing capabilities, ability to analyze difficult and dangerous experimental setups etc. Roozbeh Sangi et al. [8]
performed numerical simulations by iterative technique and through two dimensional axisymmetric modelling in CFD
software FLUENT predicted the performance of solar chimney. The results of two approaches were compared
ensuring good agreement. Greenhouse effect in the solar chimney was simulated using two band radiation models by
Ehsan Gholamalizadeh and Man-Hoe Kim; they also concluded that considering greenhouse effect is critical for
predicting the performance of solar chimney in an accurate manner [9]. The effects of geometric parameters on
performance of solar chimney were studied by Sandeep K. Patel et al. in ANSYS CFX. Results at different collector’s
inlet and outlet diameters, chimney diameters and divergence angles were examined and the best configuration for
solar chimney was suggested [10]. Atit Koonsrisuk and Tawit Chitsomboon compared the results of CFD with five
simple theoretical models and recommended the most accurate ones for predicting solar chimney performance [11].
Although worthful contributions were made to analyse different parameters of SCPP by CFD, but in most of them
SCPP was simulated as two dimensional axisymmetric model. In general, two dimensional models don’t give a
detailed picture of heat transfer and fluid flow patterns inside the whole system.

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Geographical location of Pakistan shows that it has a huge potential of solar energy but with almost negligible
utilization. The state of affairs demand for developing large scale affordable solar power plants, which must be built
with our own skills and resources and need not be imported at unconscionable cost. Solar Chimney Power Plant is one
of those technologies having versatile applications in energy sector. In this paper a three dimensional CFD analysis of
solar chimney power plant is presented. Firstly, a solar chimney was modeled using the dimensions of Spanish
prototype plant and the CFD results were compared with the experimental results, which were in good agreement with
each other. Later the effects of employing water filled bags and glass as a chimney’s material were investigated.

2. Mathematical modeling

In order to analyze the thermodynamics and fluid dynamics involved in SCPP, ANSYS FLUENT 14 was used to
perform the numerical simulations. The main governing equations used in modeling SCPP are based on the
fundamental mass, momentum and energy conservation equations described below [12]:

#
Mass Conservation: (%&') ( ). (%&') + ,- (1)
#$

Where ,- represents the user defined source term.

#
Momentum Conservation: ...'&') + /)0 ( ). (1̿) ( %3' ( 4'
(%&') ( ). (%& (2)
#$

In the above equation 0 represents the static pressure, 1̿ is stress tensor, %3' and 4' are the gravitational body force and
external body forces respectively.

2.1. Heat transfer modeling

In solar chimney power plant, we have to consider all three modes of heat transfer i.e. conduction, convection and
radiation. FLUENT solves the energy equation in the following form [12]:

#
(%5) ( ). 6&'(%5)7 + ). 869:;; )< / ∑? >? @'? 7 ( 61̿:;; . &'7A ( ,B (3)
#$

The first three terms on right hand side in the above equation, represent energy transfer due to conduction, species
diffusion and viscous dissipation. ,B indicates volumetric heat sources that user has defined. 9:;; is the effective
conductivity and @'? is the diffusion flux of species j. Heat transfer through radiations was computed by using the
discrete ordinates (DO) model, because DO model has the ability to solve radiations through semi-transparent walls
and wide range of optical thicknesses. The radiative transfer equation for DO model is [12]:

KL M
Q C 8D', ..'
E′A ∅(E', ..'
KO PN
). (C(D', E')E') ( (F ( GH )C(D', E') + FIJ ( E′)TU′ (4)
N PN V

In the above equation I represent solar intensity, D' and E' represent position vector and direction vector respectively. T
denotes the local temperature and ..'
E′ is scattering direction vector. Where ∅ and U′ represent phase function and solid
angle respectively.

2.2. Turbulence modeling

When heat is added to a fluid, density of fluid varies with temperature and a flow can be induced. Such flows are
called Natural Convection or Buoyancy driven flows. The strength of natural convection flows is measured by
Rayleigh (Ra) number, which determines about flow regime whether it will be laminar or turbulent. If Ra<108 then
flow is laminar and flow is turbulent if 108<Ra<1010. Previous theories indicate that in solar chimney power plant flow
is fully turbulent. Formula for Rayleigh number is given below:

XY∆L[\ ]
WF + (5)
^_

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Consequently, to model turbulence in flow, Renormalization group (RNG) k-ɛ model was used owing to its better
reliability and accuracy to solve a wider class of flows. The transport equations of (RNG) k-ɛ model are given by [12]:

# # # #g
(%9) ( (%9bc ) + efg b:;; h ( ig ( ij / %k / l- ( ,g (6)
#$ #`a #`d #`d

# # # #m m mq
(%) ( (%kbc ) + efm b:;; h ( nom (ig ( npm ij ) / nJm % / Wm ( ,m (7)
#m$ #`a #`d #`d g g

Where ig FITij represent the generation of turbulence kinetic energy due to mean velocity gradient and buoyancy
respectively. ,g FIT ,m are user defined source terms and fg , fm stand for inverse effective Prandtl numbers for k and
ɛ respectively. Collector efficiency can be expressed as the ratio of heat output of collector to the solar energy which
enters via transparent collector[13,7].

-vwx ∆L
rstuu + (8)
y z{|}}

Where ~v is the mass flow rate, Cp is the specific heat of air and ∆< is the temperature increase of air through collector.
G represents the solar radiations in W/m2 and •stuu indicates the area of collector. Schlaich suggested that maximum
power which can be taken by turbine is[2]:

J X
€-•` + r ƒi
p stuu wx L‚
(9)

In above equation 3 stands for gravitational force, Ta for ambient temperature and H represents the height of chimney.

3. Solution methodology and boundary conditions

In order to understand heat transfer and fluid flow inside the whole plant, a solar chimney power plant with
Manzanares Prototype plant’s dimensions was considered. This plant has a collector radius of 122 m, ground to
collector distance of 1.85 m which increases up to 6m adjacent to collector at the base of chimney for directing air
flow inside chimney. Chimney height and diameter is 195 m and 10 m respectively [2]. Model of SCPP was created in
ANSYS Design Modeller and the entire domain was divided into half to reduce the computational efforts. ICEM CFD
software was used for grid generation and grid independence test was conducted by judging maximum velocity on
three different mesh sizes having 66619, 163496 and 346862 nodes. The maximum velocity obtained was 8.5, 9.15
and 9.12 m/s respectively. Maximum velocity achieved at nodes 163496 and 346862 shows very little difference, so
further mesh refinement would only increase run time. Thus mesh size with 163496 nodes was chosen for all
simulations. Steady state condition was assumed and SIMPLE algorithm was chosen for pressure velocity coupling.
Solution was run for 2000 iterations to ensure that solution has converged and all residual values fall to convergence
criteria. The main boundary conditions adopted at different zones are given in table 1.

Table1. Main boundary conditions

Zone Type Value

Chimney Surface Wall(Opaque) -
Collector Wall(Semi Transparent ) Solar insolation
Ground Wall (Opaque) -
Collector Inlet Pressure inlet P=0 pa
Chimney Outlet Pressure Outlet P=0 pa

4. Results and discussion

CFD results were first verified by comparing them with the reported experimental results of Manzanares prototype. In
Manzanares prototype, on a typical day in June, air velocity of around 9 m/s and temperature rise of 17-19K were
reported [14]. In computed CFD results, maximum air velocity of 9.1 m/s at the base of chimney and temperature rise

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of 16K in collector were predicted, which are in accord with the experimental results and thus testify the numerical
models adopted for predicting the performance of SCPP.

4.1. Velocity and pressure distribution

The distribution of velocity and pressure in SCPP along symmetrical plane are illustrated in fig.2 (a) and (b)
respectively. It is observed that velocity of air increases slowly through the collector, but escalates sharply while
reaching at the base of chimney. At chimney inlet air achieves its maximum speed of 9.1m/s and then decreases
gradually. Likewise, static pressure drops abruptly near the chimney base varying in accordance with the velocity. So
it can be concluded that chimney base is the most suitable location for turbine installation, because air velocity is
maximum at this point.

(a) (b)

Fig.2. (a) Velocity, (b) pressure distribution along symmetry

4.2. Temperature Distribution

Fig.3 illustrates the temperature distribution in SCPP. It clearly exhibits that temperature of air rises beneath the
collector due to incident solar radiations and then almost remains constant along the chimney, because almost
negligible heat transfer takes place through the chimney’s walls. Temperature of ground is much higher near the centre
of collector, heating up more air and reaches up to 318K.This higher temperature of ground is due to the greenhouse
effect and higher specific heat of ground.

Temperature of Ground

Fig.3. Temperature contours along symmetry & ground

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4.3. Effects of employing water filled bags and glass as chimney’s material

The effects of using water filled bags and glass as a chimney’s material on the velocity distribution are illustrated
below in fig.4 (a) and (b) respectively.

It can be observed in fig.5 that utilization of water filled bags beneath the collector causes an increase in velocity
magnitude from 9.1 to 9.5m/s. One reason is that water has higher specific heat than natural ground and thus can store
greater amount of heat. This stored heat is radiated to the air flowing above, raising its temperature. Consequently, rise
in temperature causes a greater up thirst of air increasing its velocity. Likewise, employing glass as a chimney’s
material enhances the air velocity up to 9.8m/s as depicted in fig.6. Commonly, chimney is made up of metal or plastic
material. So if chimney is made up of glass, solar radiations can pass through it heating inside air and as a result higher
velocities are achieved.

A comparison of temperature along the centerline in horizontal plane for original Manzanares plant, employing water
filled bags and chimney made up of glass is presented in fig.5. It shows that in case when glass is used as a chimney’s
material, temperature rises sharply to a remarkable value of 670C near the inlet of chimney. This is due to the fact that
when glass is being used as a chimney’s material, chimney also participates in heat transfer and thus temperature of air
is enhanced. On the other hand in case when water filled bags are utilized, temperature rise is 2-30C higher as
compared to original Manzanares prototype plant due to greater heat storage capacity of water.

Fig.4. Velocity distribution (a)-employing water filled bags (b)-chimney made up of glass

Fig.5. Comparison of change in temperature for three different cases

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49

48

Electric Power Output(kW)

47

46

45

44

43
Manzanares Water filled bags Glass chimney

Fig.6. Power output for three different cases

Finally, the electric power output for three different cases is evaluated in fig.6. It illustrates that in case when water
filled bags are placed beneath the collector, the power output increases from 44.6kW to 46.6kW showing a percentage
increase of about 4%. In second case when chimney is made from glass the electric power increases up to 48kW with
a percentage increase of around 7%.

Conclusion

In this study a numerical investigation on solar chimney power plant was conducted by considering the geometrical
parameters of the Manzanares prototype in ANSYS FLUENT. Solar radiations were included by using solar load
model and RNG k-ɛ model was used to simulate turbulence effects. The numerical results were first compared with
the reported experimental results and were found to be in good agreement. On the basis of robustness of numerical
models, simulations were performed to study the effects of employing water filled bags and glass as a chimney’s
material. It was observed that usage of water filled bags and chimney made up of glass enhances the overall
performance of SCPP by 4% and 7% respectively.

Acknowledgements

The author thanks the faculty of U. S. Pakistan Centre for Advanced Studies in Energy (USPCAS-E) NUST, who
made their valuable efforts and supported this study.

References

[1] M. Asif, “Sustainable energy options for Pakistan,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 13, no. 4, pp. 903–909, 2009.
[2] J. Schlaich, The solar chimney: electricity from the sun. 1995.
[3] W. Haaf, K. Friedrich, and G. Mayr, “Solar chimneys part I: principle and construction of the pilot plant in Manzanares,”
Int. J., 1983.
[4] R. Mathur, “A Study of Solar Chimney Assisted Wind Tower System for Natural Ventilation in Buildings,” 1994.
[5] T. Physics, “Physical and Numerical Modelling of a Solar Chimney-based Ventilation System for Buildings,” vol. 27, no.
4, 1902.
[6] A. J. Gannon and T. W. Von Backstro, “With System Loss and Solar,” vol. 122, no. August, pp. 133–137, 2000.
[7] Y. . Dai, H. . Huang, and R. . Wang, “Case study of solar chimney power plants in Northwestern regions of China,”
Renew. Energy, vol. 28, no. 8, pp. 1295–1304, Jul. 2003.
[8] R. Sangi, M. Amidpour, and B. Hosseinizadeh, “Modeling and numerical simulation of solar chimney power plants,” Sol.
Energy, vol. 85, no. 5, pp. 829–838, May 2011.
[9] E. Gholamalizadeh and M.-H. Kim, “Three-dimensional CFD analysis for simulating the greenhouse effect in solar
chimney power plants using a two-band radiation model,” Renew. Energy, vol. 63, pp. 498–506, Mar. 2014.

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[10] S. K. Patel, D. Prasad, and M. R. Ahmed, “Computational studies on the effect of geometric parameters on the
performance of a solar chimney power plant,” Energy Convers. Manag., vol. 77, pp. 424–431, Jan. 2014.
[11] A. Koonsrisuk and T. Chitsomboon, “Accuracy of theoretical models in the prediction of solar chimney performance,” Sol.
Energy, vol. 83, no. 10, pp. 1764–1771, Oct. 2009.
[12] ANSYS FLUENT Theory Guide, vol. 15317, no. November. 2011, pp. 724–746.
[13] a. Asnaghi and S. M. Ladjevardi, “Solar chimney power plant performance in Iran,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 16,
no. 5, pp. 3383–3390, Jun. 2012.
[14] J. Schlaich, R. Bergermann, W. Schiel, and G. Weinrebe, “Design of Commercial Solar Updraft Tower Systems—
Utilization of Solar Induced Convective Flows for Power Generation,” J. Sol. Energy Eng., vol. 127, no. 1, p. 117, 2005.

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170. Development of Standalone Hybrid Solar Wind Power

Generation Model for Remote Areas of Pakistan

Shah Rukh Gula, Lala Rukh Memona, Pervez Hameed Shaikha*, Zohaib Hussain
Legharia, Danesh Kumara, Furqan Ali Memona
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro 76062, Pakistan
*E-mail address: pervez.hameed@faculty.muet.edu.pk

Abstract

Hybridization of renewable power sources need to be the current policy objective of any of the country.
The circumstances under which the hybrid power system have been trendy due to rapidly changing in
prices, depletion of fossil resources, environmental concerns and significantly its production would add
to the congestion of gird networks. This research has developed the hybrid solar and wind power system
for both proximate and geographically dispersed locations that might progress towards electricity
sustainability. The two renewable sources have been integrated to utilize each source potential
intermittent power generation capability along with the storage battery. The storage battery has dual
mode characteristics provided with charge control from the respective sources and supply source as well.
The monitoring and controlling system has been the core of the entire hybrid power system to maintain
the system healthy. The hybrid system posed satisfactory operation of integration of two renewable
sources and feeding the load with connected storage battery source. The proposed system is cost-
effective and can be utilized in remote locations where the load center is isolated from the grid network.
In future the proposed system would be integrated with the grid network for utilizing the utility supply
during unavailability of power generation from the renewable sources.

© 2016 Shah Rukh Gul, Lala Rukh Memon, Pervez Hameed Shaikh, Zohaib Hussain Leghari, Danesh Kumar, Furqan Ali Memon.
Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran
University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: Hybrid Power System; Renewable; Energy; Solar; Wind; Integration

1. Introduction

The rapid depletion and scarcity of fossil fuels around the world has made it compulsory to look for
alternative energy sources that would balance the required demand. In addition, a large ratio of world’s
population lives in rural or remote areas, which are somehow populated but isolated geographically. They
have very low demand, due to which such regions are not integrated to the grid. In order to develop such
areas, efficient and financially feasible methods are required to provide electricity to these areas. Hence
renewable energy sources are well-suited for this task.
Renewable energy sources (solar and wind energy) have been estimated as clean, unlimited,
inexhaustible and environmental friendly. Such characteristics of these sources have diverted the energy
sectors to use of renewable energy resources on a larger scale. Since, all renewable technologies are
having drawbacks. One of the rare drawbacks is their dependence on variable factors such as weather and
climatic conditions. However, due to both sources’ interdependent nature, some of the problems can be
compensated by overcoming the weaknesses of one source with the strengths of the other source.

Pakistan is one of the prosperous countries in the world that is enriched with many renewable energy
sources. The country is facing many problems nowadays such as energy crisis and also the problem of
extension of grids to remote rural areas. Thus alternative energy sources have been proposed as a solution
to overcome these problems. In such a case HPS can be a much preferable solution. HPS is the latest
technology which has been designed to overcome the reliability issue of renewable energy sources. It
basically integrates two or more renewable technologies to produce power. Nowadays research work is
being done on HPS in order to improve its efficiency, power quality, making it cost effective, and
designing an optimal HPS model.

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Number of authors has reported different techniques regarding HPS. Daniele at el [1] simulated a micro-
generation solar-wind hybrid system for street lighting. Mirza et al [2] studied the scope of wind energy
and proposed ideas for development of wind energy in Pakistan. Karim et al [3] deduced the parameters
and values used for optimally designing the HPS. He also used the weather data of Middle Eastern
countries and depicted the interdependent relationship between solar and wind plant in these weather
conditions. Maouedj et el [4] presented description of system components and technical specification of
hybrid solar-wind power system. Subodh et al [5] designed optimal mathematical model of hybrid solar-
wind power system to supply energy to a remote telecom station. Giuseppe et al [6] studied the design
problem of HPS and provided the optimal design using Fuzzy logics. Jiang et al [7] developed multi-
agent technology based hybrid energy system to improve the control system and reliability of the system.
Pradhan et al [8] performed a case study to evaluate the reliability of HPS in Nepal. Chaitanya et al [9]
presented a multi-input hybrid solar-wind energy system and also proposed dynamic modelling and
simulation of the system using SIMULINK. Musa et al [10] used MATLAB SIMULINK for feasibility
study for a stand-alone hybrid power system for three small communities at Maiduguri. Weida et al [11]
discussed the power distribution strategy for HPS to operate the engine in the zone of best fuel economy
through power regulation of battery.

2. Scope of energy in Pakistan

2.1. Conventional energy resources

Pakistan is naturally rewarded with large reserves of various conventional sources of energy, including
fossil fuels such as oil, gas, and coal sources. These conventional energy sources are able to produce
power at large scale to meet the energy demand of the country [12]. Thus a major portion of electricity in
Pakistan is produced by using these conventional sources of energy. The potential of these conventional
energy resources is shown in Table 1.
Table 1. Potential of conventional energy resources
Energy Resource Potential Source
Hydroelectricity 46,000 MW identified potential AEDB
Coal 185 billion tons Pakistan year book 2009
Crude Oil 326 million barrels reserves Pakistan year book 2009
Natural Gas 26 Trillion cubic feet proved reserves Pakistan year book 2009
Uranium 236 tons for nuclear power generation since 1980 Pakistan year book 2009

2.2. Alternate energy resources

It is the high time for Pakistan to switch to sustainable renewable energy systems. The renewable energy
resources are abundantly available in nature and have almost infinite life and are also eco-friendly
resources, thus will help to reduce the environmental hazards of that caused by the electricity generation
through fossil fuels [13]. However, switching over alternative energy resources this much quick is very
hard but yet these sources are proved to be very cost effective for power generation in the remote rural
areas, where there is no extension of grid. In present times the ratio of alternative energy in total energy
mix is negligible. But according to Vision 2030, after 14 years this ratio of alternative energy in overall
energy mix seems to rise up to 5% [12]. Thus active efforts are required from stakeholders to achieve this
ratio of 5%. The renewable energy resources’ potential in Pakistan is given in Table 2.

2.3. Renewable energy resources—Solar and Wind

Pakistan is one of the largest country in the world and the rate of electrification has not been in pace with
ever expanding urbanization, population and industrialization and has resulted in the increasing gap
between demand and supply of electrical power. This has not only caused under electrification but has
also employed a heavy pressure over governments in order to maintain pace with electricity demand. As
a result of this, the country is not only facing problem of unwanted shortages but also precious and heavy
amount is expended on importing of furnace oil to operate the large thermal power plants in the country.
Thus in such a case, use of renewable technologies can considerably help to overcome these problems.
Table 2. Potential of renewable energy resources
Energy Resource Potential Source
Wind Energy 346,000 MW IEP 2009 and AEDB
Solar Energy 2.9 Million MW IEP 2009 and AEDB
Bio Gas 2,000 Million MW IEP 2009 and AEDB
Small Hydel 2,000 Million MW IEP 2009 and AEDB

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Renewable energy is considerably an under-developing sector in Pakistan. However, in recent time, some
interest has been shown by some environmentalist authorities and groups to utilize renewable energy
resources for producing electrical power, in order to overcome the energy supply and demand gap and
undesired power outages which are influencing the economy of the country. Thus, there is lot of scope of
using alternative energy resources such as wind and solar in Pakistan.

3. Methodology

HPS is a combination of different electric power generators to produce power. Hybrid systems, as their
name suggests, integrate two or more electricity generation sources together. Mostly renewable
technologies like photovoltaic (PV) panels and wind turbine generators are used for making a HPS. The
block diagram of the proposed HPS is shown in Fig 1. Each step of developing HPS is further described
in following sections:

3.1. Solar power generator

For solar power generation, solar cells have been used. A solar cell is a photo-voltaic cell which is photo
sensitive. When sunlight falls upon the cell, the electrons in N side gain enough energy to breakdown and
become free electrons and start flow from N to P. If an external circuit is connected the electron starts to
flow through it thus generating electric power. Different types of solar cells are available in the market.
For example, Monocrystalline (18% efficiency), Polycrystalline (15% efficiency) and Thin film or
amorphous (10% efficiency) as shown in Fig 2. Different parameters are considered for selecting solar
panel for generating the electric power. For example, (i) Power rating: This parameter usually varies
from 0.1 to 1.5 kW, (ii) Inclination angle: This ideally is considered as 15 to 20 degrees to capture most
of the solar irradiance, (iii) Efficiency: This is defined as how efficiently the solar panel converts solar
irradiance into electricity, (iv) Solar output: This is the amount of electric power produced by solar panel
depends on the amount of the sun light falling on the panel, size of panel and efficiency of the solar cells
inside and is expressed by Eq. (1)
E = A × r × H × PR kWh (1)

Fig. 1. Block diagram of proposed HPS

Table 4. Wind Power Generation Model Dimensions and Parameters

S.No. Parameter Type/Value
1 Type HAWT
2 Material of blade Fiber
3 Number of blades 3
4 Length of blade 3 ft
5 Twist angle of blades 100
6 Power rating of wind turbine generator 100 W (12V, 8.34A)
7 Shape of blade As shown in Figure 3

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Fig. 2. Types of solar cells

Table 3. Solar power generation model dimensions and parameters

S.No. Parameter Type/Value
1 Type Polycrystalline
2 Inclination Angle 20º
3 Efficiency 21%
4 Power Rating 20W(12V, 1.7 A)

where A is the area of solar panel in m2, r is the solar panel yield expressed in percentage. H is the
average solar radiation annually on tilted panels, PR is the performance ratio (value lies between 0.5 and
0.9, default value = 0.75). For the proposed system, following dimensions and parameters are selected
and are shown in Table 3.

3.2. Wind power generator

For producing wind power generator, a wind turbine is used. It is basically a rotatory part that converts
the mechanical pressure of wind energy into the electricity. There are two types of wind turbines:
Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT) and Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT). The wind power
output theoretically is defined as 0.59 times the kinetic energy of the air passing through the effective
disk area. Thus the maximum theoretical power output of the wind turbine generator is given in Equation
(2):

P = 0.5 ρv 3 A Watts (2)

where A is effective disk area in m2, v = wind velocity in m/s, ρ = Air density in Kg/m2. In designing and
fabricating the wind turbine usually following factors are considered: (i) Material of blade: In early times
wood and canvas sail were used and now Aluminum metals are used due to their light weight, (ii)
Number of blades: Number of blades greatly affects aerodynamics efficiency, component cost and
system reliability. The optimum number of slides for wind turbine is 3, (iii) Shape of blade: Blade shape
also plays an important role in voltage production. Both the surface area of the blade and shape are
important. In the proposed system, the blade shape used as shown in Fig 3 for wind generator model in
order to get the desired voltage output. (iv) Length of blade: Longer the length of blade, more the power
can be extracted, (v) Twist angle of blade: Typically the twist angle of rotor blades of a wind turbine
generator is kept from 100 to 200 from root to tip. The parameters used for wind power generator model
are given in Table 4.

Fig. 3. Shape of rotor blade used in wind generator model

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3.3. Charge controller and status display system

A charge controller circuit has been used to control the flow of charges from both the power sources to
the battery. Furthermore, an LCD has been used to display the status of system. The block diagram of
charge controller and display system is shown in Figure 4.

3.4. Hybrid solar wind power system

After completing the wind turbine and solar power generator setup, the output of each power source is
checked. After successful power generations from both the power sources, these are combined. While
doing this process, the voltage of each power source is considered, this is because, if there will be
mismatch in any parameter stated before in Table 3 and Table 4 above, the system may not work or even
a part of whole system may damage.

3.5. Energy storage battery

A battery is used to store the power generated by the system. The solar panel generates the power in day
time only, while the output of wind turbine generator is dependent on the availability of wind. Thus the
power generated by the hybrid solar-wind power system need to be stored as a supply backup. The power
of system can only be stored only if the energy supplied by the system is greater than energy required by
battery to store electrical power. In the proposed system a battery of rating 12V Ah is used. The battery
stores the power, provided the both sources are supplying power or either any one of source is supplying
power. This battery is also used to supply the DC electrical loads connected to it. The battery will supply
loads only if energy stored in battery is greater than the energy required to drive the load.

3.6. DC Electrical load

In order to consume the DC output of the proposed hybrid system, a DC electrical load (LED light, DC
fan) is used.

Results and discussions

In order to design a prototype of hybrid solar wind power plant for very small scale around 120 watts, 20
watts solar panel and a 100 watts wind turbine generator were used. The solar panel of a rating of 20
watts was directly purchased from market. Considering geographical location, the solar cell of
polycrystalline has been used. In order to harness the maximum possible solar energy from the Sun, the
plate was set at an angle of 20°. The typical cell operating temperature of solar cell was 45°C. For wind
power generation, a wind turbine of 100 watts was designed. The fiber was used as the material of blades
because it is very light in weight and can start rotating at very small amount of wind speed. The length of
the blade was set to 3 feet in order to get the desired voltage and power. The twist angle of blade was set

Fig. 4. Charge controller and status display system block diagram

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at 10°. To setup hybrid system, it was necessary that the DC voltage produced by both the sources should
be equal. To synchronize both the sources their output voltage was checked first. When it was noticed
that output voltage produced by both sources is equal then both sources were integrated together. In order
to prevent the flow of current from one source to another or from battery to any source diodes were
applied to prevent unwanted flow of current.
After setting up the hybrid system successfully, it was tested and results were evaluated. For this purpose,
the model was operated over the old administration building of the Mehran University campus and its
performance was evaluated in the Campus during working hours from 8:00 to 18:00. The solar
irradiation, wind speed, solar generation model output and wind generation model output was evaluated
as a function of time. The variation in solar irradiance throughout the working hours from 8:00 to 18:00
is shown in Fig 5. The horizontal axis show the time with the interval of one hour while vertical axis
shows the irradiance in W/m2. It can easily be observed from the graph that irradiance increases hour by
hour reaching to peak hours of solar irradiance i.e up to 3-00 pm, after then it decreases slowly as sun
sets down.

The variation in wind speed throughout the working hours from 8:00 to 18:00 is shown in Fig 6. The
horizontal axis shows the time interval with the step of one hour while vertical axis shows the wind speed
in Kilometers per hour. The graph shows that wind speed is low in early morning hours while it goes up
in the end evening hours due to cloudy season in end of August.

The variation in temperature throughout the working hours from 8:00 to 18:00 is shown in Fig 7. The
horizontal axis show the time interval with the step of one hour while vertical axis shows the temperature
in scale of degree Celsius. The graph shows that in morning hours the temperature remains between 250C
to 300C. However, as time increases, the temperature also increases and it remains high up to the evening
i.e 4-00 pm. After that temperature start to decrease as the sun goes to set down.

Fig. 5. Hourly variation in solar irradiance

Fig. 6. Hourly variation in wind speed

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Fig. 9. Hourly variation in Wind Power Generation

Fig. 7. Hourly variation in Temperature

Fig. 8. Hourly variation in Solar Power Generation

Fig 8 shows the variation in solar generation model output throughout the working hours from 8:00 to
18:00. The horizontal axis show the time while vertical axis shows the power in Watt. The graph reveals
that solar model output is low in morning hours, since the solar irradiance is low in these hours.
However, it produces high power of about 19.8 Watt in peak hours of heat, i.e from 1-00 pm to 3-00 pm.
The power generation becomes low in the evening hours as solar irradiance starts to decrease in the

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evening.

Fig 9 shows the variation in wind generation model output throughout the working hours from 8:00 to
18:00. The horizontal axis show the time while vertical axis shows the power in Watt. The graph shows
the zigzag behaviour of the output of the wind power generation model. In morning hours the wind
pressure is low, thus power generation is low, however, it increases with increase in time and gives
highest output in the evening hours from 5-00 to 6-00 pm when there is good pressure of air in the
atmosphere. It also can be noted from the graph that there is fluctuation in the output due to increasing
and decreasing pressure of air throughout the day.

The variation in Hybrid generation model output throughout the working hours from 8:00 to 18:00 is
shown in Fig 10. The hybrid power is the sum of power generated by the both sources wind and solar and
mathematically is expressed as under:

PHYBRID = PSOLAR + PWIND (3)

The horizontal axis show the time while vertical axis shows the power in Watts. As the graph shows the
power output is low in the morning hours as both solar and wind generation models produce low power
output in the morning hours, while power output is high of about 118 Watts in the midday and in evening
as solar model produce high power output in the mid of the day while wind model produce high power
output in the evening.

Fig. 10. Hourly variation in Hybrid System Generation

Finally, we have compared the output of the three power generation models: Solar, Wind and Hybrid
throughout the working hours from 8:00 to 18:00. The bar graph shown in Fig 11, depicts that the Hybrid
system produce total power output of about 120 Watts, in which 100 Watts are contributed by Solar
system while 20 watts are contributed by Wind power generation model.

Fig. 11. Comparison of output of three power generation models

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4. Conclusions

Electricity demand is increasing day by day with increasing population, which cannot be fulfilled by non-
renewable energy sources alone as they are depleting day by day. In order to cope with this demand,
there is need of warmly welcoming renewable energy sources such as solar and wind, as these sources
are unlimited, and environmental friendly. These are exceptional options but unpredictable due to the
stochastic nature of their occurrence. The proposed HPS integrates two renewable energy sources like
wind turbine and solar system. Solar and wind energy system is one of the most prominent sources of
energy. The field of solar–wind has experienced a remarkable growth for past two decades in its
widespread use of standalone to utility interactive solar–wind systems. Solar and wind energy system
works normally in standalone and equally operate on grid connected mode, but the efficiency of these
sources is less due to the stochastic nature of solar and wind resources. The hybrid renewable energy
sources with grid integration overcome this drawback of being unpredictable in nature. Thus it is more
convenient to use hybrid-solar wind power system as it is more efficient and reliable and also ensures
continuity of supply. The rural areas of Pakistan possess great potential of renewable energy resources
(Sun and wind). Hence a stand-alone hybrid solar-wind power system can be a useful solution for
producing electrical power in such regions. The proposed system can be used as stand-alone system at
various off-shore-on-shore regions.

Acknowledgment

The authors are grateful to USPCAS – E Peshawar for project grant (USPCAS-E ARG-Dec15-042) to
carry out the research. They would also like to acknowledge Mehran UET Jamshoro & UET Peshawar
for joint carrying of the project.

References

[1] D. Vitali, R. Ricci, “Design, testing and simulation of hybrid wind-solar energy systems” Curriculum: energy sciences,
Doctoral School on Engineering Sciences. 2013.
[2] U.K. Mirza, N. Ahmad, T. Majeed, K. Harijan, "Wind energy development in Pakistan", Elsevier, Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews, vol. 11, No. 9, pp. 2179-2190, December 2007.
[3] K. Mousa, H. AlZu’bi, A. Diabat “Design of a hybrid solar-wind power plant using optimization”, 2nd International
conference on Engineering Systems Management and its Applications (ICESMA), 2010.
[4] R. Maouedj, A. Mammeri, M.D. Draou and B. Benyoucef, “Performance evaluation of hybrid photovoltaic-wind power
systems”, The International Conference on Technologies and Materials for Renewable Energy, Environment and
Sustainability, (TMREES’14), Energy Procedia, vol. 50, pp. 797 – 807, Beirut, December 2014.
[5] Subodh Paudel, J.N. Shrestha, Fernando J. Neto, Jorge A.F. Ferreira, Muna Adhikari “Optimization of hybrid PV/Wind
power system for remote telecom station”, International conference on Power and Energy Systems (ICPS’11), December
2011.
[6] G. L. Terra, G. Salvina, T. G. Marco “Optimal sizing procedure for hybrid solar wind power systems by fuzzy logic”, IEEE
MELECON, Benalmádena (Málaga), Spain, May 16-19, 2006.
[7] J. Chang, S-Y Jia, “Modeling and application of Wind-Solar energy hybrid power generation system based on multi-agent
technology”, Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Machine Learning and Cybernetics, Baoding, 12-15 July
2009.
[8] N. Pradhan, N. R. Kark, B. R. Pokhrel, “Reliability evaluation of small standalone hybrid solar PV-Wind power system”,
IEEE ICSET 2012, Nepal.
[9] C. Marisarla, K. R. Kumar, “A hybrid wind and solar energy system with battery energy storage for an isolated system”,
International Journal of Engineering and Innovative Technology (IJEIT) Vol. 3, Issue 3, September 2013.
[10] B. U. Musa, B. M. Kalli, M.G. Sadiq and B. U. Tijjani, “Modeling and Analysis of Hybrid Solar/Wind Power System for a
Small Community”, IOSR Journal of Electrical and Electronics Engineering (IOSR-JEEE) e-ISSN: 2278-1676, p-ISSN:
2320-3331, Volume 10, Issue 1 Ver. I, pp 39-45, (Jan – Feb. 2015)
[11] W. Wang, C. Xiang, Y. Wang, L. Han, “Research on the battery power model for the power distribution of parallel-series
hybrid power system”, 10th IEEE International Conference on Control and Automation (ICCA) Hangzhou, China, June 12-14,
2013.
[12] R. Luna-Rubio, M. Trejo-Perea, D. Vargas-Vazquez, G-J. Rios-Moreno, "Optimal sizing of renewable hybrids energy
systems: A review of methodologies", Solar Energy, vol. 86, No. 4, pp. 1077-1088, April 2012.
[13] www.newspakistan.pk/2012/02/18/alternate-energy-sources

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174. Study of Incremental Conductance Maximum Power

Point Technique under Non-Uniform Solar Irradiations
Conditions for Solar PV system

M. Zuhaiba*, Amjad Alic, Asghar Alia, Zahid Ali Memon*b, Ahsanullah Memona
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, MUET SZAB, khairpurmir’s, Pakistan
b
Mehran University Institute of Science, Technology and Development
c
College of Electrical Engineering,Zhejiang University, China
E-mail address: zaibkamboh123@gmail.com

Abstract

To meet the increasing demand of power, there is rapid rise in the development and utilization of
renewable energy resources, particularly energy scavenging from solar irradiations. In the recent years
energy scavenging from sun has been receiving considerable attention due to versatile advantages. The
advantages by the photovoltaic (PV) system when put to use for energy conversion include low
maintenance cost, noiseless operation, no limitations, economical friendly and pollution free energy.
PV is considered as one of the most important renewable energy sources, since solar energy is
inexhaustible, free and clean. In this paper we will be focusing on the maximum output power
utilization of PV array, by using incremental conductance (INC) MPPT method, which is commonly
used methods to get the optimum efficiency from PV system under non-uniform solar irradiations.
MPPT’s are used to maximize the output of PV arrays, by tracking MPP. MATLAB software is used
for simulation and Microsoft Visio for diagramming and flow charts. In this paper we will investigate
output voltage and power variations of INC MPPT technique at different duty cycles (ʎ) under non-
uniform solar irradiations. Which will help in selecting the appropriate MPPT technique and its merits
and demerits on solar PV array applications for future developments.

© 2016 “M.Zuhaib, Amjad Ali, AsgharAli,, Zahid Ali Memon and Ahsanullah Memon” Selection and/or peer-review under
responsibility of Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and
Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: “MPPT, Solar PV System Control".

1. Introduction:

Power crisis are becoming extensive and more severe in today’s era. Because depilation of
conventional fossil fuels, which unlimitedly used in power and transportation system. From the last few
decades considerable efforts have been made to utilize renewable energy sources (RESs) in to
conventional power generation system to reduce the rapid diminution of fossil fuels and environmental
pollution. Solar energy is one of the abundantly available sources of renewable energy which can be
one of the main source of future power generation system in standalone and grid connected for
domestic, commercial and industrial applications [1]. Due to its flexibility and adaptability in grid
connected or standalone mode, photovoltaic has attracted extensive attention of PV system
manufacturers and researcher for its maximum utilization and optimization. Technically there are two
ways to improve the effectiveness and optimization of solar PV system, either it could be possible to
develop low cost high efficiency solar conversion materials or to control the PV system at maximum
power point (MPP) for getting best possible output power. Because of the high cost of solar cells, it is

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necessary to operate the PV array at the maximum operating point. Therefore maximum power Point
tracking (MPPT) is considered as an essential part of PV generation system and is one of the key issue
for researchers to reduce the effects of nonlinear characteristics of PV array [2].So far different
maximum power point algorithms have been proposed for optimization of PV output power, such as
Incremental Conductance (INC) [3, 4], Perturb & Observe (P&O) [5-7], Hill Climbing [8, 9], Fuzzy
Logic Control (FLC), Neural Network (NN) and Genetic Algorithm (GA) [10-12].

Among all the aforementioned MPPT algorithms, incremental conductance (INC) and perturb &
observe (P&O) are commonly used for small and large scale PV power plants because both the
algorithms operates in accordance with power against voltage (P-V) curve of PV module and tune the
duty cycle of converter to ensure the next MPP point accordingly. In this paper we will be investigating
the INC MPPT method under non-uniform solar irradiance conditions with different duty cycles (ʎ) to
investigate its output voltage stability and power variations. PV array system configuration with MPPT
and DC-DC boost converter is depicted in Fig.-1.

MPPT

DC Bus
VPV
DC/DC Boost
Irradiation PV Array VOUt
Converter
IPV

Fig.1. PV System Configuration with MPPT

2. PV Module Modelling

PV generation system are defined as voltage (V) or current (I) source. Practically solar cell is a hybrid
behaviour device which can either be V or I source. Because of nonlinearity of environmental
conditions PV module has non-linear characteristic. For PV system applications, it is important to
model it according to the design requirements of MPPT. In this paper, 36W PV panel is taken as
reference, and the required solar cell model is developed in MATLAB/SIMULINK by following the
equation-1 to 4. Whereas , PV module electrical data sheet is given in table-1 [13].
3
#$% & '#()* + ,- (. / 298) ∗ 6 (1)
4555

In equation-1 solar cell photocurrent #$% is obtained, where the short-circuit current #()* =2.55A with
(STC) standard test condition at 258 and solar irradiation of10009 ⁄:; . Further, the ISC temperature
co-efficient(,- & 0.0017 ?@8), operating temperature of module is T in Kelvin.
#
#*A & ()*N DEFG (2)
'exp C M / 16
HI JKL

In equation-2, O & 1.6 P 10Q4R S, VOC is 21.24 as given in manufacturer voltage of PV panel data
W
sheet, Boltzmann constant T & 1.3805 P 10Q;V @, and ideality factor is (A=1.6).

L Z[\ 4 4
#F & #*A X YV expX O ∗ _ / aY (3)
L* ]^ L` L

In equation-3, the band gap Ego of silicon solar cell = 1.1eV

XdD∗(Eef ghef iI jY
#bE & c$ ∗ #$% / c$ ∗ #5 Xexp _O ∗ 6/1 (4)
HI K^L

According to the data sheet specification of solar panel as given in table-1. 3 KW PV system is
simulated where, in one PV panel number of parallel solar cell (Np=1), numbers of solar cell in series

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(Ns=36) and PV output voltage VPV are equal to open circuit voltage VOC of PV panel.

Table-1: Solar 36W PV Module Electrical Data Characteristic

3. Incremental Conductance MPPT Method.

The conventional incremental conductance method is driven by following the equation (6) to find the
slope of P-V curve. In equation 6 it determines that the operating point of PV module is at its MPP
level as can seen in Fig 2. Whereas, reference to equations (7) & (8) are operating at left and right side
of P-V curve to achieve the MPP accordingly by increasing and decreasing duty cycle of INC
controller algorithm methodology as shown in table-2 and in Fig. 3 its flow chart is given [14, 15] .

kl l
& / (6)
km m

kl l
n / (7)
km m

kl l
o / (8)
km m

3 40
dI/dV = - I/V
e
lin

2.8
ad

MPP
Lo

2.6 35
dI/dV > - I/V
2.4
dI/dV < - I/V 30
2.2
2
Left side of MPP
Right side of MPP

Positive Slope
Negative Slope

25
Current (I)

1.8
Power (P)

1.6
20
1.4
1.2
15
1
0.8 10
0.6
0.4 5
0.2
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Voltage(V)
Fig. 2. Incremental Conductance MPP Curve

Table-2. Incremental Conductance Algorithm Methodology[16]

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The scheme of (6), (7) & (8) is that the slope of P-V curve at MPP is equal to zero as described in (9).

kp
&0 (9)
km

Therefore, (9) can be rewritten as

kp k(l∗m) kl km
& & V∗ +I∗ (10)
km km km km

kp kl
V∗ +I (11)
km km

Which implies that

kl l
+ &0 (12)
km m

Fig. 3. Incremental Conductance MPPT Algorithm Flow Chart

However, in INC the slope of PV curve determines by varying the converter duty cycle in fixed or
variable step size until the MPP is achieved. The larger step size helps to reduce the MPP tracking time
but not get rid of the oscillation around MPP [17], the smaller step size reduces the oscillation under
rapidly changing solar irradiance conditions with greater efficiency but due to smaller step size and
complicated algorithm speed is slow [4, 18].

4. Simulation Results and Discussions.

To investigate the performance of incremental conductance MPPT method under non-uniform solar
irradiance at different duty cycles. A MATLAB Simulink model was developed as shown in Fig. 4,
which consist of the PV array, a DC-DC boost converter and incremental conductance MPPT
controller technique.

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Fig. 4. MATLAB/Simulink Model of INC MPPT

Furthermore, to investigate the effectiveness of the incremental conductance MPPT method at different
duty cycles at ∆d= 0.001, 0.005 and 0.01. The output voltage results in Fig-5 (A, B and C) in magenta
colour and output power in Fig -6 (A, B and C) in green colour clearly illustrates that performance of
the INC MPPT.

Fig.5. Output Voltage of MPPT Control at ∆d= 0.001, 0.005 and 0.01

It can be observe in Figs. 5 (A, B & C) as ∆d is increases from 0.001 to 0.01, INC's output voltage
decreases from the range of (385-407) volts to (374-397) where the upper limit decreases to 10 volts
and the lower limit went down to 11 volts.
3200 3200 3200

3100 3100 3100

C
P ower (W)

A
P ower (W)

B
P ower (W)

3000 3000 3000

2900 2900 2900

2800 2800 2800

Dd= 0.005
2700 2700 2700
Dd= 0.001 Dd= 0.01
2600 2600 2600
0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0. 05 0.06 0. 07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0. 05 0.06 0. 07 0.08 0.09 0.1 0.01 0. 02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0.06 0.07 0. 08 0. 09 0. 1
Time (sec ) Time (sec ) Time (sec)
Fig.-6. Output Power of MPPT Control at ∆d= 0.001, 0.005 and 0.01

In the same way, in Fig. 6 (A, B & C) output power of INC at ∆d = 0.001, INC's output power is
between (2775-3100) watts, and at ∆d=0.01 INC's output power is (2625-2955).

Furthermore, table-3 surmises the measurement output voltage and power of INC at duty cycle ∆d=
0.001, 0.005 and 0.01 in order to verify the repeatability of the results, It can be seen that smaller ∆d
reduces the steady-state losses caused by the oscillation of the PV operating point around the MPP, but
it makes the algorithm slower and less efficient in the case of rapidly change in solar irradiations and
larger step size contributes to faster dynamics but excessive steady state oscillations, resulting in a
comparatively low efficiency as it can easily be seen in Figs. 5 & 6.

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Table-3. INC Output Voltage and Power Comparisons at Different ∆d
∆d
Voltage Power
Irradi 0 0 0 0 0 0
. . . . . .
ation
0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 1 0 0 1
1 5 1 5

(W/m
2
)
600 3 3 3 2 2 2
8 8 7 8 7 6
8 3 8 2 5 8
. . . 7 1 7
4 1 5
800 3 3 3 2 2 2
9 9 8 9 8 8
6 1 6 5 7 0
. . . 3 4 4
8 5 7
1000 4 3 3 3 2 2
0 9 9 0 9 9
4 9 5 8 9 3
. . . 1 2 1
9 4 7

5. Conclusion

This paper presents a study analysis of incremental conductance method with different duty cycles (∆d)
under non-uniform solar irradiations in MATLAB/Simulink. Simulation results reveals smaller ∆d
decreases the steady-state losses caused by the oscillation around the MPP and the larger the step size
tends to faster dynamics but produces unnecessary steady state oscillations. Resulting in a
comparatively low efficiency. Considering the best possible rapport of incremental conductance
simulation at 0.001 step change response of ∆d obtained maximum power from PV system.

References

[1] Z. Liao, and X. Ruan, "Control strategy of bi-directional DC/DC converter for a novel stand-alone photovoltaic power
system." pp. 1-6.
[2] A. Ali, W. Li, and X. He, “Simple Moving Voltage Average Incremental Conductance MPPT Technique with Direct
Control Method under Nonuniform Solar Irradiance Conditions,” International Journal of Photoenergy, vol. 2015,
2015.
[3] F. Liu, S. Duan, F. Liu, B. Liu, and Y. Kang, “A Variable Step Size INC MPPT Method for PV Systems,” IEEE
Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 55, no. 7, pp. 2622-2628, 2008.
[4] A. Safari, and S. Mekhilef, “Simulation and Hardware Implementation of Incremental Conductance MPPT With
Direct Control Method Using Cuk Converter,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 58, no. 4, pp. 1154-
1161, 2011.
[5] N. Femia, G. Petrone, G. Spagnuolo, and M. Vitelli, “A Technique for Improving P&O MPPT Performances of
Double-Stage Grid-Connected Photovoltaic Systems,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 56, no. 11,
pp. 4473-4482, 2009.
[6] N. Fermia, D. Granozio, G. Petrone, and M. Vitelli, “Predictive & Adaptive MPPT Perturb and Observe Method,”
IEEE Transactions on Aerospace and Electronic Systems, vol. 43, no. 3, pp. 934-950, 2007.
[7] A. K. Abdelsalam, A. M. Massoud, S. Ahmed, and P. N. Enjeti, “High-Performance Adaptive Perturb and Observe
MPPT Technique for Photovoltaic-Based Microgrids,” IEEE Transactions on Power Electronics, vol. 26, no. 4, pp.
1010-1021, 2011.
[8] S. Jain, and V. Agarwal, “A new algorithm for rapid tracking of approximate maximum power point in photovoltaic
systems,” IEEE Power Electronics Letters, vol. 2, no. 1, pp. 16-19, 2004.
[9] X. Weidong, and W. G. Dunford, "A modified adaptive hill climbing MPPT method for photovoltaic power systems."
pp. 1957-1963 Vol.3.
[10] A. Varnham, A. M. Al-Ibrahim, G. S. Virk, and D. Azzi, “Soft-Computing Model-Based Controllers for Increased
Photovoltaic Plant Efficiencies,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 22, no. 4, pp. 873-880, 2007.
[11] D.-C. L. Ahmed G. Abo-Khalil, Jul-Ki Seok, Jong-Woo Choi, Heung-Geun Kim, “Maximum Power Point Tracking
Controller Connecting PV System to Grid,” Journal of Power Electronics, vol. 6, no. 3, pp. 9, July 2006, 2006.
[12] J. L. Agorreta, L. Reinaldos, R. Gonzalez, M. Borrega, J. Balda, and L. Marroyo, “Fuzzy Switching Technique
Applied to PWM Boost Converter Operating in Mixed Conduction Mode for PV Systems,” IEEE Transactions on
Industrial Electronics, vol. 56, no. 11, pp. 4363-4373, 2009.
[13] A. Ali, Y. Gu, C. Xu, W. Li, and X. He, "Comparing the performance of different control techniques for DC-DC
boost converter with variable solar PV generation in DC microgrid." pp. 603-609.

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[14] K. Kobayashi, I. Takano, and Y. Sawada, “A study of a two stage maximum power point tracking control of a
photovoltaic system under partially shaded insolation conditions,” Solar energy materials and solar cells, vol. 90, no.
18, pp. 2975-2988, 2006.
[15] H. Patel, and V. Agarwal, “Maximum Power Point Tracking Scheme for PV Systems Operating Under Partially
Shaded Conditions,” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, vol. 55, no. 4, pp. 1689-1698, 2008.
[16] S. Kumar Dash, S. Nema, R. K. Nema, and D. Verma, “A comprehensive assessment of maximum power point
tracking techniques under uniform and non-uniform irradiance and its impact on photovoltaic systems: A review,”
Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 063113, 2015.
[17] T. Esram, and P. L. Chapman, “Comparison of Photovoltaic Array Maximum Power Point Tracking Techniques,”
IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 22, no. 2, pp. 439-449, 2007.
[18] A. Woyte, V. V. Thong, R. Belmans, and J. Nijs, “Voltage fluctuations on distribution level introduced by
photovoltaic systems,” IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion, vol. 21, no. 1, pp. 202-209, 2006.

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182. Comparative Engine Performance Analysis using Diesel

fuel and Biodiesel derived from Waste cooking Oil.
M.Waseem Ahmeda*, A.M. Liaquat b, Khanji Harijan a.
a Energy System Engineering, Directorate Post Graduate Studies, Mehran University of Engineering & Technology, Jamshoro,
76062, Pakistan.
b
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Quaid-e Awam University of Engineering, Science & Technology Nawabshah, 67450,
Pakistan.
E-mail address: wam.hala@gmail.com

Abstract

“Biofuels have been neglected by government policies and have not been given importance since long
time. It ensures energy security through partially replacing by imported fuels. Biodiesel is mostly
produced from oil-seed feed stock through transesterification process. Biodiesel can be effectively used
in diesel engine without any engine modification. It has most of the properties very close to diesel fuel.
Use of waste cooking oil in diesel engines is more sustainable if they can perform with similar properties
as compared to petroleum diesel fuel. In this research paper, engine performance during endurance test
has been analyzed using petroleum diesel (DF) as baseline and biodiesel blended fuel B20 (20% waste
cooking oil biodiesel and 80% diesel fuel). However, an endurance test was carried out for 50 hours at
constant speed of 1300 rpm and varied load conditions (0.1Kg-m to 2.0 Kg-m) in a single cylinder four
stroke compression ignition engine. During analysis, brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) was
increased by 8.16% to 16.66% with an average of 13.79% for B20 as compared to DF, and brake thermal
efficiency (BTE) was decreased by 5.17% to 12.12% with an average of 9.65% for biodiesel blend B20
as compared to DF. Moreover, analysis of some fuel properties of DF and B20 has also been discussed in
this research paper”

© 2016 M. Waseem Ahmed, A.M. Liaquat, Khanji Harijan, Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and
Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: Waste Cooking Oil Biodiesel; Engine Performance; Fuel Properties.

1. Introduction

Since industrial revolution many forms of energy have become part of life of human being. Secondly
increase in population directly proportional to energy demand. Fossil fuels, petroleum based liquid fuels,
natural gas have been got importance to fulfil our energy demand. However they are non-renewable, so
these fossil fuels should be exhausted in the near future [1]. This situation has occurred adverse effect
with rapid increase in energy demand with significant worldwide population growth. At present the
uncertainties concerning adequate and stable supply of petroleum products have renewed interest in
renewable energy source. Therefore the demand for clean, reliable and economically feasible renewable
energy source was needed [2]. Edible and nonedible oils are renewable energy source can be used as
diesel fuel. Vegetable oil, edible oil and nonedible oil have most of the properties very close to diesel fuel
[3]. However direct use of vegetable oil in diesel engine leads to problems of gum formation and smoky
exhaust due to incomplete combustion [4]. It is suggested to produce biodiesel from using waste edible
oil due to its low cost, disposable problems and potential contamination [5]. Biodiesel is environment
friendly, non-toxic and reduces atmospheric pollution level. Biodiesel blends can be used in compression
ignition diesel engine without any modification in engine parts. However its 100% use in diesel engine
requires some modification [6]. Biodiesel has following advantages, carbon neutrality, potential for
sustainable production, positive contribution to the energy self-sufficiency rate and prevention of air
pollution [7].

Recent studies have been conducted on the physical, chemical properties and engine performance
characteristics of biodiesel derived from waste cooking oil. Mofijur et al [8], studied the properties,
performance of 5% and 10% palm and Moringa oleifera biodiesel blends (PB5, PB10, MB5,MB10) in a
multi cylinder diesel engine at various engine speeds, PB5, MB5, PB10 and MB10 produced 1.38%,
2.27%,3.16% and 4.22% lower brake power and 0.69%, 2.56%,2.02%, and 5.13% higher BSFC,
respectively than diesel fuel. Liaquat et al [9], investigated the effects of Palm oil biodiesel PB20 and

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diesel fuel during an endurance test, he found 3.88% higher BSFC, 11.7% lower BTE as compared to
diesel fuel. Ndayishimiye and Tazerout [10], studied engine performance characteristics of palm oil
biodiesel in a diesel engine and found that a high percentage of palm oil biodiesel blended with diesel
fuel decreases the heating value, while increases brake thermal efficiency. In other study, Liaquat et al
[11], worked on 5% and 15% blends of coconut biodiesel in a single cylinder diesel engine. A torque
reduction was 0.69% and 2.58%, power reduction was 0.66% and 2.61% and higher BSFC were found
0.53% and 2.11% for 5% and 15% blended palm oil biodiesel respectively. How et al, [12] studied the
effect of 10%, 30% and 50% blends of coconut biodiesel on performance in a multi cylinder diesel
engine. They observed 0.4-20% higher BSFC than diesel fuel at different throttle setting. Sanjid et al,
[13] evaluated the production, physiochemical properties, engine performance of jatropha, palm and
combination of palm and jatropha biodiesel in a (PBJB5 and PBJB10) in an unmodified diesel engine at
engine speed from 1400 rpm to 2200rpm. PBJB5 and PBJB10 biodiesel showed 7.55% and 19.82%
higher BSFC, slightly lower Brake Power.

1.1 Economic features of Biodiesel

Pakistan is a country in acute shortage of energy. Pakistan can only progress by controlling energy
shortage in swift and innovative fashion. One of the steps towards such solution is usage of Biodiesel. As
discussed in earlier Biodiesel is an option which can not only be helpful in solution of the shortage of
energy issue, but simultaneously can contribute heavily into the GDP of Pakistan. As the saying goes,
every rupee saved is as good as rupee earned. In this section we are discussing in detail the amount of
saving made in case use of biodiesel blend with Petroleum Diesel. B20 waste cooking oil biodiesel (20%
waste cooking oil biodiesel and 80% Petroleum diesel) is used in single cylinder four stroke compression
ignition diesel engine. The said research suggests that Biodiesel can be used in mixture with petroleum
products up to 20% without any modification in the internal structure of engine. It may be noted that this
use of biodiesel increasing in foreign countries. However, ratio of blend may be increased up to 40%
without modification in engine parts. If the needful modification in the engine is made, the proportion of
biodiesel blend in Petroleum Diesel fuel can be increased up to 100%, without compromising on engine
efficiency. The cost of production of biodiesel is considerably lower than that of petroleum products;
hence it will be a significant contribution to the national exchequer if its petroleum bill is reduced by a
minimum of 20% (If we use 20% biodiesel with petroleum Diesel). Brief working of said calculation
shows that total consumption of petroleum products was 18.68 MTOE out of 40.03 MTOE. (Pakistan
Energy Yearbook 2012). However, the use of Petroleum Diesel in diesel engine is mainly in only two
sectors i.e. Transport and Power sector, which consume about 90% of total petroleum products in
combine, which accounts to almost 16.812 million tonnes. By using Biodiesel blend in diesel engine, if
we reduce the consumption of the said energy by 20% in case of use of biodiesel up to 20% blend
without modification in engine. Total consumption reduced by 20% which reduce our annual petroleum
bills by 20%. Total petroleum consumption of 18.86 MTOE by 3.736 MTOE million tonnes could be
saved. This lesser consumption of petroleum products will result in direct saving of Rs 315.638 Billion to
GDP of Pakistan. As a matter of fact, if we can indulge in the exercise use of biodiesel which can be
produced locally by planting non edible plants, like, Jatropha, moringa, etc, we can save our economy up
to 20% of petroleum bills.

1.2 Biodiesel Properties

The ASTM D6751 and The European Union EN 14214 provide methods of biodiesel testing standards.
The properties standards limitation of pure biodiesel B100 and biodiesel blend with diesel fuel are given
in ASTM D6751. In this standard gives the quality level of biodiesel, whereas European Union EN
14214 gives the results of minimum fatty acid methyl ester. Limitation of ASTM D6751 and EN 14214
biodiesel properties are given in Table 4.1[14-16].

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Table 1 Biodiesel Properties Standards ASTM D6751 and EN 12214

PROPERTIES UNITS TEST METHODS TEST LIMITS
AST EN ASTM D6751 EN 12214
Kinematic Viscosity at 40 mm2/s D445 EN ISO 3104 1.9-6.0 3.5-5.0
Density at 15 Kg/m3 D1298 EN ISO 3675 12185 880 860-900
Calorific Value MJ/Kg - EN 14214 45.54 35
0
Flash Point C D93 ISO DIS 3679 Min 100-170 ˃120
0
Pour Point C D97 - -15 to 16 -
0
Cloud Point C D2500 - -3 to 12 -
Oxidation Stability - D675 EN 14112 Min 3 Min 6
Cetane Number - D613 EN ISO 5265 Min 47 Min 51
Acid Value Mg KOH/g D664 EN 14104 Max 0.5 Max 0.5
Water Content %V D2709 EN ISO 12937 Max 0.05 -
Canradsons Carbon m/m D4530 EN ISO 10370 Max 0.05 Max 0.03

2. Materials and Method

In this section research methodology for achieving the objectives of the study has been discussed. Overall
two fuels samples were tested in compression ignition diesel engine. In connection different parameters
have been discussed like, fuel properties, engine performance, brake specific fuel consumption and brake
thermal efficiency in compression ignition engine.

Engine performance tests have been carried out at Mechanical Engineering laboratories, Quaid-e-Awam
University of Engineering, Science and Technology Nawabshah. For this purpose a single cylinder
horizontal type water cooled four stroke diesel engine is used for calculating the performance parameters.
The model type of the test bed is DWE-6/10-JS-DV. This is fully equipped with different
instrumentations like fuel flow meter, tachometer, dynamometer, and thermocouples etc. which are
helpful for collecting data from the engine. Details of engine specification are given in table 2.1

Table 2.1 Diesel Engine Test Bed Specifications:

Cooling system Water cooled system
Type Horizontal
Number of cylinders One
Bore (Piston size) 80 mm
Stroke (Piston displacement) 95 mm (477cc)
Compression Ratio 23:1
Starting Method Manual
Output/ Rotational speed 8.5PS/ 2200RPM (Max)

Two fuel tanks are attached to a diesel engine test bed. Both fuel tanks connected with common line;
however flow can be controlled with two separate valves. One tank is filled with Petroleum diesel (D100)
and other is filled with B20 Biodiesel (20% waste Cooking oil Biodiesel and 80% Petroleum Diesel). An
endurance test was carried out for 50hours at constant speed and varying load conditions. As concerned
with the Performance of the engine, engine Torque, Brake Power, Brake Specific Fuel Consumption
(BSFC), Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE) were analysed. The varying load is changed from 0.1 Kg-m to
2.0 Kg-m at the constant speed of 1300 rpm. Waste cooking oil biodiesel was collected from Syntech
Biofuels Private Limited, SITE Area Hyderabad. Engine performance can be calculating by using
following basic internal combustion engine equations:

&'()
#$ % (1)
*+

/0
#,-. %
12
(2)

5*++
#34 % 9 ::; 9 100% (3)
1678

Where N is the engine speed in rpm, =0 is the fuel flow in g/h, and HHV is the higher heating value of
fuel in MJ/Kg.

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Fig. 2.1 Pictorial view of four stroke Diesel Engine Test bed

3. Results and Discussion

In this research work an endurance test was carried out on two different fuel samples. One Petroleum
Diesel D100 and secondly B20 Waste cooking oil biodiesel tested in single cylinder CI diesel engine.
Endurance test was carried out for 50 hours on each fuel samples. In which engine performance
parameters observed at various load condition and at various engine speeds. Engine Power, Engine
Torque, Specific fuel consumption, Brake thermal efficiency was observed.

3.1 Fuel Properties

Fuel properties of waste cooking oil biodiesel are very close to Petroleum Diesel. For example kinematic
viscosity of B20 Biodiesel is 3.61 mm 2/s, whereas kinematic viscosity of Petroleum Diesel is 2.91 mm
2
/s. Density of Biodiesel is 880 Kg/m3, whereas density of Petroleum diesel is 839 Kg/m3. The biodiesel
has higher density than diesel fuel, due to its affected property on compression [21]. The higher density

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also effect fuel atomization. Higher density leads poor atomization and lean combustion which increase
the engine temperature [22-23]. Further more detailed properties of B20 Biodiesel are given in Table 3.1

Table 3.1 Properties of Prepared Biodiesel samples.

Properties Diesel Biodiesel B20 Standards

Kinematic Viscosity @ 400C(mm2/s or cSt) 2.5-5.7 3.61 (1.9-6.0) ASTM D445
Density Kg/m3 816-840 880 (860-900) ASTM D127
Cetane Number 45-55 48 (45-55) ASTM D6890
Flash Point (0C) 50-98 110 (100-170) ASTM D93
Fire Point (0C) 112 121 (120-140) ASTM D93
Calorific Value MJ/Kg 45.9 43.78 (45.54) ASTM D240
Specific Gravity 0.835 0.846 ASTM D891

Kinematic viscosity Density

4.5 890
4 880
3.5 870
3 860
2.5 850
2 840
1.5 830
1 820
0.5 810
0 800
Diesel fuel ASTM EN B20 Diesel fuel ASTM EN B20

Calorific value Flash Point

50 160

40 140
120
30 100
20 80
60
10
40
0 20
Diesel ASTM EN B20 0
fuel Diesel fuel ASTM EN B20

Fig.3.1 Properties of Diesel Fuel, Biodiesel B20 and Standards of Biodiesel

3.2 Engine Performance Analysis

The engine performance tests were carried on a single cylinder four stroke compression ignition diesel
engine. The horizontal type water cooled diesel engine was mounted on the structure of the test bed. On
the same structure dynamometer has also mounted which is also directly coupled with a diesel engine. It
can control the brake load on the engine. The dynamometer controlled is attached to the panel of the test
bed. In this work two different fuel samples were tested firstly Petroleum Diesel D100 and B20 Waste
Cooking oil Biodiesel (include 20% Waste Cooking oil Biodiesel and 80% Petroleum Diesel blended).
The engine performance parameters have been calculated on variable load and at constant speed 1300
RPM. The applied load on CI diesel engine is divided into 10 different point ranges from 0.1 Kg-m to 2.0
Kg-m. The performance parameters measured during the research work are, brake power, Torque, brake
specific fuel consumption, brake thermal efficiency and mass flow rate. Two fuel tanks have been
connected with a common single line separated with control valve attached with diesel engine. One tank
is filled with diesel fuel, whereas other tank is filled with biodiesel blended fuel.

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3.2.1 Brake Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC)

The brake specific fuel consumption (BSFC) is a function of diesel engine at test bed. The variation in
brake specific fuel consumption of a compression ignition engine is depends on engine speed, applied
load and blending ratios of biodiesel blend. In this research work brake specific fuel consumption was
analysed with three different cases. BSFC is firstly compared with engine torque, Brake Power and
Engine Speed. It is observed that BSFC graph line firstly slightly decreased then goes in straight line in
all three cases. BSFC is increased by 7.56% to 14.28% using biodiesel B20 as compared to Petroleum
Diesel D100 with an average of 11.93% increase in BSFC using Biodiesel as compared to Petroleum
Diesel.

The BSFC is an engine performance parameter that reflects how good engine is performing. The brake
specific fuel consumption of an engine expressed in terms of Kg/Kwh. The BSFC values of Cooking oil
Biodiesel is greater than Diesel fuel, it is just because of higher contents of oxygen in the fuel which
results lower heating value. The lower density and lower heating value of the fuel requires higher mass
flow rate for the same energy output from the engine.

30000

25000

20000
BSFC

15000 Diesel
Biodiesel
10000

5000

0
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9
Fig, 3.2 Torque relationships with BSFC

30000

25000

20000
BSFC

15000 Diesel
10000 Biodiesel

5000

Fig. 3.3 Brake Power relationship with BSFC

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30000

25000

BSFC 20000

15000 Diesel

10000 Biodiesel

5000

Fig. 3.4 Speed relationship with BSFC

3.2.2 Brake Thermal Efficiency (BTE)

Brake thermal efficiency is defined as brake power of CI engine as a part of heat supplied by the fuel.
Brake thermal efficiency is used to determine the energy is extracted from fuel to convert into
mechanical energy.
It has been observed that by using waste cooking oil biodiesel in CI diesel engine, the mass flow rate also
increases which affect brake thermal efficiency. In this research work variation in BTE is observed in
three different cases. Firstly BTE relationship with Engine Torque, Brake Power and Engine Speed. BTE
is slightly increased up to 40% it is directly proportional with Torque and Brake Power, and then goes
down with increase in Power and Torque. Brake thermal efficiency is decreased by 5.53% to 13.72%
while using Biodiesel B20 as compared to Petroleum Diesel D100, with an average of 10.75% decreases
BTE using biodiesel as compared to Petroleum Diesel. It is due to the reason of increment in percentage
of oxygen contents which helps to improve the combustion process therefore due to a higher percentage
of oxygen content it may produce faster combustion process.

80
70
60
50
BTE

40 Diesel

30 Biodiesel

20
10
0
0.1 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9

Fig. 3.5 Torque relationship with BTE

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80
70
60
BTE 50
40 Diesel
30 Biodiesel
20
10
0

Fig. 3.6 Brake Power relationship with BTE

120
Brake Thermal Efficiency

100

80

60
Diesel
40 Biodiesel

20

Fig. 3.7 Speed relationship with BTE

4. Conclusion and Recommendations

In this study, the effects of Diesel fuel as a baseline and the B20 Waste cooking oil biodiesel blend on
performance of single cylinder four stroke diesel engine was analysed during short term endurance test.
Following conclusion were drawn from present investigation:
1. Waste cooking oil biodiesel blended fuel has very close physical and chemical properties to that
of Diesel fuel.
2. During varying load from 0.1to 2.0Kg-m and at constant speed 1300rpm, BSFC was increased
by 8.16% to 16.66% , while using B20 biodiesel as compared to diesel fuel.
3. At same condition BTE were decreased by 5.17% to 12.12% as compared to diesel fuel.
4. During varying load from 0.1 to 1.9 Kg-m and with varying speed from 1300 to 2200 rpm,
BSFC is increased by an average of 13.78%, while using B20 biodiesel as compared to Diesel
fuel.
5. At varying load and varying speed BTE is decreased by an average of 9.8% as compared to
diesel fuel.

For the future work it is recommended that unregulated exhaust emissions may be determined.
As concerned about suggestion, Government should take steps to enhance for production of non-edible
seeds for usage of biodiesel. Government should announce packages for growers and should purchase
seeds from them. Chemical plants should be installed for tests of oils and for transesterification process.
Also Government inform public through print media and social media for encouraging farmers to grow
seeds for biodiesel purpose.

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Acknowledgement:

The authors acknowledge the support extended by the Directorate of Post Graduate Studies, Mehran
University of Engineering & Technology Jamshoro, and Mechanical Engineering Department, Quaid-e-
Awam University of Engineering, Science and Technology, Nawabshah.

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Renewable Energy Group, Volume 416, pp. 1-136, 2009.
[17] Raj FRMS, and Sahayaraj JW, “A comparative study over alternative fuel for environmental friendly emission”, In Recent
Advances in Space Technology Services and Climate change (RSTSCC), pp. 80-86, 2010.
[18] Sarin R, Sharma M, Sinharay S, and Malhotra RK, “Jatropha palm biodiesel blends, an optimum mix for Asia”, Fuel,
Volume 86(10), pp.1365-1371, 2007.
[19] Ong HC, Mahila TMI, Masjuki HH, and Norhasyima RS, “Comparison of palm oil, jatropha curcas and Calophyllum
inophyllum for biodiesel: a review”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 15(8), pp. 3501-3515, 2011.
[20] Veruzco LFR, “Density and viscosity of biodiesel as a function of temperature: empirical models”, Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 19, pp. 652-665, 2013.
[21] Canakci M, and Sanli H, “Biodiesel production from various feed stocks and their effects on the fuel properties”, Journal of
Industrial microbiology & biotechnology, Volume 35(5), pp.431-441, 2008.
[22] De La KTDS, Meneghetti SMP, de La Salles WF, Meneghetti MR, Dos Santos ICF, Da Silva JPV, De Carvlho SHV, and
Soletti JI, “ Characterization of Syagrus coronata (Mart) Becc, Oil and properties of methyl esters for use as biodiesel”,
Industrial crops and products, Volume 32(3), pp.518-521, 2010.
[23] Yoon SH, Park SH, and Lees CS, “Experimental investigation on the fuel properties of biodiesel and its blends at various
temperature”, Energy and Fuels, Volume 22(1), pp. 652-656, 2007.
[24] Singh SP, and Singh D,” Biodiesel production through the use of different sources and characterization of oils and their
esters as the substitute of diesel: a review”, Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 14(1), pp.200-216, 2010.
[25] Sanford SD, White JM, Shah PS, Wee C, Valverde MA, and Meier GR, “Feed stock and biodiesel characteristics report”,
Renewable Energy Group, Volume 416, pp. 1-136, 2009.
[26] Ramadhas AS, Jayaraj S and Muraleedharan C, “Biodiesel production from high FFA rubber seed oil”, Fuel, Volume
84(4), pp. 335-340, 2005.
[27] Harington KJ, “Chemical and physical properties of vegetable oil esters and their effect on diesel fuel performance”,
Biomass, Volume 9(1), pp.1-17, 1986.
[28] Knothe G, “Fuel properties, cetane numbers, heat of combustion-why vegetable oils and their derivatives are suitable as a
diesel fuel”, The biodiesel Handbook AOCS Press, Champaign, Illinois, pp.84-88, 2005.

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[29 ] Md. Arbab Iqbal, Mahendra Varman, Masjuki HJ Hassan, and Md. Abul kalam, “Tailoring fuel properties using jatropha,
palm, and coconut biodiesel to improve CI engine performance and emission characteristics”, Journal of Cleaner
Production, Volume XXX,pp.1-9, 2015.
[30] X.J. Man, C.S. Cheung, Z. Ning, L. Wei, and Z.H. Haung, “Influence of engine load and speed on regulated and
unregulated emissions of a diesel engine fuelled with diesel fuel blended with waste cooking oil blended”, Fuel, Volume
180, pp. 41-49, 2016.
[31] Shogo Eguchi, Shigemi Kagawa, and Shunsuke Okamoto, “ Environmental and economic performance of a biodiesel plant
using waste cooking oil,” Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 101, pp. 245-250, 2015.
[32] Anh N. Phan, and Tan M. Phan, “ Biodiesel production from waste cooking oils”, Fuel, Volume 87, pp. 3490-3496, 2008.
[33] Ashok Kumar Yadav, Mohd Emran khan, Alok Manas Dubey, and Amit Pat, “Performance and emission characteristics of
a transportation diesel engine operated with non-edible vegetable oils”, Case Studies in Thermal Engineering, Volume 8,
pp.236-244, 2016.
[34] Jinlin Xue, Tony E. Grift, and Alan C. Hansen, “Effect of biodiesel on engine performance and emissions”, Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 15, pp. 1098-116, 2011.
[35] Jinlin Xue, “Combustion characteristics, engine performance and emissions of waste edible oil biodiesel in diesel engine”,
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, Volume 23, pp. 350-365, 2013
[36] M.A. Kalam, H.H. Masjuki, M.H. Javed, and A.M. Liaquat, “Emission and performance characteristics of an indirect
ignition diesel engine fuelled with waste cooking oil”, Energy, Volume 36, pp.397-402, 2011.
[37] Md. Mofijur Rahman, Masjuki Hj. Hassan, Md. Abul Kalam, Abdelaziz Emad Atabani, and Liaquat Ali Memon et al, “
Performance and emission analysis of Jatropha curcas and Moringa oleifera methyl ester fuel blends in a multi-cylinder
diesel engine”, Journal of Cleaner Production, Volume 65, pp. 304-310, 2014.

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183. Study to Investigate the Effect of Temperature on

Performance of Thermotolerant Klueromyces Marxianus
during the Production of Ethanol Using Numerical Simulation
Abdul Sattar Jatoia Abdul Waheed Bhuttoa, Shuakat Mazaria
a
Chemical Engineering department Dawood University of Engineering and Technology Karachi
E-mail address: abdulwaheed27@hotmail.com

Abstract

Production of ethanol from renewable source give a new area of research for future fuel requirement. During
fermentation reaction heat generated that create problem and ultimate decrease microbial growth. In Pakistan
temperature ranges from 40-50C in summer season during that production of ethanol effected by temperature
due to usage of yeast that grow in temperature ranges up to 29-36C regarding this thermotolerant yeast is best
for these environmental conditions . Temperature effect were investigated using numerical technique with the
help of C++ software. Experimental and model results also compared, the optimized experimental results
were found at 45-50C ethanol production maximum up to 74g/l. But as for numerical study were concerned
the best results at higher temperature ranges45-50C is about 76g/l. Thermotolerand had advantages can be
used in hot environmental conditions.

© 2016 Abdul Sattar Jatoia Abdul Waheed Bhuttoa, Shuakat Mazari Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and
Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: Thermotolerant klyueromyces marxians, ethanol, temperature, numerical simulation, RK order 4.

1. Introduction

Pakistan level among other countries is 7th regarding sugarcane, ethanol production through fermentation is one
of the well identified technique Numerical techniques had been used to solve various differential equation that
could effect on ethanol production. During process of fermentation exothermic reaction occur that reaction emit
handsome amount of heat. Temperature effect on ethanol production were investigated through use of
mathematical model fermentation process done by different microorganism but mostly used microorganism is
nothing but the saccharomyces crevasse. Molasses were used as feed stock as well as. Saccharomyces
cerevisiae were used as biocatalyst to carry out fermentation [1]. During process of bioethanol from native
microorganism temperature effect had considered regarding growth of microorganism. Model were prepared
that express one factor which utilize to sort out multiple growth of microorganism [2] Sanchez et al. discussed
the temperature dependency that effect production of ethanol and xylitol kinetic parameter. [3] For explaining
denaturation of ribosomes and enzymes explained through linear model. A were developed [4] an empirical
linear model were developed for describing the temperature &nutritional effect on ethanol production through
fermentation [5]. It had been well-known that microorganism activity could effect by environmental condition.
Apart from this fermentation process is also victim of theses environmental condition that change the
phenomena of process. Fermentation environmental condition which couple with mass transfer and metabolic
behavior of microorganism that utilize to convert substrate into product. To gain insight into the morphology-
associated time-variant process dynamics, various kinetic models associated with key parameters for ethanol
fermentation have been proposed [6-16].This work is related with the effect of temperature on ethanol
production using numerical techniques.

2. Methodology

Experimental data were collected from Aziz 2009 different temperature ranges were used to see the effect on

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ethanol production by applying numerical method. Monod model equations were used to investigate the
temperature effect on ethanol production.
Figure 01 shows the successive steps for development procedure to carryout numerical simulation. Numerical
simulation were done on the basis of numerical method (RK Ode4) using C++ programming as tool. Results
were compared and analyzed by doing comparison between simulations with experimental results.

Data

Optimization
Model
of Parameter

Numerical
Results
SImulation

Fig 1. Flow Chart for Numerical Simulation of Ethanol Production

3. Model

Monod kinetic model were used to investigate the temperature effect on ethanol production. For cell growth,
substrate utilization and ethanol production

#$ +
& μ()$ * /x (1)
#% ,-- .+

#1 +
& qmax3 6x
#% ,45 .+
(2)

#+ 9 #$ 9 #1
& 78 ;7( )
#% :- #% :5 #%
(3)
4 4

Where μ()$ = maximum cell growth, X = cell growth, S = substrate utilization, kxx = half saturation
constant, qmax = maximum specific growth, Y x/s = yeild coefficient cell.

4. Results And Discussion

Experimental Results were analyzed with simulation tool C++ with to see the effects of temperature on ethanol
production. Temperature ranges from 30-50 oC under study to observe effect on cell mass (g/l), Substrate (g/l)
and Production of ethanol (g/l). Monod kinetic model were utilized to investigate the temperature effect on
ethanol production.

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4.1 Effect of temperature on Cell Mass (g/l)

During microbial growth in fermentation process effect by varying temperature because microorganism did not
survive with unsatisfactory environment. Regarding this study was made to optimize the temperature ranges for
cell growth, using simulation tool for solving model proposed by researcher for temperature effect. By keeping
other process parameter under optimized conditions. The maximum cell growth occur at 40 oC about 7.8g/l and
minimum at 55c during fermentation

Fig. 2. Cell mass at temperature ranges from 20-55 oC

4.2 Effect of temperature on substrate utilization

Numerical simulation were using Monod model at different temp ranges to investigate the maximum utilization
of substrate for alcohol production. Because when substrate utilize increase alcohol production increases.
Temperature ranges from 25-55oC step size of 5 oC were used to observe the maximum substrate utilization for
alcohol production from molasses. Monod model give a best results at temperature 45 oC for maximum
utilization of substrate.

Fig. 3. Substrate at temperature ranges from 20-55 oC

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4.3 Effect of temperature on ethanol production

Study was made on different temp ranges to investigate the temp at which maximum alcohol production occur,
Monod model were used in this study using C++ programming for ethanol production from different
temperature. The maximum ethanol production were occur at 33 oC. At this temp numerical simulation gave
ethanol production about 76g/l. and for experimental results also gave 76g/l. the minimum ethanol production
occur at 20-25 oC for numerical results.

Fig. 4. Ethanol production at temperature ranges from 20-55 oC

5. Conclusion

Study was made for carryout temperature effect on ethanol production from molasses, it was found through
experimental and numerical study that temperature had effect on ethanol production due to microbe use to
carryout fermentation process. Cell growth, substrate utilization and ethanol production were made to study
the effect of temp on it. It was found that by utilizing temperature 33-40c give maximum cell growth 10g/l,
maximum substrate utilize and maximum ethanol production about 76g/l for experimental and model results.

Acknowledgment

Authors are thanked to chemical engineering department for providing research facility to carry out this
research in the supervision of expert personality.

References

[1] Muenduen Phisalaphong ∗, Nuttapan Srirattana, Wiwut Tanthapanichakoon Mathematical modeling to investigate temperature
effect on kinetic parameters of ethanol fermentation
[2] J.R. Hettenhaus, Ethanol fermentation strains: present and future requirements for biomass to ethanol commercialization, Report
to United States Department of Energy and National Renewable Energy Laboratory, 1998
[3] S. S´anchez, V. Bravo, A.J. Moya, E. Castro, F. Camacho, Influence of temperature on the fermentation of d-xylose by
Pachysolen tannophilus to produce ethanol and xylitol, Process Biochem. 39 (2004) 673–679.
[4] T.A. McMeckin, J. Olley, D.A. Ratkwsky, T. Ross, Predictive microbiology: towards the interface and beyond, Int. J. Food
Microbiol. 73 (2002) 395–407.
[5] G. Dragone, D.P. Silva, J.B.A. Silva, Factors influencing ethanol rates at high-gravity brewing, Lebensm. Wiss. Technol. 37
(2004) 797–802.
[6] G. Birol, P. Doruker, B. Kirdar, Z.I. O¨ nsan, K. U¨ lgen, Mathematical description of ethanol fermentation by immobilized
Saccharomyces cerevisiae,Process Biochem. 33 (1998) 763–771.
[7] A.E. Ghaly, A.A. El-Taweel, Kinetic modeling of continuous production of ethanol from cheese whey, Biomass and Bioenergy
12 (1997) 461–472.

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[8] R.D. Tyagi, T.K. Ghose, Batch and multistage continuous ethanol fermentation of cellulose hydrolysate and optimum design of
fermentor by graphical analysis, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 22 (1980) 1907–1928.
[9] J. Sainz, F. Pizarro, J.R. P´erez-Correa, E.A. Agosin, Modeling of yeast metabolism and process dynamics in batch
fermentation, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 81 (2003) 818–828.
[10] B. Andr´es-Toro, J.M.A. Giron-Sierra, Kinetic model for beer production under industrial operational conditions, Math.
Comput. Simulat. 48 (1998) 65–74.
[11] H.J. Rehm, G. Reed, A. P¨uhler, P. Stadler, Biotechnology, McGraw-Hill, New York, 2001.
[12] S. Aiba, M. Shoda, M. Nagatani, Kinetics of product inhibition in alcohol fermentation, Biotechnol. Bioeng. 67 (2000) 671–690.
[13] S.C. Oliveira, H.F. De Castro, A.E.S. Visconti, R. Giudici, Continuous ethanol fermentation in a tower reactor with flocculating
yeast recycle: scale-up effects on process performance, kinetic parameters and model predictions, Bioprocess Eng. 20 (1999)
525–530.
[14] N.K. Sree, M. Sridhar, K. Suresh, I.M. Banat, L.V. Rao, High alcohol production by repeated batch fermentation using an
immobilized osmotolerant Saccharomyces cerevisiae, J. Ind. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 24 (2000) 222–226.
[15] A. Nishiwaki, I.J. Dunn, Analysis of the performance of a two-stage fermentor with cell recycle for continuous ethanol
production using different kinetic models, Biochem. Eng. J. 4 (1999) 37–44.
[16] H.W. Blanch, D.S. Clark, Biochemical Engineering, Marcel Dekker, New York, 1997.

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186. Modular Multilevel Converters - An Emerging Trend in

Advanced HVDC Systems
Nusrat Husaina,b,*, Ashraf Yahyaa,b, Syed M. Usman Alic
a
PhD Scholar, Department of Electronic Engineering, NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
b
Assistant Professor, Department of Electronics & Power Engineering, PNEC- NUST, Karachi 75350, Pakistan
c
Professor & Chairman, Department of Electronic Engineering, NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
* Corresponding author: nusrat@pnec.nust.edu.pk

Abstract

“Power Systems in today’s world has the same importance as the back bone in human body. With the advent of
modern power electronics converters, it is now possible to transfer bulk quantity of conventional and non-conventional
energies to the load centers. Presence of renewable energy in far flung areas like deserts, and offshore etc., requires
efficient, stable and long distance transmission system. High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) systems these days have
come up with the solution of minimal losses and high grid stability during this energy transfer. In this paper
significance of HVDC systems based on modern power electronics converters is discussed. Various topologies related
to the modular multilevel converters (MMCs) are examined. Such topologies are certainly able to convert ac power
into dc power and vice versa along with fulfilling the grid regulations. The exploration of renewable energy resources
like offshore and onshore wind power plants can also be possible by employing such MMCs based multi terminal
direct current (MTDC) systems. In the end of paper, some major worldwide HVDC projects are listed to show their
fast growth, adoption and power handling capability.”

© 2016 “Nusrat Husain, Ashraf Yahya, Syed M. Usman Ali”. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and Environmental
Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: “HVDC Systems; Power Electronics Converters; Modular Multilevel Converters (MMC); MTDC”

1. Introduction

Electrical energy is accepted as universal energy. Due to its easy conversion from various types of energies like
chemical, potential, kinetic, solar etc. and then its re-conversion into these types of energies, it holds the status of
universal energy. It is transferred from far located generating stations via high voltage AC and DC transmission lines
to the populated areas. The high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission has several benefits over its counterpart-
the high voltage alternating current (HVAC) transmission. HVDC transmission possesses the advantages of long
distance efficient power transmission, less number of conductors thus resulting in material saving and low width
transmission corridor, negligible reactance, lesser corona losses and lightning strikes, provision of asynchronous back
to back connections, high grid stability and use of cables.

The HVDC transmission can be classified into three main configurations: the mono polar connection, the bi-polar
connection, and the homo polar connection. These connections are used with various types of convertors that are using
power electronics switches and working as rectifiers/invertors. These power electronics systems are in continuous
development phase and many advanced features are being incorporated in them by day to day research work [1-2].

Power electronics convertors are classified as line commutated convertors (LCC) and voltage source convertors
(VSC). The VSC have gained great popularity in recent years because of their several advantages over LCC [3].

Various remote generating stations like wind farms and consumer loads can now be connected with the grid by using
multi-terminal direct current (MTDC) transmission systems. This newly developed powerful aspect of HVDC systems

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is making them more adaptable for future interconnection of renewable resources like on shore and off shore wind
farms, and various loads.

This paper presents a detailed description of HVDC transmission systems along with associated worldwide projects.

2. Configurations of HVDC Transmission Systems

HVDC transmission systems have following configurations:

2.1 Mono-polar Configuration

(a) (b) (c) (d)

Fig. 1. HVDC system configurations (a) Mono-polar (b) Bi-polar (c) Homo-polar (d) Back to back

In this configuration as shown in Fig. 1. (a), a single wire is placed to deliver dc power in between the convertors. The
return path can be used via ground, sea or cable armoring. This method has advantage of great saving of conductor
material but offers disadvantages of less reliability and corrosion of nearby metallic structures.

2.2 Bi-polar Configuration

As shown in Fig. 1. (b), this configuration involves two conductors having opposite polarities; use to transfer power
between the convertor stations. Although it uses more conductor material, nevertheless, it will still provide half of the
power via ground connection in case of breakage of any conductor [4].

2.3 Homo-polar Configuration

This configuration shown in Fig. 1. (c), uses two conductors for transferring power between convertor stations. It has
same advantages as in bi-polar connection besides same polarity of the conductors, hence causing less corrosion in
nearby metallic structures and less corona loss.

2.4 Back to Back Configuration

The great advantage of HVDC systems has been seen in connecting two different AC grids operating at different
frequencies, as shown in Fig. 1. (d). No need of synchronization is necessary while power can be transferred from any
side to other side with greater stability margin. Even a few meters connecting wires are sufficient to install this back to
back intertie.

3. Types of HVDC Convertors

HVDC systems comprises of two major types viz., the Line commutates converter, also known as current source
converter (CSC), and the more advanced voltage source converter (VSC) [3,5].

3.1 The Line Commutated Convertors (LCC)

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Fig. 2. Schematic of HVDC LCC system

The line commutated convertor (LCC), also known as current source convertor (CSC), uses thyristor as switching
device operating at line frequency. This convertor requires natural commutation or line commutation therefore need of
a strong synchronous power source is needed to operate this convertor satisfactorily. Although black start capability is
not available with these types of convertors, nevertheless they are the most popular HVDC convertors used these days
[6]. They can deal power as high as 10000 MW range with +- 1100 kV with a length of 2600 km as in the case of a
Zhundong –Sichuan scheme located in China [7].

3.2 The Voltage Source Convertors (VSC)

Fig. 3. Schematic of HVDC VSC system

The voltage source convertors (VSC) is based on IGBT technology, requires no separate synchronous power source
and has the black start capability [8]. Instead of inverting the DC voltage polarity in both convertor stations as in LCC
HVDC systems they have to change the direction of current flow. The famous high frequency based PWM is used as
switching technique in these convertors making them comparatively less efficient and poor power quality producers.
VSC has high degree of controllability of active and reactive power flow in both directions [9]. These powers can be
given by Eq. (1) and Eq. (2).

%&' %'()* +,) -

#$ (1)
.

%'()* (%'()*0%&' +,) -)

/$ (2)
.

Where Vconv is the converter voltage, Vac is the ac grid voltage, δ is the angle between Vconv and Vac, and X is the
series reactance of the line inductor.
Various topologies have been developed to enhance the characteristics of these convertors. Some of them are listed
below:

3.2.1 The 2- Level Convertor

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(a) (b)
Fig. 4. Schematic of a 2-level converter (a) Basic topology (b) Load voltage waveform

The 2-level VSC convertor produces a square wave output having lot of harmonics and power losses. The positive
and negative terminals of the DC source are connected to the load by periodically switching on and off the
switching devices so that the AC output voltage is obtained. Freewheeling diodes are also required to transfer the
stored energy in the load inductances back to the DC source.

3.2.2 The Multi Level Convertor (MLC)

(a) (b)
Fig. 5. Schematic of MLC (a) Basic switching scheme (b) 5-level AC Output waveform

To overcome the problems present in two level convertors, an improved topology called Multi-level convertors (MLC)
have been introduced. The MLC has the features of synthesizing an AC output waveform generated with the help of
multiple input dc sources. In this manner both positive and negative levels are combined to construct a stepped AC
waveform close to sine wave having lesser harmonics. MLC can be operated at switching frequency either at power
frequency (thus reducing switching losses to a great extent), or at high frequency (several kHz) to minimize harmonic
content. Moreover, low dv/dt stress is also an added advantage of this type of convertors. Therefore, commercial
HVDC converters are based on multilevel technology. Following section gives an overview of multilevel topologies
[10-14].

4. Multi-Level Convertors Topologies

MLC has many topologies including basic and derived topologies but three basic types are as below:

4.1 The Neutral Point Clamped Convertor (NPC)

Fig. 6. Schematic of 3-phase 3 level NPC

The neutral point clamped converter (NPC), also named as diode clamped converter, is the modification of the
conventional VSC and was initially proposed as a three level convertor. This topology is shown in Fig. 6, the three
phase three level NPC convertor has three legs consisting of three upper and three lower arms. The midpoint of the
armed switches is connected with a common neutral point through clamping diodes enabling the introduction of a zero

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voltage level. By this configuration the switches have to with stand half of the dc linked voltage. The NPC convertor
can be extended to more than three levels. This topology has the drawback of capacitor voltage unbalancing and
distortion of output AC waveform. This scheme is not yet suitable for high number of voltage levels. [15]

4.2 The Flying Capacitor (FC) Converters

Fig. 7. Schematic of a 3-phase, 3 level FC converter

As illustrated in Fig. 7. each leg capacitor is charged up to various voltage levels and thus by switching on and off the
devices, different voltage output levels can be achieved [16]. It has an inherent problem the initial charging of the
capacitors but afterwards the capacitors store the energy and provide this energy in times of voltage outages and sags.
Although this topology can be extended to a large number of cells, the addition of capacitors introduces increased
complexity, need of control, and cost.

4.3 The Cascaded H-Bridge (CHB) Converters

Fig. 8. Schematic of two legs of a 3-phase CHB

The cascaded converter (either half bridge or full bridge) has inherently no problems such as voltage balancing and
capacitor initialization like in NPC or FC converters. Clamping diodes and flying capacitors are not needed in this
type of converters, rather series connected bridge switches known as cells, are required. The output phase voltage is
the resultant of voltages generated by the series connected cells present in a particular leg of the converter [16].

4.4 Modular Multi Level Convertors (MMC)

Fig. 9. Schematic of a MMC

The MMC topology was proposed in 2002 by R. Marquardt and is one of the most emerging technologies in current

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VSC HVDC systems. It is using a number of series connected cells also known as sub modules (SM). The SM is made
up of a half bridge consisting of two Power switches with anti parallel diodes and a DC capacitor as shown in Fig. 10.
By turning on specific SM switches, insertion or bypassing the SM into the converter arm can be possible while the
uninterrupted current flow is achieved by the connection of the anti parallel diodes [17-18].
Table-1 and 2 below illustrate states of the switches along with status of sub module SM. The switches are to be
operated in complimentary manner preventing short circuit of the SM source capacitor. Following a specific switching
pattern, a staircase output voltage waveform can be achieved at the output.

(a) (b)
Fig. 10. Schematic of (a) half bridge SM (b) full bridge SM

Table 1. Half bridge SM switching states

Upper switch state Lower switch state SM terminal voltage with current DC capacitor status
polarity
1 0 Vc (+) Charging
0 1 0 (+) By passed
1 0 Vc (-) Discharging
0 1 0 (-) By passed
1 1 - Short circuit
0 0 - Open circuit

Table 2. Full bridge SM switching states

Upper left switch Upper right Lower left switch Lower right SM terminal voltage DC capacitor status
state switch state state switch state with current polarity
1 0 1 0 Vc (+) Charging
0 1 0 1 0 (+) By passed
1 0 1 0 Vc (-) Discharging
0 1 0 1 0 (-) By passed
1 1 1 1 - Short circuit
0 0 0 0 - Open circuit

Fig. 11, below is showing a schematic of HVDC MMC system. Here need for AC side filters and transformers are
reduced. Other advantages of MMC based HVDC systems are their modularity, improved quality of output waveform,
redundancy based reliability and increased efficiency [19-21].

Fig. 11. Schematic of a HVDC MMC system

5. MTDC Systems and Integration of Renewable Power (like Wind, Solar)

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Fig. 12. Schematic of a MTDC system

In past years, HVDC systems had no provision for tapings in between the converter stations i.e. they are
characterized with point to point configuration in contrast with HVAC systems which are offering tapings
with respect to multiple source and multiple load connections. Due to tremendous research work in recent
years a new concept of multi-terminal direct current (MTDC) systems is introduced, as shown in Fig.12, in
which multiple generating sources as well as multiple loads can be connected via HVDC systems.
Renewable resources like onshore and offshore wind farms and solar power parks can now be integrated
into existing HVDC grid. Multiple bulk loads can also be connected via these MTDC systems. This powerful
feature of multiple interconnections makes the HVDC systems more reliable for adoption in the near future
[15].

6. Global HVDC Projects

Table 3. below is showing a short list of global HVDC projects with relevant details [7].

Table 3. Some Worldwide HVDC Projects

Country Project Name Year Type of Specifications
Converter
China Zhundong – Sichuan 2015(Planned) LCC 10000 MW, +-1100 kV, 2600 km
China Gansu-Hunan 2015(Planned) LCC 8000 MW, +-800 kV, 2490 km
China Northern Hami- 2015(Planned) LCC 8000 MW, +-800 kV, 2223 km
Chongqing
China Southern Hami- 2015 (Ongoing) LCC 8000 MW, +-800 kV, 2200 km
Zhengzhou
China Zoushan multi- 2014 (Ongoing) VSC 1000 MW, +-200 kV, 141 km Subsea cable
terminal
China Xiamen Island Infeed 2014 (Planned) VSC 1000 MW, +-320 kV, 10 km Subsea cable
Norway Skagerrak 4 2014 VSC 700 MW, +-500 kV, 244 km
France Inelfe 2013 VSC 1000 MW, ±320 kV, 65 km
Brazil Rio – Madeira 2013 LCC 3300 MW, +-600 kV, 2375 km
Brazil Rio – Madeira 2012 LCC 800 MW, 100 kV, back to back
UK EWIC 2012 VSC 500 MW, +-200 kV, 261 km
China Jinping-Sunan 2012 (Commissioned) LCC 7200 MW, +-800 kV, 2090 km
China Xiangjiaba-Shanghai 2010 (Commissioned) LCC 6400 MW, +-800 kV, 1980 km
In between UK & UK 2011 LCC 1000 MW, +-400 kV, 260 km
Netherlands - Netherlands
USA Transbay 2010 VSC 400 MW, +-200 kV,85 km
Namibia Caprivi link 2010 VSC 350 MW, +-350 kV, 951 km

From the given table, it is evident that the advancement and adoption of HVDC systems all over the world are
tremendously increasing day by day.

7. Conclusion

HVDC systems have gained great popularity in recent years due to their certain benefits in contrary with HVAC
systems. Transfer of bulk power over longer distances is more feasible and economical when HVDC systems are
under consideration. A great many research, improvement and development work is on going with respect to HVDC

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converters connections and topologies. Two main converter topologies are LCC and VSC in which LCC is more
confirmed for its well established technology, efficiency and fault handling capability. Research is carried out in VSC
based MMC systems which have the advantages of lesser harmonics, increased efficiency, reduced footprint because
of reduction of AC side filters and bulky DC link capacitors, flexible control of active and reactive powers, use of
multi-terminals, and integration of renewable power via cables with existing grid. Due to all these benefits, the MMC
based HVDC systems have proven to be the most suitable topology for future HVDC applications.

8. References

[1.] S. Shah, R. Hassan, and S. Jian, "HVDC transmission system architectures and control - A review," in
Control and Modeling for Power Electronics, 2013 IEEE 14th Workshop on, 2013, pp. 1-8.
[2.] N. M. Kirby, "HVDC system solutions," in Transmission and Distribution Conference and Exposition T&D,
IEEE PES, 2012, pp. 1-3.
[3.] M. P. Bahrman, "HVDC transmission overview," in Transmission and Distribution Conference and
Exposition, 2008; IEEE/PES, 2008, pp. 1-7.
[4.] M. H. Okba, M. H. Saied, M. Z. Mostafa, and T. M. Abdel-Moneim, "High voltage direct current
transmission - A review, part I," in Energytech, 2012 IEEE, 2012, pp. 1-7.
[5.] H. K. Müller, S. S. Torbaghan, M. Gibescu, M. M. Roggenkamp, and M. A. M. M. van der Meijden, "The
need for a common standard for voltage levels of HVDC VSC technology," Energy Policy, vol. 63, pp. 244-
251, 12// 2013.
[6.] H. Jingbo, L. Mingjie, Y. Jun, C. Qing, X. Tao, and Y. Zhao, "Research on dynamic characteristics and
countermeasures of AC-DC hybrid power system with large scale HVDC transmission," in Power System
Technology (POWERCON), 2014 International Conference on, 2014, pp. 799-805.
[7.] Anonymous, "HVDC Project Listing," Prepared for HVDC and Flexible AC transmission subcommittee of
the IEEE Transmission and Distribution Committee, March 2012.
[8.] Y. Jiang-Hafner, H. Duchen, M. Karlsson, L. Ronstrom, and B. Abrahamsson, "HVDC with voltage source
converters-a powerful standby black start facility," in Transmission and Distribution Conference and
Exposition, 2008; D. IEEE/PES, 2008, pp. 1-9.
[9.] J. Luo, J. Yao, D. Wu, C. Wen, S. Yang, and J. Liu, "Application research on VSC-HVDC in urban power
network," in Power Engineering and Automation Conference (PEAM), 2011 IEEE, 2011, pp. 115-119.
[10.] E. Najafi and A. H. M. Yatim, "Design and implementation of a new multilevel inverter topology," Industrial
Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 59, pp. 4148-4154, 2012.
[11.] Y. Zhang, G. P. Adam, T. C. Lim, S. J. Finney, and B. W. Williams, "Analysis of modular multilevel
converter capacitor voltage balancing based on phase voltage redundant states," Iet Power Electronics, vol. 5,
pp. 726-738, 2012.
[12.] M. Glinka and R. Marquardt, "A new AC/AC multilevel converter family," Industrial Electronics, IEEE
Transactions on, vol. 52, pp. 662-669, 2005.
[13.] A. Lesnicar and R. Marquardt, "An innovative modular multilevel converter topology suitable for a wide
power range," in Power Tech Conference Proceedings, 2003, p. 6.
[14.] M H. Rashid, “Power Electronics Devices, Circuits and Applications”, Pearson Education, 4th Ed. 2014
[15.] E. Kontos, R. T. Pinto, S. Rodrigues, and P. Bauer, "Impact of HVDC Transmission System Topology on
Multiterminal DC Network Faults," Power Delivery, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 30, pp. 844-852, 2015.
[16.] Artjoms Timofejevs and Daniel Gamboa, “Control of MMC in HVDC Applications”, Master Thesis,
Department of Energy Technology, Denmark, 2013
[17.] C. C. Davidson and D. Trainer, "Innovative concepts for hybrid multilevel converters for HVDC power
transmission," in AC and DC Power Transmission. 9th IET International Conference on, 2010, pp. 1-5.
[18.] R. Marquardt, "Modular Multilevel Converter: An universal concept for HVDC-Networks and extended DC-
Bus-applications," in Power Electronics Conference (IPEC), 2010 International, 2010, pp. 502-507.
[19.] H. Abu-Rub, J. Holtz, J. Rodriguez, and G. Baoming, "Medium-voltage multilevel converters—State of the
art, challenges, and requirements in industrial applications," Industrial Electronics, IEEE Transactions on,
vol. 57, pp. 2581-2596, 2010.
[20.] G. P. Adam, S. J. Finney, A. M. Massoud, and B. W. Williams, "Capacitor balance issues of the diode-
clamped multilevel inverter operated in a quasi-two-state mode," Ieee Transactions on Industrial Electronics,
vol. 55, pp. 3088-3099, Aug 2008.
[21.] E. Najafi and A. H. M. Yatim, "Design and implementation of a new multilevel inverter topology," Industrial
Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 59, pp. 4148-4154, 2012.

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188. Regulation of Bus Voltage for Renewable Energy Based

Direct Current Micro Grid
Asif Raza Solangia, Tariqullah Janb, Nayyar Hussaina, Zohaib Hussain Legharia, Anwer
Ali Sahitoa, Pervez Hameed Shaikha*
a
Mehran University of Engineering & Technology Jamshoro, 76062, Pakistan
b
University of Engineering & Technology Peshawar, Pakistan
*E-mail address:Pervez.hameed@faculty.muet.edu.pk

Abstract

The rise in energy demand in the grid distribution network and grid isolated areas, the renewable energy
sets with micro grid setup trendy to meet the challenge. The electricity generation from renewable sets
specifically from photovoltaic cells and wind turbine is of stochastic nature. Hence, the demand is to
regulate the output voltage in order to meet the standard load requirements. Therefore an integration of
these renewable sets in a direct current micro grid (DCMG) setup has been proposed. This is considered
due to practicability and economic viability to transform voltage output in DC and maintain the DC bus
voltage at 12V. The simulation of two sources have been considered and maintained at a level of 12V
under various conditions. The dc load of 500 Watts has been deployed for DCMG system performance
measurements. The results show that the dc voltage level has been maintained satisfactorily at the dc-bus
under various operating conditions of sources. Thus, the proposed model is significant for integrating
multiple renewable energy sets for dc supply under isolated dc micro grid setup. Simulation of the
proposed system is carried out in MULTISIM software.

© 2016 Asif Raza Solangi, Tariqullah Jan, Nayyar Hussain, Zohaib Hussain Leghari, Anwer Ali Sahito, Pervez Hameed Shaikh.
Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran
University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: Renewable energy resources, DC Micro-grid, regulation of DC bus voltage.

1. Introduction

Unavailability of electricity in off grid areas, harness able issues of global warming, environmental
pollution, price instability of non-renewable energy resources and electricity transportation made the
current form of energy almost unsustainable. The development of renewable energy based Distributed
Generation (DG) is moving fast to meet the worldwide urgent needs of utilizing clean energy sources and
minimizing costs [1, 2]. Researchers have discovered many renewable energy sources such as Hydro,
Solar, Wind, Tidal, and Geothermal etc. Among these resources, solar and wind energy are considered as
the most necessary resource because of their ubiquity, abundance, and sustainability [3]. Micro-grid
consists of distributed generation, energy storage systems and load capabilities. For distributed
generation renewable energy resources such as Hydro, Solar, Wind, Tidal, and Geothermal etc, are used.
For energy storage systems battery, super capacitor and fuel cell are used. Micro grid can work in both
isolated and grid integrated modes of operation. This ability of micro grid will improve the reliability and
power quality of users connected to them [4]. Micro grids are classified as AC, DC and hybrid AC/DC
micro grids. DC micro grid is preferred over AC micro grid because of the advantages, like; 1) higher
reliability, 2) improved quality of power supply, 3) decreased losses due to absence of reactive power, 4)
better utilization of the system 5) higher efficiency, 6) simple structure, 8) better performance and
efficiency of dc converters [5-10].

In proposed system, solar and wind renewable energy resources are used for distributed generation and
battery is used as a storage system. Both solar and wind power are variable in nature, as their output
power dependable of seasonal and weather conditions. Power produced by photo voltaic system is
depend upon sun shine hours i.e., irradiance and temperature of sun. While power generated by wind is
dependable of wind speed and air density. Hence, the power outputs of both resources are instable in
nature. This instability problem can be overcome by integrating both sources of power generation. This
integration not only improves the system stability but also make the system more efficient and reliable.

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The technology of integrating renewable power source is a the future of the power industry at all power
level such as high, medium and low [11].

This paper focuses on the design of a DC micro grid system, consists of hybrid wind solar power
generation systems, to maintain the system voltages constant which is 12 volts in the proposed case. By
regulating the system voltages, reliability and improved quality of generated power can be achieved.

2. Proposed DC micro-grid system

Block diagram of the proposed system; consists of photo voltaic and wind power generation sets, battery
for energy storage, hybrid wind solar charge controller and various dc loads; is shown in Fig. 1.

Fig.1. Block diagram of the proposed hybrid wind – solar DC micro-grid system

2.1. System description

For the countries like Pakistan where sun shines invariably under clear weather conditions for the major
part of the day, power output from the photo voltaic system almost remains constant during sun shine
hours. That’s why for the proposed system, PV panels output is feed directly to the dc loads and is also
stored in the battery via hybrid charge controller system. Hybrid battery charge controller is used to
charge the battery from two available sources, solar and wind energies, and also protects the battery from
over charge and over discharge. By nature, the wind energy has stochastic behaviour in the major
portions of the world. Keeping this in view, the power produced by the wind turbine generator set is not
feed directly to the load but is used solely to charge the battery via hybrid charge controller system.
Battery used here will provide the energy supply and demand gap, hence make the system reliable and
helps to maintain the system voltage.

3. System components and their configurations

3.1. Solar panel

Solar photovoltaic system is used to convert sun light directly into electricity. PV cells are usually
connected in series and parallel to increase system voltage and current respectively. Solar power is
variable in nature and this is dependable of sun shine hours, temperature and irradiance of sun. The
equivalent figure of a solar cell system is show in Fig. 2.

Fig.2. Equivalent circuit of solar cell

The relationship among sun shine hours, temperature and irradiance of sun are given in Eq. 1;

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- 2
I # $%&% ' $%&() *+,% ∗ ' 15 (1)
./0 34
Where
I = Output current
V = Output Voltage
NS = Number of cell in series
NP = Number of cell in parallel
Iph = PV current
T = Temperature of cell
Irs = Reverse saturation current
K = Boltzman’s Constant
T = Temperature of junction
q = Electron charge

The output of solar PV system can be obtained from Eq. 2 and Eq. 3

P = V*I (2)
- 2
P # $%&%7 * ∗ ' 15 (3)
./0 34
Though the study of the proposed system is carried out via simulation but keeping in view the practical
specifications of the solar panels available in the market, the suggested configuration of the solar panels
for proposed system is;

Number of solar panels =4

Open circuit voltage, VO (per panel) = 18 Volts
Short circuit current, ISC (per panel) = 7 Amperes
Total power obtained from 4 panels = 450–500 Watts

The output of the PV system is variable in nature which varies from 0 to 18 volts. Solar produces
maximum 18 volts during high rate of sun shine hours, temperature and irradiance of sun is available. As
sun shine hours, temperature and irradiance of sun is decrease with time, output voltage decrease
proportionally and approaches to zero in late hours of the day.

3.2. Wind generator set

Wind generator uses the kinetic energy of air in motion and converts this wind energy into other useful
forms, such as, using wind turbines and generator to make electrical power, windmills for mechanical
power, wind pumps for water pumping or drainage, or sails to propel ships. Wind speed directly affects
the generated amount of wind energy and is illustrated in Eq. 4;
9 9 9
8# ;7 : # (<7=>)7 : # <=>7 ? (4)
: : :
Where
ρ = density of air;
v = wind speed;
Avt = volume of air passing through A (which is considered perpendicular to the direction of the
wind);
Avtρ = mass m passing per unit time.
½ ρv2 = kinetic energy of the moving air per unit volume.

Power is energy per unit time, so the wind power incident on A (e.g. equal to the rotor area of a wind turbine)
is, Eq. 5;

A 9
@# # <>7 ? (5)
B :

Configuration of the wind turbine generator set for the proposed system is;

Maximum voltage, Vmax = 12 Volts

Maximum current, Imax = 8.33 Amperes
Maximum power output of the unit = 100 Watts

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Output of the wind generator (as it is variable in nature) varies from 0 to 12V, depends upon the wind speed.
Wind produces maximum 12 volts when high rate of wind speed is available. The output voltage decreases
gradually and approach to zero when very low rate of wind speed is available.

3.3. Hybrid charge controller

Hybrid battery charger circuit is consists of two similar stages, one for the wind turbine of 12 volts rating and
other for the solar PV of 18 volts rating. Wind turbine side is responsible for charging of the battery only
whereas while solar stage is responsible to directly supply its energy to the load and also for charging of the
battery.

The hybrid battery charger circuit consists of basis components like; resistors, capacitors, diodes, zener
diodes, transistors and operational amplifiers. The operational amplifiers are configured as comparator, where
non inverting pin used for sensing input and inverting pin used as reference input. The resister R3/R4
selected such that at the required battery charging voltage sense pin just become higher than reference pin.
When wind voltage is applied to op-amp stage, the op-amp tracks the voltage and as soon as op-amp tries to
exceed the set threshold voltage. At this time pin 6 of IC goes high which is turn switch ON transistor T1 and
T2 instantly short circuit the excess energy restricting the voltage to the battery at desire voltage limit. Solar
PV also implements same function but in solar T2 transistor is used whenever the solar energy is higher than
the set threshold. T2 keeps on cutting it OFF resulting supply to battery at specified rate which is safe for
battery. The circuit diagram of hybrid battery charger is show in figure (3)

Fig. 3. Hybrid battery charger circuit diagram

3.4. Energy storage system (Battery)

Distributed Generator (solar and wind) used in this system are dependable of environmental conditions.
Power produces by these energy resources are non dispatchable in nature. Therefore integration of system
will face the problem of balancing the supply and demand in case of one source is not available. To overcome
this problem an energy storage system comprises of a battery or group of batteries connected in parallel can
be used. This energy storage system is directly connected to DC bus. Battery will charge through two energy
sources i-e solar and wind energies with help of hybrid battery charger. This hybrid charge will increase
battery life by protecting the overcharge and over discharge rate. Hence, battery is used to provide the supply
and demand gap in the system.

3.5. DC bus and DC load

DC bus is the common conductor which carries the current from source to the load. In proposed system, 12
volts with +5%, voltage is maintained at the dc bus under various loading conditions in between 0 to 500
Watts. 20 number of 25W bulbs are simulated for the designed load of 500 Watts.

4. Simulation and Results

Simulation of the proposed system is carried out in Multisim software and is shown in figure (4). To illustrate

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the performance of the system, results under various operating conditions of solar and wind are obtained.

Fig. 4. Simulation of the proposed system

Table 1 presents the dc bus voltages of the designed system at various operating conditions.

Table 1. DC bus voltage at various operating conditions of PV and wind systems

PV systems output voltage Wind Systems output voltage Voltage at the dc bus
18V 12V 12V
18V 10V 12V
18V 8V 12V
14V 12V 11.9V
10V 12V 11.9V
10V 10V 11.9V
10V 8V 11.9V

Case 1: Both solar and wind systems supply sufficient energy (i.e. Solar = high, Wind = high)
Under this condition, both solar and wind systems operate closer to their rated limits and batteries do not have
to supply any additional amount of energy. Performance of the system under this system can be best observed
from the graph presented in figure (5).

Fig. 5. When both solar and wind energies supply power to DC bus

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Case 2: Solar energy is sufficient and wind energy is insufficient (i.e. Solar = high, Wind = low)
Under this condition, only PV system will supply its energy whereas wind energy is insufficient to contribute
any of its part into the hybrid system. Graph of the proposed systems performance under this condition is
given in figure (6).

Fig. 6. When wind energy is insufficient to supply power to DC bus

Case 3: Solar energy is insufficient and wind energy is sufficient (i.e. Solar = low, Wind = high)
As expected in night times when solar energy is not available, the only possible source of energy be the wind
generator system if sufficient wind speeds are available. Graph of the proposed system under this condition is
given in figure (7).

Fig. 7. When wind energy is sufficient to supply power to DC bus

Case 4: Both solar and wind energies are insufficient (i.e. Solar = low, Wind = low)
Under this condition, the energy storage system will be the only means to fully or partially meet the load
demand, depend on the capacity of the storage system. Hence batteries will supply their energies up to the
time when get fully discharged. Figure (8) shows the graph of the system under this condition.

Fig. 8. When both solar and wind energies are insufficient to supply power to DC bus

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4 Applications of the project
The proposed system has vast applications such as, standalone power generation sets employed to villages
that do not have access to electricity. This is also feasible for various purpose buildings such as residential,
commercial, office and industry as well as the management of distribution system independently. Moreover,
these technicalities of the project will help the policy makers for the penetration of renewable energy
technologies within the power system.

5 Conclusion

The proposed system comprises of the basic electronic components and will maintain dc voltages at 12 volts
under various operating conditions.

Acknowledgements

The authors are grateful to USPCAS – E Peshawar for project grant (USPCAS-E ARG-Dec15-042) to carry
out the research. They would also like to acknowledge Mehran UET Jamshoro & UET Peshawar for joint
carrying of the project.

References
[1] Bakari , M.M. Mwinyiniwiwa, “DC bus Voltage Regulation for Renewable Energy Based Micro grid ”Internation Journal of
Electrical, Computer , Energetic, Electronics and Communication Engineering , Vol:7, pp. 1629-1633, 2013.
[2] Sukumar Kamalasadan and khalid S. Al-Olimat “ Modeling and control of a micro grid set up using Photovoltaic Arrays”
IEEE 45th Southeast Symposium Conference on system theory , pp 80-87, 2013
[3] H.Tsai et al, “Development of Generalized Photovoltic Model Using MATLAB/SIMULINK” Proceeding of the world
Congress on Engineering and Computer, San Franacisco, CA, October 22-24, 2008.
[4] Chicco G, Mancarella P. Distributed Generation:a comprehensive view Renew Sustain Energy Rev 2009; 13(3):535-51.
[5] Li Zhang, Tianjin Wu, Yan Xing, Kai Sun, and Josep.M Gurrero, “Power Control of DC Microgrid Using DC Bus
Signaling,” IEEE Applied Power Electronics 26th Annual Conference and Exposition (APEC), Fort Worth, TX, pp. 1926-
1932, April 2011.
[6] Kyohei Kurohane, Akie Uehara, Tomonobu Senjyu, Atsushi Yona, Naomitsu Urasaki, Toshihisa Funabashi, and Chul-Hwan
Kim, “Control strategy for a distributed DC power system with renewable energy,” Journal Renewable Energy, vol. 36, issue
1, pp. 42-49, 2011
[7] K. Techakittiroj, V. Wongpaibool, Co-existence between AC-distribution and DC-distribution: in the view of appliances, in:
International Conference on Computer and Electrical Engineering (ICCEE), 2009, pp. 421–425.
[8] M. Ryu, H. Kim, J. Kim, J. Baek, J. Jung, Test bed implementation of 380V DCdistribution system using isolated
bidirectional power converters, in: IEEEEnergy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE), 2013, pp. 2948–2954.
[9] B.A. Thomas, Edison revisited: impact of DC distribution on the cost of LED lighting and distribution generation, in: 27th
Annual IEEE Applied PowerElectronics Conference and Exposition (APEC), 2010, pp. 588–593.
[10] B.T. Patterson, DC, come home: DC microgrids and the birth of the Enernet,IEEE Power Energy Mag. 10 (2012) 60–69..
[11] Bharadwaj R, Ramasubramaniam R, Tarun Bajaj, Srinivasan K Rand Akagi and Dr. P. Meena, "Power Quality Conditioner
and Load Management system for an Integrated residential Grid" IEEE conference on Region TENCON , pp 1-6 , Nov
2015..

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194. Scope of renewable energy resources for fulfilling the

energy gap in foreseeable future of Pakistan’s power sector

Pathan A. Z*,a, Bajkani Irfana, Soomro Shakir Alia, Talpur S. Rb

a
Faculty member at MUET SZAB Campus Khairpur Mir’s
b
Student at MUET SZAB Campus Khairpur Mir’s
E-mail address: azp24@hotmail.com

Abstract

This research paper provides consolidated argument for renewable energy resources being more
significant as compare to conventional energy resources (oil & natural gas) in Pakistan’s power sector for
following important reasons: First is that, from statistical data regarding vast utilization of oil and natural
gas resources of Pakistan for various purposes (industries, power plants, transport, domestic
applications..) it is estimated that country’s natural gas and oil reserves will become extinct in about 15-
16 years, thus this estimated evidence compels to find such energy resources in the country that would be
able to fill the gap of oil and natural gas resources in power sector of the country once they (oil and
natural gas resources) are extinct. Second is that, Use of oil and natural gas resources in power plants is a
source for generation of flue gases that are exhausted into atmosphere, these flue gases in the atmosphere
significantly contribute to global warming which as of present has reached its peak value in Pakistan. The
effects of global warming are devastating as it contributes in warming the planet significantly that is
making life on earth unbearable. Thus to avoid any further increase in global warming of the country
(Pakistan) use of oil and natural gas resources in power sector must be curtailed and adequate
replacement in terms renewable energy sources (solar, wind, biomass and hydro) must be utilized in
power sector of the country, because the use of renewable energy resources in power sector do not
generate any harmful gases that can damage the planet. So basically this research paper shall provide a
solid reason for utilizing the renewable energy resources in Pakistan’s power sector as compare to near
extinction conventional energy resources.

© 2016 Pathan A.Z1, Bajkani Irfan2, Soomro Shakir Ali3,Talpur S.R4 Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy
and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro,
Pakistan.

Keywords: “Green energy, Solution to power crisis”

1 Introduction

In this research paper statistical data for projected power demand on Pakistan’s power system for years
2015-16 to 2029-30 along with statistical data for projected installed capacity of Pakistan’s power system
for years 2015-16 to 2029-30 are analyzed for determining the power demand and installed capacity gap
for years 2015-16 to 2029-30.

Based on the analysis process projected power demand/installed capacity gaps for years 2015-16 to 2029-
30 are focused and further analyzed in terms of constraints likes financial restrictions, conventional fuel
resource shortage and no rehabilitation of existing power houses for determining projected power
demand/supply gaps, and then based on the projected power demand/supply gaps for years 2015-16 to
2029-30 role of renewable energy resource power projects is defined for bridging the projected power
demand/supply gaps in order to eliminate power crisis to some significant extent.

1.1 Analyzing future power crisis of Pakistan

As per national power system expansion plan the projected future power demand of Pakistan
(KESC+PEPCO) for years 2015-16 to 2029-30 is evaluated by first determining the energy sales/energy
demand (including the energy shed) for future years using regression analysis formula in which the
important parameters used are historic energy sales/energy demand (including the energy shed for 2004-

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15) for years 1970-2015 with 2015 taken as base year and projected growth of GDP, Population and
category wise tariff rates ETC for years 2015-16 to 2029-30 and then projected
Transmission/Distribution losses, projected auxiliary consumption and projected load factor are used to
finally project the peak power demand on Pakistan’s power system for years 2015-16 to 2029-30. The
data for projected peak power demand of Pakistan for years 2016-2030 under normal load forecast
scenario is shown in Fig 1 and is detailed in appendix A.

Fig 1

Similarly the projected installed generation capacity of Pakistan (PEPCO+KESC) for years 2015-16 to
2029-30 as per NTDC’s future power project list is shown in the fig 1.1 and is detailed in appendix B.

Fig 1.1

Then by comparing the projected peak demand and installed capacity of years 2015-16 to 2029-30 power
demand/installed capacity gaps for years 2015-16 to 2029-30 are determined this is shown in fig 1.2 and
is detailed in appendix C.

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Fig 1.2

As indicated in fig. 1.2 from years 2015-16 to 2022-23 and year 2026-27 projected peak power demand
on Pakistan’s power system shall be less than installed generation capacity by significant margin thus if it
is assumed that actual generation capacity of country’s power system is equal to its installed capacity
provided all the power houses are operating upto their rated capacity then Pakistan surprisingly shall not
face any power crisis for those years from 2015-16 to 2022-23 and 2026-27 but unfortunately due to
presence of constriants like shortage of fuel resources (import oil/gas) for thermal power stations (as per
financial restrictions and natural gas allocation and management policy 2005) and hydro resources in
winter for hydro power stations and no rehabilitation of existing power houses it is expected that actual
generation capacity shall not be equal to installed capacity rather it is expected to be less than the power
demand therefore by considering these factors it is expected that Pakistan shall face power crisis for years
2015-16 to 2022-23 and 2026-27. For the years 2023-24 to 2029-30 except 2026-27 projected peak
demand on system is expected to be greater than installed generation capacity, thus even if actual
generation capacity is assumed to be equal to installed capacity for years 2023-24 to 2029-30 except
2026-27 Pakistan is still expected to face power crisis and if factors like shortage of fuel resources for
thermal/hydro power projects and no rehabilitation of existing power houses are considered then actual
generation capacity is expected to be way below the power demand thus further consolidating the power
crisis for years 2023-24 to 2029-30.

1.2 Conclusion (Role of renewable energy resources for eliminating future power crisis)

As discussed earlier in section 1.1 even though the projected installed capacity of Pakistan’s power
system succeeds the power demand for years 2015-16 to 2022-23 and 2026-27 the country shall still be
facing power crisis because of constraints already mentioned due to which conventional resource power
stations shall be operating below their rated capacity and therefore actual generation capacity shall be
lower than projected installed capacity and peak power demand thus widening the power demand/supply
gap.

But in case of years 2023-24 to 2029-30 except 2026-27 power demand exceeds installed capacity thus
country shall be facing severe power crisis even with actual generation capacity being equal to installed
capacity and if factors like shortage of fuel resources for thermal/hydro power projects and no
rehabilitation of existing power houses are considered then actual generation capacity is expected to be
way below the power demand thus further increasing the severity of power crisis for years 2023-24 to
2029-30.

In order to reduce power demand/supply gap upto a significant margin for downgrading projected power

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crisis of years 2015-16 to 2029-30 GOP must consider following steps:

• While considering shortage of conventional fuel resources and with renewable energy
resources (wind+solar) available in abundant quantity within Pakistan, GOP shall put forward a
mandate for construction of renewable energy resource (wind+solar) power projects on small
scale along with rehabilitation of existing power houses for years 2015-16 to 2022-23 and
2026-27 for bridging demand/supply gap in order to reduce the power crisis upto some
significant/tolerable extent.
• The above is true for years 2023-24 to 2029-30 except 2026-27 with one exception that is the
renewable energy power projects must be constructed on massive scale because of power
demand being greater than installed capacity for these years.

Acknowledgements

I am really thankful to following faculty members of Electrical Department MUET SZAB Khairpur
Mir’s campus for helping me to write this research paper:
1. Prof. Agha Zafarullah Pathan (Supervisor)
2. Engr. Irfan Ahmed Bajkani (Co-Supervisor)
And I am also grateful to following faculty members of Electrical Department MUET SZAB Khairpur
Mir’s for Supporting/encouraging me to write this research paper:
1. Engr. Shakir Ali Soomro (Acting Chairman Elec. DPT)
2. Engr. Dr. Mohsin Tunio

References
[1] EDF (Energy Demand Forecast) 2011-2035 NTDC.
[2] NTDC Future Power Proect List 2011-2030.
[3] NPSEP (national power system expansion plan) 2011-2030.

Appendix A Load forecast (PEPCO/ KESC/Self Generation) Normal

Load forecast for PECO+KESC+SELF GENERATION

Year Grow Ener Loses Ener Auxiliary Energy Loa Peak
th gy Transmissi Distributio gy Consumpt generati d dema
rate sale on n sent ion on fact nd
(%) (GW % (GW % (GW out (GWH) require or (MW)
H) H) H) (GW d (%)
H)
2014- - 162479 4. 8334 12. 22962 193775 7255 201030 71 32322
15 5 5
Future Projections
2015- 9.7 178048 4. 9140 11. 23803 210991 7947 218938 70.4 35501
2016 6 9
2016- 9.6 195045 4. 9842 11. 24253 229140 8582 237722 70.7 38383
2017 5 2
2017- 9.5 213412 4. 10681 10. 24771 248864 9323 258187 70.6 41747
2018 5 5
2018- 9.3 233173 4. 11647 10. 26537 271357 10165 281522 70.4 45649
2019 5 3
2019- 9 254105 4. 12695 10. 28921 295721 11076 306797 70.3 49818
2020 5 3
GR(20 9.4 8.8% 8.8% 9%
15-20)
2020- 8.9 276619 4. 13822 10. 31488 321929 12057 333986 70.1 54388
2021 5 3
2021- 8.6 300515 4. 15017 10. 34210 349742 13098 362840 70 59171
2022 5 3
2022- 8.4 325787 4. 16278 10. 37084 379149 14200 393349 69.8 64330
2023 5 3
2023- 8.1 352378 4. 17600 10. 40105 410083 15362 425445 69.7 69679
2024 5 3

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2024- 7.9 380272 4. 18981 10. 43267 442520 16583 459104 69.5 75408
2025 5 3
GR(20 8.4 8.4% 8.4% 8.6%
20-25)
2025- 7.5 409273 4. 20411 10. 46547 476231 17856 494087 69.3 81389
2026 5 3
2026- 7.3 439480 4. 21892 10. 49955 511327 19184 530511 69.2 87515
2027 5 4
2027- 7 470636 4. 23410 10. 53458 547504 20558 568062 69 93981
2028 5 4
2028- 6.7 502784 4. 24966 10. 57058 584808 21981 606789 68.9 100534
2029 5 4
2029- 6.4 535950 4. 26559 10. 60755 623264 23453 646717 68.7 107461
2030 5 4

Appendix B/C NTDC Future Generation Projects/Comparison of Installed Capacity with Peak
demand

Year Name of Future Type Capacity Expected Annual Total Peak

projects (MW) COD Capacity installed demand
Added Capacity (MW)
(MW) after
Addition
(MW)
Golan Gol HPP WAPDA 106 Jul 2014
Integrated coal Sondha, IPP 405 Aug 2014
Sindh GENCO 200 Sept 2014
TPS Quetta EXT CC GENCO 120 Oct 2014
TPS Sukkur EXT CC GENCO 200 Oct 2014
TPS Shahdara EXT CC IPP 50 Oct 2014
China Intl W&E Corp IPP 50 Dec 2014
2014- Sindh IPP 50 Dec 2014 3495 29129 32322
15 HOM Energy Jhimpir Rental -200 Dec 2014
Sindh IPP 97 Dec 2014
Dawood Power Gharo IPP 147 Dec 2014
Sindh IPP 50 Feb 2015
Rental satiana RD GENCO 400 Mar 2015
Fais..abad Punj Rental -62 Apr 2015
Kotli HPP AJK IPP 132 Jun 2015
Patrind HPP Mansehra IPP 50 Jun 2015
KPK GENCO 700 Jun 2015
Zephyr power Gharo GENCO 1000 Jun 2015
Sindh
NGPS Multan EXT
Punjab
Gulf PP Gujranwala
Punjab
Rajdhani AJK
Metro power CO
Jhimpir Sindh
TPS Muzaffar garh EXT
Imported Coal PP
Karachi
Karkey project Karachi Rental -232 Jul 2015
Karot HPP Kotli AJK IPP 720 Aug 2015
TPS Jamshoro Sindh GENCO 1050 Aug 2015
Coal fired PP Sibi GENCO 100 Aug 2015
Baluchistan GENCO 350 Aug 2015
SPS Faisalabad Punjab GENCO 1000 Sep 2015
CC Dadu Sindh IPP 50 Aug 2015
Master wind PP Jhimpir IPP 50 Sep 2015
Sindh IPP 1200 Sep 2015 12698 41827 35501
Gul ahmed Wind PP IPP 1200 Sep 2015
Sindh Rental -51 Oct 2015
AES Coal PP Gadani WAPDA 969 Oct 2015
2015- Baluchistan GENCO 350 Nov 2015
16 Candidate Imported Rental -201 Dec 2015
Coal IPP 215 Dec 2015
Walters Naudero Sindh IPP 157 Dec 2015

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Neelum Jhelum HPP IPP 120 Dec 2015

Lakhra Coal PP Sindh IPP 1200 Feb 2016
Reshma PP GENCO 1200 Mar 2016
Asrit Kedam HPP Swat IPP 1000 Apr 2016
KPK WAPDA 33 Apr 2016
Madyan HPP Swat KPK WAPDA 80 May 2016
Taunsa HPP WAPDA 28 May 2016
Engro Coal PP Thar IPP 50 Jun 2016
Coal Fired PP Thar WAPDA 960 Jun 2016
Imported Power Iran GENCO 100 Jun 2016
Harpo HPP IPP 1000 Jun 2016
Phandar HPP
Basho HPP
Wind Eagle Jhimpir
Sindh 1
Tarbella 4th extension
Coal fired PP Khuzdar
CASA 1000 MW import
Tajikistan
Kohala HPP IPP 1100 Jul 2016
Azad Pattan AJK IPP 222 Aug 2016
CHASHNUPP-III PAEC 340 Sep 2016
Punjab WAPDA 122 Oct 2016
Keyal Khwar HPP IPP 500 Dec 2016
Chakothi HPP AJK IPP 197 Dec 2016
Kalam asrit HPP Swat IPP 101 Dec 2016 4641 46468 38383
KPK IPP 127 Dec 2016
Gabral Kalam HPP swat IPP 130 Dec 2016
2016- KPK IPP 102 Dec 2016
17 Shogosin HPP KPK IPP 50 Mar 2017
Sehra HPP KPK WAPDA 740 mar 2017
Shushgai Zhendholi WAPDA 70 Apr 2017
HPP KPK IPP 840 Jun 2017
Wind Eagle Jhimpir
Sindh II
Munda Dam HPP
Lawi HPP
Suki Kinari HPP
CHASHNUPP-IV PAEC 340 Jul 2017
Punjab IPP 548 Dec 2017
Kaigah HPP IPP 1300 Mar 2018 3520 49988 41747
2017- Coal Fired PP Thar GENCO 1300 Mar 2018
18 Coal Fired PP Thar WAPDA 32 Jun 2018
Trappi HPP
2018- Basha HPP WAPDA 2250 Sep 2018 3250 53238 45649
19 Nuclear PP PAEC 1000 Jun 2019
2019- Nuclear PP PAEC 1000 Jul 2019 3333 56571 49818
20 Bunji HPP WAPDA 2333 Sep 2019
2020- Basha HPP WAPDA 2250 Sep 2020 2746 59317 54388
21 Lower Spatgah HPP WAPDA 496 May 2021
2021- Bunji HPP WAPDA 2333 Apr 2022
22 Candidate Wind PP IPP 200 Jun 2022 3198 62515 59171
Palas Velley HPP WAPDA 665 Jun 2022
2022- Candidate wind PP IPP 200 Dec 2022
23 Bunji HPP WAPDA 2333 May 2023 3533 66048 64330
Nuclear PP PAEC 1000 Jun 2023
2023- Akhori HPP WAPDA 600 Aug 2023 800 66848 69679
24 Candidate wind PP IPP 200 Dec 2023
2024- Pattan HPP WAPDA 2800 Mar 2025 5800 72648 75408
25 Thakot HPP WAPDA 2800 Jun 2025
Candidate wind PP PAEC 200 Jun 2025
Nuclear PP PAEC 1000 Jul 2025
Dhudhnial HPP WAPDA 800 Dec 2025
2025- Candidate Wind PP IPP 200 Dec 2025 5400 78048 81389
26 Coal Fired PP Thar GENCO 2400 Feb 2016
Nuclear PP PAEC 1000 Jun 2016
2026- Coal fired PP Thar GENCO 6000 Aug 2026
27 Candidate wind PP IPP 200 Dec 2026 10520 88568 87515
Dasu HPP WAPDA 4320 Apr 2027
Yulbo HPP WAPDA 2800 Aug 2027
Candidate wind PP IPP 200 Mar 2028
2027- Coal Fired PP GENCO 1200 Nov 2027 5200 93768 93981
28 Nuclear PP PAEC 1000 Jun 2028
Nuclear PP PAEC 1000 Jun 2029

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2028- Candidate Wind PP IPP 200 Jun 2029 6600 100368 100534
29 Sindh GENCO 5400 Jun 2029
Coal Fired PP Thar
Tungus HPP WAPDA 2200 Oct 2029
Skardu HPP WAPDA 1600 Nov 2029
Yugo HPP WAPDA 520 Dec 2029
Candidate Wind PP IPP 200 Jan 2030
2029- Sindh PAEC 1800 Mar 2030 6320 106688 107461
30 Coal Fired PP Thar

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20. Simplified and Accurate Photovoltaic Module Parameter

Estimation Method Based on Single Diode Model
Mohammad Affan*
Department of Electrical Engineering, NED University of Engineering and Technology, University Rd, Karachi 75270, Pakistan.
Email Address: m.affankhan96@gmail.com

Abstract

The aim of this paper is to introduce a simplified and accurate method for the estimation of five electrical
model parameters of Photovoltaic (PV) module namely diode ideality factor (a), series resistance (Rs),
shunt resistance (Rsh), dark saturation current (Io) and photo-generated current (Ipv) under standard test
conditions (STC) and to compare the different analytical and iterative methods already popular in
technical literature with the proposed method. The parameters extraction approach proposed in this paper
exploits a new equation dP/dI=0 at maximum power point for iterative solution rather than dV/dI=-1/Rp
or dV/dI=-1/Rs. Thus, avoiding the complexity and dependency over series and shunt resistance for five
parameters extractions.

© 2016 MohammadAffan. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and Environmental Engineering Research
Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: parameter estimation method; photovoltaic module; MPP; single diode model.

1. Introduction

Over the last few years, the exponential increase in energy demand have caused the rapid depletion of
fossil fuels like coal, oil, natural gas etc. and also due to emission of greenhouse gases , the world is
shifting towards renewable energy sources. Although, renewable energy is relatively expensive [1] but
due to inexhaustibility, free availability and environmental friendly nature, renewable energy is becoming
more and more popular [2]. Among many renewable energy types solar photovoltaic system is one of the
most popularly used one. Photovoltaic system directly converts light into electricity by using
phenomenon called photoelectric effect. Photovoltaic module is an arrays or modules formed by either
grouping the solar cells in series, parallel or in both. PV systems are never connected directly to the load
due to highly non-linear IV-characteristics which results in poor overall efficiency of the system.
Therefore, to operate PV system at maximum possible efficiency, many state of the art techniques have
been developed worldwide in recent years and are in practice, including MPP tracking, power loss
reduction and optimization of algorithms and electronic converters. In order to study and optimize
electronic circuits and MPP algorithms, an accurate model of PV module has to be established.
Furthermore, mathematical models are developed by researchers to study the effect of temperature,
irradiance and other factors on performance of PV modules.

2. Mathematical Modeling

An accurate knowledge of the parameters of solar cell model is necessary for the design, control and
process optimization of a solar cell .The selection of mathematical model for the representation of PV
module is mainly based on the compromise between the simplicity and accuracy [3]. However, in
practice mostly two types of mathematical models are used namely single diode and double diode model.
The single-diode model [3] shown in fig 1 requires an extraction of five parameters. The advantages of
single diode model include simplicity, accuracy [1] and the possibility of the extraction of all five
required parameters from the information provided by the manufacturer’s datasheet [4], [5], [6].

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 4th International Conference on
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Fig. 1. Equivalent circuit of a PV cell based on single diode model

Applying Kirchhoff’s current law, Shockley diode equation and current divider rule on circuit in fig. 1.
*+,-.
# $ #%& ' #( () '1) '
/*0
1234.
4.5
(1)

Where Iph is the photon generated current, Io is reverse saturation current ,Rs is series resistance, Rsh is
shunt resistance, a is diode ideality factor , V and I are module output voltage and current respectively ,
Vt is the junction thermal voltage given by the equation

89 :;
67 $
<
(2)

In above equation q is charge of electron, K is Boltzmann’s constant, T is temperature at STC in Kelvin

and Ns is number of cells connected in series in photovoltaic module.
In order to model a photovoltaic module it is necessary for design engineer to have value of all unknown
parameters [2]. Unfortunately, the manufacturer datasheet provides only the following specifications
Voc(open circuit voltage), Isc ( short circuit voltage), Imp and Vmp i.e. current and voltage at maximum
power point , open circuit voltage coefficient(Kv) and short circuit current coefficient(Ki) and Power at
maximum power point (Pmp) with reference to STC and NOCT. Therefore, unknown parameters must be
evaluated. Unlike, electrical sources that either works as current source or voltage source the PV cell has
the ability to behave as current source as well as the voltage source based on the operating point region
[1]. Furthermore, parameters like Iph, Io, Rs and Rsh not only depend on IV-characteristics of a photocell
but also on the external factors such as temperature and irradiance [7]. More sophisticated calculations
involves consideration of external parameters like air density, wind speed, different illuminated levels
etc. The following equations are present in literature to calculate values of Iph, Io and Voc at varying

#=> $ (#=>, ? @ :A∆;)

C
temperature and irradiance.
CD
(3)

#E $
F9G2HI∆J
*LM,N+OP∆Q
( )
K RS
(4)
/*0

6ET $ 6ET, ? @ :U∆; (5)

Where Voc,n , Isc,n, are nominal open circuit voltage and short circuit current, ∆; is T − Tn where T and Tn
are the actual and nominal temperatures in Kelvin(K) respectively, G and Gn are the real and nominal
irradiations in watts per meter2.

3. Literature overview

This section aims to give an overview of the most widely used single diode based PV module parameter
estimation methods found in technical literature:

3.1. Villalva Method

3.1.1. Description

Villalva iterative algorithm extracts two parameters Rs and Rsh simultaneously keeping diode ideality
factor (a) constant relying on the fact that there is only one pair of (Rs, Rsh) which satisfies

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 4th International Conference on
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Pmp,model=Pmp,curve=Vmp*Imp at MPP of IV-curve i.e. to say the maximum power obtained from IV model
Eq. (1) should be equal to the maximum power point provided by the manufacturer data sheet IV-curve at
MPP. The given method’s extracted values greatly depends upon the increment value of Rs and tolerance
band [2].
In this method, the author initially assumes the diode ideality factor (a) as constant which later on can be
modified to better fit the IV-curve, Rs=0 which must be slowly incremented during the iterative process
and Iph=Isc, but when Rs and Rsh converge towards the best model solution the Eq. (5) is used to find Iph

#%& $ . .5 #9G
4 24
value
4.5
(6)

V9&,WID $ '
XYZ XLM RXYZ
The initial value of Rsh is:
F.M RFYZ FYZ
(7)
The relation between Rsh and Rs is obtained by using relation Pmp,model=Pmp,curve at MPP which leads to the

V9& $
XYZ (XYZ 24. ∗FYZ )
Eq. (8)
*YZ +-. ∗,YZ (8)
XYZ \FZ5 RFL ]K *0 ∗/ RS^_R`YZ,MabPc

The above equation suggests that for any value of Rs there will be only one value of Rsh which makes the
given electrical model traverse the (Imp, Vmp) i.e. MPP provided by the manufacturer datasheet.

Fig. 2. Flowchart of Villalva’s Method

3.1.2. Limitations

Villalva method is accurate near MPP but it can be inaccurate in other regions [3] because all values are
evaluated at MPP and a is treated constant.

3.1.3. Algorithm

The flow chart of Villalva method is given in fig 2.

3.2. Non-linear Least Square Method

3.2.1. Description

The least square method is the most widely used curve fitting method which extracts the required
parameters by minimizing the squared error between the estimated target variables and experimental data
[2].

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 4th International Conference on
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To estimate the five parameters (a, Rs, Rsh, Iph, Io) of PV module, the non-linear least square method uses
five objective functions

, -
dS (e) $ 0 $ #%& ' #( f) ' 1i ' ' #9G
g .M . h F.M 4.
/*0
4.5
(16)

*
dj (e) $ 0 $ #( f) ' 1i @ ' #%&
g LM h XLM
/*0
4.5
(17)

*YZ +,YZ-.
dk (e) $ 0 $ #%& ' #( f) ' 1i ' ' #W%
g h XYZ 2FYZ 4.
/*0
4.5
(18)

Fig. 3. Flowchart of NLS Method

*YZ +,YZ -.
,L g h m
K /*0 2
dl (e) $ 0 $ 6W% \ _ ' #W%
/*0 -Z
*YZ +,YZ -.
- , g h -
(19)
S2 . L K /*0 2 .
/*0 -.5

*YZ +,YZ -.
,L g /*0
h m
K 2
dn (e) $ 0 $ o p'
/*0 -.5 S
*YZ +,YZ -. 4.5
- , g h -.
(20)
S2 . LK /*0 2
/*0 -.5

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 4th International Conference on
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The above five objective functions are based on the system of non-linear equations corresponding to the
short circuit, open circuit and MPP condition of photovoltaic module and other two equations. The
minimization of objective function is obtained by fsolve command in MATLAB [3]. Trust region dogleg
algorithm is used for the minimization. Lower and upper bound constrains are used to avoid anomalous
results.

3.2.2. Limitations

NLS method may confine to local minima during minimization iterations and does not represent the
actual parameters [3]. Furthermore, the appropriate choice of initial values is inevitable because rate of
convergence and accuracy of algorithm depends on initialization [2].

3.2.3. Algorithm

Flowchart of Trust region dogleg algorithm based NLS’s method is given in fig 3.

3.3. Lambert W-function based explicit solution

3.3.1. Description

The method presented in [7], [8] utilizes the symbolic expressions for solving Rs and Rsh of electrical
model. Unlike iterative method, which uses mutually dependent non-linear equations for parameter
extraction this method uses the two separate independent equations to approximate Rs and Rsh .Starting
values of Iph , a and Io are given in Eq. (9-11)

#%& $ #9G (9)

*LM
q$
HP R Q
O s tu/Z
X0 ・( r R R v)
(10)
,Z5 Q OQ

*
#( $ #%& ・)
(R LM )
/*0 (11)

e$
XYZ 24. ・FYZ
Based on the change of variable
wX0
(12)

V9 $ 0 YZ
xwX RX
The above equation allows to write series and shunt resistance as
FYZ
(13)

V9& $
XYZ 2FYZ 4.
*YZ +,YZ ・-. (14)
FZ5 RFYZ RFL (K /・*0 RS)

After few substitutions and approximations

*YZ (*YZ |v*0 )

/v *0 v
e $yo p@2 '
XYZ zjFYZ RFZ5 {K XYZ XYZ v
wX0 FL wX0 wv X0 v
(15)

Where W is the Lambert W-function whose value is computed by the algorithm proposed in the [9]
which uses Halley’s method and series approximations as initializations.
The value of x obtained from Eq. (15) is substituted in Eq. (12) and Eq. (13) to get values of series and
shunt resistance.

3.3.2. Limitations

According to comparison presented in [7] it can be in inferred that the explicit solution based on lambert
W-function is not accurate. Although the transcendental nature of Eq. 1 can be converted into explicit

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 4th International Conference on
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analytical expression by the use of lambert W-function but it increases the complexity e.g. : the use of
CC function by Ortiz-Conde et al make the curve fitting multi-dimensional[10]

4. Proposed Method

The proposed method uses the same initialization procedure as adopted by Villalva. However, unlike
Villalva’s method which adjusts Rs and Rsh to match the Pmp,model=Pmp,curve at MPP keeping diode ideality
factor(a) constant [1], the proposed method adjusts Rsh, Rs and n simultaneously at MPP using two
different differential Eq. (19) and Eq. (20) thus, providing more accurate results.

Fig. 4. Flowchart of Proposed Method

$ #W% @ 6W% $0
}` }F
}X ~`` }X
(21)

$ 6W% @ #W% $0
}` }X
}F ~`` }F
(22)

The Eq. (21) represents derivative of power with respect to voltage at MPP which is equal to zero.
Similarly, another Eq. (22) is obtained by taking derivative of power with respect to current at MPP. It
should be noted that according to the best knowledge of author, Eq. (22) does not occur in previous

that is • 〖€#/(€6 )〗_#ƒT $ '1/(V_ƒ> )„ .The Eq. (20) not only eliminates the dependency over
literature for any kind of iterative solution. The Eq. (22) replaces the equation usually used by researchers

shunt resistance for an iterative solution but also ease the technical complexity, excessive model
parameters adjustment[11] which in turn increases the computational time and accuracy. Since the
proposed method tends to adjust Rsh, Rs and n efficiently and simultaneously, it minimizes the error
previously present in iterative and numerical methods. The flow chart of proposed method is given in
Fig. 4.

5. Case Study

For case study KC200GT Panel is selected [12].The manufacturer provided parameters are provided in
table I. A case study is conducted to compute five parameters of PV panel KC200GT from Kyocera solar

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 4th International Conference on
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using datasheet values at STC (parameters can also be evaluated under varying conditions by using open
circuit and short circuit current coefficients listed in datasheet). The five parameters are extracted by each
discussed method separately and are given in table 2.

Table 1. PARAMETERS OF THE KC200GT SOLAR ARRAY AT

AIR MASS AM1.5, IRRADIANCE 1000W/m2, CELL TEMPERATURE 25 ◦C

Imp 7.61A
Vmp 26.3V
Pmp,curve 200.143W
Isc 8.21A
Voc 32.9V
Kv -0.1230V/K
Ki 0.0032V/K
Ns 54

Table 2. COMPARISON AMONG THE DIFFERENT ESTIMATION METHODS FOR MODULE KC200GT AT STC
Methods Villalva Method NLS Method Lambert-W method Proposed Method
Ideality Factor a 1.3 1.241 1.079 1.3029
Rs(m Ω) 138.7 198.4 236.8 229.0
Rsh(Ω) 466.0 599.9 204.0 587.01
Iph(A) 8.193 8.193 8.193 8.2133
Io(nA) 85.2 35.8 2.0 98.25
Percentage Error (%) 6.983e-04 2.729e-5 1.51e-2 4.79e-10

6. Conclusion

This paper have discussed the different popular methods present in literature and then compare the
proposed methods with them. Unlike, other methods the proposed method does not require any guess
value (such as n [1]).The proposed method is found more accurate than discussed method as comparison
shown in table II. In addition to being accurate the proposed method is very simple and does not require
any complex calculations. Furthermore, the proposed method uses a new differential equations based
approach for numerically determining five parameters of a PV cell.

References
[1] Villalva,M.G.;Gazoli, J.R.;Filho, E.R., "Comprehensive Approach to Modeling and Simulation of Photovoltaic Arrays,"
Power Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, vol.24, no.5, pp.1198-1208, May 2009.
[2] B. K. Nayak, A. Mohapatra and K. B. Mohanty, "Parameters estimation of photovoltaic module using nonlinear least square
algorithm: a comparative study", Proc. IEEE INDICON
[3] E. A. Silva, F. Bradaschin, M.C. Cavalcanti and A. Junior , “Parameter Estimation Method to Improve the Accuracy of
Photovoltaic Electrical Model,” IEEE Journal of Photovoltaics, vol. 6, no. 1, January 2016.
[4] Chatterjee, A. Keyhani, and D. Kapoor, “Identification of photovoltaic source models,” IEEE Trans. Energy Convers., vol.
26, no. 3, pp. 883–889,Sep. 2011..
[5] R. Kadri, J. P. Gaubert, and G. Champenois, “An improved maximum power point tracking for photovoltaic grid-connected
inverter based on voltage-oriented control,” IEEE Trans. Ind. Electron., vol. 58, no. 1, pp. 66–75, Jan. 2011.
[6] A.Yazdani et al., “Modeling guidelines and a benchmark for power system simulation studies of three-phase single-stage
photovoltaic systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Del., vol. 26, no. 2, pp. 1247–1264, Apr. 2011.
[7] J. Accarino, G. Petrone, C. A. Ramos-Paja, and G. Spagnuolo “Symbolic algebra for the calculation of the series and parallel
resistances in PV module model,” in Proc. Int. Conf. Clean Electr. Power, 2013, pp. 62–66.
[8] N. Femia, G. Petrone, G. Spagnuolo, and M. Vitelli, Power Electronics and Control Techniques for Maximum Energy
Harvesting in Photovoltaic Systems, 1st ed. CRC Press, 2012.
[9] R.M. Corless, G.H. Gonnet, D.E.G. Hare, G.J. Jeffery, and D.E. Knuth. "On the Lambert W Function." Advances in
Computational Mathematics, vol. 5, 1996.
[10] C. Zhang, J. Zhang, Y. Hao, Z. Lin, and C. Zhu. “.A simple and efficient solar cell parameter extraction method from a single
current-voltage curve” J. Appl. Phys. 110, 064504 (2011).
[11] Alqahtani, AH., "A simplified and accurate photovoltaic module parameters extraction approach using matlab," Industrial
Electronics (ISlE), 2012 IEEE International Symposium on, pp. 1748-1753, 28-31 May 2012.
[12] English-KC200GT Kyocera Solar. [Online]. Available: http://www.kyocerasolar.com/assets/001/5183.pdf
[13] R. Tamrakar1, A. Gupta.” A Review: extraction of solar cell modelling parameters,” IJIREEICE, Vol. 3, Issue 1, January
2015.

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22. Occurrences of Geothermal Resources and Geochemical

Characteristics of Thermal Water of Sothern Indus Basin,
Pakistan.
Yasmin Raza
Geological Survey of Pakistan
ST-17, Block 2, Off University Road, Gulistan-e- Jauhar, Karachi.75290Pakistan.
Email Address: Yasmeen_raza2211@hotmail.com

Abstract

“Most of the high grade geothermal resources of the world are found within seismic belts of weak crustal
plate margins and centres or volcanic activity. Similarly, geotectonic framework of Pakistan directs
towards a region which poses a commercially exploitable sources of geothermal prospects of energy.
Presence of alteration zones and fumaroles, hot springs as well as Quaternary volcanism are all indication
of good prospects.
The Southern most Indus basin of Pakistan are lie in the Geo-Pressurized Thermal zone system.
Geothermal activities are thermal spring, geysers such as in Karachi and Dadu area, as well as abnormal
high temperature in drilling oil/gas wells, is due to the great thickness and geo-pressured water of
sedimentary basins. The presence of two thermal springs at Mangho Pir and Karsaz, Karachi specify a Cl
- HCO³ and Cl-SO4 types of water chemistry. Reservoir temperature also reported comparatively low by
the Silica geothermometers due to mixing of sea water and rock water interaction in subsurface.
However, geochemistry of thermal water indicates further to conduct a detailed survey of the area for
exploring future prospects of geothermal resources.”

© 2016 “Yasmin Raza” Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and Environmental Engineering Research
Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: “Geothermal water;Reservoir temperature; Geothermometers;Lower Indus basin.”

1. Introduction

Geothermal energy is considered as the energy which is derived from the heat of earth internal core. It is
clean abundant and reliable source of energy as compared to other source of conventional and
unconventional means. If geothermal source is properly developed, it can offer a renewable and
sustainable energy source.

People have used geothermal energy resources in many ways including healing and physical therapies,
cooking, space heating and other applications. It is also used for electricity generation, direct use of heat
and geothermal heating pumps
Geothermal systems commonly can be classified as:

• Volcanic systems with the heat source being hot intrusions or magma chambers in the crust,
• Convective systems with deep water circulation in tectonically active areas of high geothermal
gradient,
• Conductive sedimentary systems with permeable layers at great depth (2-5 km),
• Geopressured systems often in conjunction with oil resources,
• Hot dry rock or EGS systems where abnormally hot masses of low permeability rocks are found
at drillable depths, and
• Shallow resources in normal geothermal gradient areas utilized with ground-source heat pump
applications.

A classification for geothermal systems was proposed in Iceland which is divided into low and high-
temperature geothermal systems where temperature is below 150°C in the uppermost layers (km) and a

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temperature of 200°C is

reached at 1 km depth respectively. The high-temperature geothermal fields are all related to volcanism
whereas the low-temperature geothermal fields draw heat from the general heat flow of the crust. Low-
temperature geothermal system is directly related to the sedimentary basin which has thin conductive
permeable sedimentary layers.

A global seismic belt passes through Pakistan and the country has a long geological history of
geotectonic events. Permo-carboniferous volcanism (Panjal traps in Kashmir) as a result of rifting of
Iran-Afghanistan microplates, Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous rifting of the Indo-Pakistan Plate,
widespread volcanism during Late Cretaceous (Deccan traps) attributed to the appearance of a "hot spot"
in the region, emergence of a chain of volcanic islands along the margins of the Indo-Pakistan Plate,
collision of India and Asia (Cretaceous-Paleocene) and the consequent Himalayan upheaval, and
Neogene-Quaternary volcanism in the Chagai District (Kazmi & Jan, 1999; Raza & Bander, 1995).

2. Location & Method

The study area comprise of Southern Indus basin marginal zone where the existence of a large number of
thermal springs indicates the presence of widespread geothermal systems. The clusters of thermal springs
in the Dadu district, Mangho Pir and Karsaz area at Karachi represent interesting areas for geothermal
exploration. Correlation between the hot springs and tectonics is not easy in the flat basin, prior to
geological and geophysical investigation. (Mughal, 1998). However, a large number of thermal spring
along the Indus basin marginal zone and its marginal extension at Karachi can be a good prospect for
further study. Apart from this, numerous exploration wells has been drilled in Indus basin and offshore
trough region for oil and gas exploration, many of which showed higher than normal subsurface
temperature. This paper also encountered all those factor to give a precise review of geothermal
prospects.

3. Tectonic Framework

Tectonically, Pakistan is situated on the western-rifted margin of the Indo-Pakistan sub continental plate.
In the existing plate tectonic setting, Pakistan lies partly on (i) the northwestern corner of the Indian
lithospheric plate, (ii) the southern part of the Afghan craton, and (iii) the northern part of the Arabian
oceanic subducting plate. The eastern part of Pakistan represents (a) the Tertiary convergence with
intense collision between the Indian and Eurasian plates in the north creating Karakorum Thrust Zone
and (b) the translation between Indian continental plate and the Afghan craton in the north-west
developing Chaman Transcurrent Fault System that connects the Makran convergence zone (where
oceanic lithosphere is being subducted beneath the Lut and Afghan micro-plates) with the Himalayan
convergence zone (where the Indo-Pakistan lithosphere is under thrusting the Eurasian continental plate).

4. Potential Geothermal Sources In Pakistan

Most of the high ranking geothermal resources of the world are found within seismic belts associated
with zones of crustal weakness such as plate margins and centres or volcanic activity.

The geotectonic framework of Pakistan suggested that the region poses a commercially exploitable
sources of geothermal prospects of energy. It is further reinforced by the equitably extensive
development of alteration zones and fumaroles in many regions of Pakistan, presence of a fairly large
number of hot springs in different parts of the country, and indications of Quaternary volcanism.

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Fig. 1. Geothermal resources of Pakistan

In general, the geothermal exploration addresses at least nine phases of integrated study, i.e., i)
identification of geothermal phenomena, ii) classification of the geothermal field production field exists,
iii) location of productive zones, iv) ascertaining that a useful geothermal, v)estimation of the size of the
resource, vi) determination of heat content of fluids that will be discharged by wells in the geothermal
field, vii) compilation of a body of data against which the results of future monitoring can be viewed,
viii) assessment of pre-exploitation values of environmentally sensitive parameters, ix) determination of
any characteristics that might cause problems during field development. First three phases have so far
been undertaken in Pakistan on limited scale to study the geological characteristics of the geothermal
energy sources.
Thus in our country Pakistan, these manifestations of geothermal energy are found within three
geotectonic or geothermal environments.

• Geo-pressurized systems related to basin subsidence which is mainly encountered in the Indus
river basin in Southern part of Pakistan.
• Seismo-tectonic or suture-related systems: is found in northern part of Pakistan, manifested by
many thermal spring. This regime is comprised of Karakorum, Hindu Kush and Himalayan
thrust mountainous belts, exhibits strong seismicity activities.
• Neogene-Quaternary volcanism. Lies in the western belt of Pakistan and associated with Chaghi
magmatic arc and Koh-e-Sultan volcanoes manifested by mineralized thermal spring. This
regime apparently exhibits the highest potential of geothermal source in Pakistan (Zaigham,
2005).

5. Geothermal System Of Southern Indus Basin And Trough

This paper aims to provide a general characteristic of Thermal system of Southern lower part of Indus
basin. Pakistan. This zone along with the western margin of the Indus Plain are lie in the Geo Pressurized
Thermal zone system. The Lower Indus Basin is filled with 5,000 to 10,000 m thick sedimentary rocks of
Mesozoic to Recent Ages. It is generally considered that geothermal systems in sedimentary grabens
usually derive their origin from the difference in thermal conduction, i.e. the "isolating effect" due to low
thermal conductivity of sediments. The hot sedimentary aquifers are associated with hydrocarbons and
also developed as a result of development of secondary faults in the Indus Basin where dozens of
geothermal springs have been identified.

The geothermal activities which is found in the Indus basin are thermal spring, geysers such as in Karachi
and Dadu area, as well as abnormal high temperature(>110 °C) due to geo-pressured hot water
associated with hydrocarbon, are encountered in drilling different oil/gas wells.

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5.1. Lower Indus Trough

The lower Indus trough and offshore are aslo characterized by more than normal geothermal gradient for
instance a well Damiri-1 had a geothermal gradient of 4ºC/100m (Khan and Raza, 1986), whereas the
wells at Talhar and Khaskheli have encountered geothermal gradients in the range of 30 to 3.5°C/100m.
The offshore well at Dabbo Creek revealed a geothermal gradient of 3.7ºC/100m.
Generally, in this system the normal heat flow is trapped by insulating impermeable beds in a rapidly
subsiding sedimentary basin. It is due to its great depth (as much as 6,000 m) that temperatures ranging
from less than 93ºC to more than l50ºC encountered. They commonly contain pressurized hot connate
water at pressures ranging from 40 % to 90 % in excess of the hydrostatic pressure corresponding to the
depth. Gradual subsidence has led to the ultimate isolation of trapped pockets of water contained in
alternating pervious and impervious sequences.

5.2. Karachi Area

Karachi area geologically fall in Kirthar province of Indus basin. It may broadly divide into two parts, the
hilly terrain on the North and West part and underlying plain and coastal area, are in South-East. The
hilly part in Karachi are the southward extension of the Kirthar ranges which merges into alluvial plain of
Karachi. The rocks exposed in Karachi are of sedimentary origin and range from Paleocene to Recent in
age.

There has been two hot spring are found in Karachi shown in Fig 2.

i. Mangho Pir thermal spring (K1) is located in Karachi West (Lat. 24°59’N; Long 67°03’E). It is
situated on the eastern flank of the anticline, at an altitude of about 20m above sea level
whereas,
ii. Karsaz hot spring (K2) is located in Karachi East (Lat. 24°53’N; Long 67°06’E) approximately
11 km North of Arabian sea.

Fig. 2. Location map of Mangho Pir & Karsaz hot springs.

The exposed rock of these area consist of shale, sandstone and limestone of Nari and Gaj formation of
Oligocene and Miocene age (Fig.3). There is no volcanic activity found in this area. The system of
fracture and fissure developed in shale formation of Mangho Pir area are commonly closed and the
permeability is also very less. However aquifer of the mineral water found in the Orangi Town nearby

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area of Mangho Pir, are primarily exist in sandstone of Nari formation (Muslim & Das 1988). In this
way, shales of Nari and Gaj formation play a role of cap rock. Fractured Limestone and sandstone is
considered to act as a shallow geothermal reservoir in Mangho Pir area (Todaka, Shuja)

Fig. 3. Generalized geological map of Karachi

5.2.1. Characteristic of Thermal Waters and Its Classification

Geochemistry of thermal water mainly used to provide estimates of the surface reservoir temperature and
the general chemical characteristics. This information helps further in the selection of geothermal areas
for more detailed surface explorations and exploratory drilling. Various chemical geothermometers have
been proposed for this purpose, based on different relationships and reactions between the fluid and the
host rock.

According to Todaka, hot spring thermal water at Mangho Pir and Karsaz zone are classified as Cl -
HCO³ and Cl-SO4 type (Fig 4).The physical features of these hot spring in Karachi are shown in table 1.
It is believed that the presence of high contents of HCO³, Hg and H₂S or SO4 in near-surface waters are
indicators of high temperatures at depth. Similarly, high Cl/F ratio and Cl/SO4 ratio may indicate the
existence of a high temperature system as well. Generally, geothermal water contains a variety of
elements with different solubility resulting from the water rock interaction when the water flows through
the rocks at the ambient temperature. The source of the hot waters in both areas area assumed to be the
fracture and fissures in subsurface host rock. It also contain high value of Na and Cl which is due to the
precipitation and mixing with sea water, especially in Karsaz hot spring, because of its close proximity to
Arabian Sea coast. Classification of thermal water has shown in Fig 5. (Todaka)

Table 1. Chemical composition of water from Mangho Pir & Karsaz (Todaka 1998)

Parameters Sample (K1) Sample (K2)

Mangho Pir Karsaz
Ph 7.45 7.87
EC (us/cm) 2380 7910
TSM (mg/l) 1560 5780
Na (mg/l) 355 1400
K (mg/l) 14 81
Ca (mg/l) 56 176
Mg (mg/l) 34 124
Cl (mg/l) 432 1971
SO4 (mg/l) 221 1388
HCO3 (mg/l) 308 243
CO 3 (mg/l) 16 0
SiO2 (mg/l) 24 46
Water Temp at field 50.3 39.0

To a large extent, chemical content of the water controls, its properties with regard to utilization and
therefore it is very important to have a good database of it at an early stage.
Low-temperature geothermal waters in crystalline rocks are usually dilute, i.e. have low values of total
dissolved solids (<500 mg/I), and no harmful trace elements. Such waters can often be used directly, e.g.
for heating of houses or swimming pools and even for direct agricultural use or drinking. However, if the

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chemical content is high, such as with low-temperature fields in sedimentary rocks, high temperature
fields and brine fields in general, indirect usage may be necessary in order to utilize the energy and avoid
scaling or corrosion in pipes and systems.

Fig. 4. Hexadiagram showing chemical composition of water from Karachi hot springs (K1, K2)

Often, heat-exchangers of various types can be used so that hot geothermal water heats up dilute cold
water which is then used for the heating systems or agricultural purposes. Sometimes mixing chemicals
can solve these problems. Of special importance is keeping the systems closed, so the water does not
absorb oxygen, as this increases the corrosive properties of the hot water. For electrical production,
geothermal steam can usually be used directly, though in some cases mixing chemicals may be necessary
to avoid scaling or corrosion.

Fig. 5. Classification of water from Karachi thermal spring (Mangho Pir, Karsaz)

5.2.2. Reservoir Temperature

Reservoir temperature are usually estimated by chemical geothermometers, which can be used in both
high- and low-temperature geothermal systems. Many chemical geothermometers have been developed
during the past two decades, the most commonly used ones being the silica geothermometers (e.g.
Foumier and Potter, 1982; Arn6rsson et. aI. 1983) and Na-K I Na-K-Ca (Mughal 242 Report 9)
These geothermometers often give different reservoir temperatures for the same fluid. This may be due to

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lack of equilibrium between minerals and thermal fluids or mixing of cold water during the up flow. It is
also suggested that the thermometers are not suitable for some area due to specific geological conditions.
(Fig. 6) Different rates of response may show temperatures from different depths and/or ages. The most
commonly used geothermometers is the silica geothermometers. The quartz geothermometers is used for
prediction of high temperatures (> 180°C), while the chalcedony geothermometers is used for low
reservoir temperatures. The solubility of silica is affected by the pH values of the fluid, thus, pH has to be
accounted for when it is greater than 9.5. In order to deal with high pH and hard waters that do not yield
reliable temperatures when using the silica geothermometers, the Na-K and the Na-K-Ca
geothermometers were proposed and have been used successfully in such systems.

According to Todaka and Shuja the reservoir temperature of Mangho Pir and Karsaz is estimated in range
from 71° to 89° by the Silica geothermometers and from 138° to 170° C by the Na-K-Ca
geothermometers showing in table 2.

Fig. 6. Conceptual model of a geothermal system at Mangho Pir (K1) and Karsaz (K2) area, Karachi, showing the probable
transfer of heat from the subsurface (Source: GSP / JICA, 1988)

Usually, geothermometers (Fournier and Trusedell, 1973; Am6rsson et al., 1983) and it’s relatively show
high temperature than Silica Geothermometers. However, in this case it is apparent that the reservoir
temperature is comparatively not much higher. This may be due to chemical composition of the hot
water, which is subjected to the influence of mixing of sea water and the quantity of silica content is also
very low. Hence, silica geothermometers may indicate low reservoir temperature less than 100° C.
(Todaka, Shuja)

Table 2. Reservoir temperature of water from Mangho Pir & Karsaz (Todaka 1998)

PARAMETERS Sample K1 Sample K2

Temperature C° 50.3 39.0
Thermometer
Silica (SiO₂) Adia. Conc. Adia. Conc.
76 71 100 98
Na-K-Ca 138 170
Mg 170 18

6. Discussion

Nearly half of the developing countries have rich geothermal resources, which could prove to be an
important source of power and revenue. Geothermal projects can reduce the economic pressure of
developing country fuel imports and can offer local infrastructure development and employment. The
advantage of geothermal power in a country like Pakistan, where coal and oil resources are limited, is
evident. The geothermal resources can provide a clean source of energy. Direct utilization for bathing
and heating and possibly electrical production may satisfy local needs in villages and small towns.
The area belongs to the sedimentary basin and along the whole margin zone, the presence of thermal
springs and abnormal high temperature in oil/gas well contribute a positive indication of geothermal

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energy potential in Indus basin marginal zone. Besides geochemistry, deep reaching methods can be
preferred, such as resistivity sounding and gravity. However, high salinity of the sedimentary rocks may,
in some places, pose a difficulty for the usefulness of the resistivity method. Gradient wells could be used
with advantage to map local near-vertical structures.
Due to the subtropical climate in the southern part of the area, such as near Karachi and Dadu district,
and with a resource of relatively low temperatures, a study of utilization prospects needs to be done
before any expensive exploration programme. Hot water or steam springs, geysers or fumaroles are type
of hydrothermal energy resources which are continuously flowing in many areas of Pakistan.
Many of abandoned deep dry oil & gas wells with high temperature having more than 105°C show deep
geothermal energy resources could produce geothermal energy for power generation in Pakistan,
However detailed investigations are required to evaluate the potential of each well for power generation.

References

[1] Abu-Bakar, M. 1965.Thermal Springs of Pakistan. Geological Survey of Pakistan, Records, Vol. No. XVI, part III.
[2] Mughal, Muhammad Nasser, Geological Survey of Pakistan, 1998, Geothermal Resources of Pakistan and Methods for Early
Stage Exploration.
[3] Todaka, N., Shuja, T.A., Jamiluddin, S., Khan, N.A., Pasha, M.A., and Iqbal, M., 1999, A preliminary study of geothermal
energy resources of Pakistan: Geol. Survey. Pak, I.R. 407, 93p.
[4] Zaigham, N.A., Institute of Environmental Studies, 2005, Geothermal Energy Resources of Pakistan: Proceedings World
Geothermal Congress 2005 Antalya, Turkey, 24-29 April
[5] Javed Ahmad, 2014 Energy Foundation Pakistan, The Geothermal Energy Potential of Pakistan Clean Sustainable Solution
for Our Energy Future, GRC Transactions, Vol. 38.

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231. Techno-Economic Analysis of Solar PV Water Pumps In

Tharparkar, Pakistan
Rajesh kumara*, Mohammad Aslam Uqailib, Khanji Harijanc
a
Assistant Mechanical Engineer Pakistan Railway
b
Professor, Department of Electrical Engineering Mehran University of Engineering &Technology Jamshoro,Pakistan
c
Professor, Department of Mechanical Engineering Mehran University of Engineering &Technology Jamshoro,,Pakistan
Email Address: rajeshkella@hotmail.com

Abstract

Developing countries like Pakistan are composed of numerous small villages and deserts, making it
economically unviable to extend the electrical national grid to every location where it is needed. These
countries still struggle with the lack of water in many villages and farms. These factors, along with the
increase in the price of conventional energy sources and concerns regarding sustainable growth, have led to
utilization of solar energy to generate the off-grid electric power is a prominent technology, which is utilized
in photovoltaic based water pumping system for agriculture and community water supply in this stud.
Pakistan has good sun exposure almost all year and many of its villages still have lack of water.

The target area in this research is Tharparkar desert of Pakistan. This work presents techno-economic analysis
of photovoltaic based water pumping system by using mathematical model and RETScreen software.

Fuel saving per annum for selected six villages in Tharparkar has estimated as 1567 L to 5622 L.The simple
and equity payback periods has estimated as 1.6 to 2.5 and 1.5 to 2.4 respectively. Annual reduction in GHG
emission calculated as 3.8 to 14.9 tCO2. Therefore, enthusiastic results have been obtained because of the
occurrence and estimation of solar energy for water pumping. The results reveals that indigenous solar
potential capability can be used to produce the required amounts of electrical power to meet the
water drinking, non-drinking and cultivation water needs of the desert communities in environmentally
sustainable manner.
© 2016 Rajesh kumar,Mohammad Aslam Uqaili,Khanji Harijan, Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and
Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: Solar Water Pumping; Photovoltaic; mathematical model; RETScreen; Off -grid.

1. Introduction

Humans cannot survive without energy and a certain amount of daily intake is essentially required to avoid a
condition leading to starvation. To survive, a human requires at least the level of energy amounting to 5443
Joules a day, and if fewer calories are consumed, it could cause death due to starvation (Edlin and Golanty
2000). These amounts of energy are produced from food and water. The question arises as to whether the
necessary amount of energy can be provided to all the areas equally, especially in the isolated places such as
desert. Water is the primary source of life for humanity and one of the most basic necessities for rural
development.

In developing countries, like Pakistan water pumping energy requirement is meeting out through electric and
diesel power and the electric power is supplied for a limited period of the day. This duration is not sufficient
for domestic, irrigation and livestock purpose, on the other hand diesel water pumping system would be used
but its operation is costly because of high diesel fuel cost. Many researchers worked on the sustainable
energy consumption, renewable energy sources, energy efficiency in developing countries (Akella et al 2007,
Brunicki et al 2002, Elliot 2004 et al, Panwar et. al, 2011, 2013).

Solar photovoltaic (PV) water pumping has been recognized as suitable for grid-isolated rural locations in
developing countries such as Pakistan .where there are high levels of solar radiation. Solar photovoltaic water

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pumping systems can provide water for irrigation without the need for any kind of fuel or the extensive
maintenance required by diesel pumps.

The climate data on solar radiation per unit area and per unit time at Tharparkar, Pakistan on
horizontal and tilted surface reveal higher values of radiation during summer months and lower in the
winter months. An average solar radiation on horizontal surface is 5-7 kwh/m2/day.whrere as cleanness
index 0.6 to 1(Shah, 2012).

However, in many areas of Tharparkar, water sources are spread over many miles of land and power lines are
scarce. Installation of a new transmission line and a transformer to the location is often prohibitively
expensive. Furthermore, diesel fuel is often expensive and not readily available in rural areas of many
developing countries (Oi, 2005). The consumption of fossil fuels also has a negative environmental impact, in
particular the release of carbon dioxide (CO2) into the atmosphere.

Many researchers have studied a comparative economic analysis of water pumping by different methods.
Oparaku (2003) evaluated cost comparison of the photovoltaic, diesel/ gasoline generator and grid utility
options to supply power in rural areas of Nigeria. Offiong (2004) assessed the economic and environmental
prospects of stand-by solar powered systems in Nigeria. Schmid and Hoffmann (2004) studied economic
feasibility of PV-diesel hybrid systems in Amazon for replacing diesel irrigation pumps by PV systems. In
Ireland a comparison of the economic viability of photovoltaic and diesel water pumping systems is
presented by Odeh et al (2005) for system sizes in the range 2.8 kWp to 15 kWp. Purohit and Purohit (2007)
studied techno economic evaluation of renewable energy systems for water pumping in India Harijan. (2008)
has calculated and compared the cost of water pumping through solar PV with wind and conventional pumps
in Pakistan. Curtis (2010) studied the economic feasibility of solar photovoltaic irrigation system in great
Basin for forage production. Mahjoubi et. al, (2010) evaluated economic viability of photovoltaic water
pumping systems in the desert of Tunisia. Sako et al. (2011) studied comparative economic analysis of
photovoltaic, diesel generator and grid extension in coted’ivoire. Lal .S et al (2013) studied techno economic
analysis of solar photovoltaic based submersible water pumping system for rural areas of an Indian state
Rajasthan.

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of solar photovoltaic water pumping

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2. Analysis

The analysis has been performed by using the RETScreen Clean Energy Project Analysis (CEPA) software,
which is able to perform energy production analysis, financial analysis, and GHG emission analysis.

Fig. 2.1. RET Screen Model Flow diagram

2.1. Calculation of Hydraulic energy

For calculation of hydraulic energy for all selected villages in Tharparkar are carried out using mathematical
equation. The basic parameter for calculation of hydraulic energy is required daily volume of water Q in
(m3/d) that has to be lifted to a height h in (m) the daily hydraulic energy demand Ehydr (in J).

(2.1)

Where
g = acceleration of gravity (9.81 m s-2),
ρ = density of water (1000 kg m-3), and
ηf = factor accounting for friction losses in the piping.
Given the pump system efficiency pump η this hydraulic energy translates into an electrical energy
requirement E pump:

(2.2)

Energy delivered is simply:

(2.3)

Where
EA = energy available from the array.
Daily water delivered is obtained from

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(2.4)

Suggested array size is calculated simply by inverting the above equations and is therefore equal to

(2.5)

Where: ηA = overall array efficiency

Fig. 2.2. Worksheet of Solar PV water pumping by RETScreen

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Table 2. Basic Parameters for Economic Evaluation

Parameter Unit Value

Annual O/M cost SPV pump Fraction 0.01

Diesel pump 0.10
Capital cost of the system SPV pump (2.4 kWp) Millions 0.55
SPV pump (4.6. kWp) Millions 1.0
SPV pump (1.2 kWp) 0.35
Diesel pump (2 kW) 0.050
Diesel pump (4kW) 0.075
Market price of diesel Litter 110
Overall efficiency of the diesel engine pump Fraction 0.40
Overall efficiency of the SPV pumps Fraction 0.40
Specific fuel consumption in diesel engine pump set MJ/l 43.5
Useful lifetime of the SPV pump Years 25.0
Useful lifetime of diesel engine pump Hours 20,000
Miscellaneous losses of SPV pump Fraction 5.0
Inflation rate Fraction 10.8
Source: (CEPA, 2004, RETScreen2005.GOP, 2012, PSO, 2012, Lorentz 2012)

2.2. Economic analysis

Figure representing the cumulative cash flowchart for domestic and irrigation in chosen villages of
Tharparkar by means of RETScreen software. In this chart simple payback period and equality payback
period are illustrate. Length of the total time taken by the project is equity payback period, in situation when
net cash flow results zero. Also, in the chart, the specified length of time to earn its initial cost is simple
payback period. As earlier the project cost would be recovered, the investment will result more cost effective.
Parallel axis is shown in years, which indicates life of project, while perpendicular axis is represented in
PKR, in cumulative cash flowchart.

Fig. 2.3. Cumulative Cash flow Graph of Village Nabisar

Fig. 2.4. Cumulative Cash flow Graph of Village Singharo

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Fig. 2.5. Cumulative Cash flow Graph of Village Malo Bheel

Fig. 2.6. Cumulative Cash flow Graph of Village Kasbo

Fig. 2.7. Cumulative Cash flow Graph of Village Sarh

Fig. 2.8. Cumulative Cash flow Graph of Village Rarkou

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3. Result and Discussions

The PV based water pumping system seems a promising option for energy conservation and it is helpful for
reducing the CO2 emission. PV panels ranging from 2400Wp to 46800Wp are sufficient for domestic,
irrigation and livestock’s purposes for filling the water requirement in selected village of Tharparkar. Fuel
saving per annum for selected six villages in Tharparkar has estimated as 1567 L to 5622 L.The simple and
equity payback periods has estimated as 1.6 to 2.5 and 1.5 to 2.4 respectively. Annual reduction in GHG
emission calculated as 3.8 to 14.9 tCO2. As per the environment, off Grid, fuel price and fuel import
concerned with the analysis there is only PV based water pumping system can be used to produce the
required amounts of electrical power to meet the water drinking, non-drinking and cultivation water
needs of the desert communities in environmentally sustainable manner

2.5

2
Simple Payback
1.5
Equity payback
1

0.5

0
Nabisar Singahro Malo Kasbo Sarh Rarkou
Bheel

Fig.3.1: Simple & Equity Payback Period of PV pumps

Fig.3.2: Annual Fuel Saving (PKR, Millions)

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Fig. 3.3. GHG emission reduction (tCO2)

4. Conclusions

The technology is not only reduces the GHG emissions but also help in fuel conservation. The PV based
water pumping system is off-grid technology means it can be utilized where grid energy is not
accessible. It is economically viable option. This technology is also increasing the sustainability index. It can
save money, time and environment of the world.

References
Akella A., Sharma M. and Saini R., “Optimum utilization of renewable energy sources in a remote area”, Renewable and Sustainable
Energy Reviews. Volume. 11 (5): 894–908 (June
2007).
Akinpelu, E.O. and Eng, M. (2011). Sizing and cost assessment of solar PV system for energy supply in the telecommunication industry
in Nigeria. J. Engg. & Appl. Sci., 6(2) : 130-134.
Brunicki, L.Y., “Sustainable energy for rural areas of the developing countries”, Energy and Environment. 13: 515–522 (2002).
Chaurey, A. and Kandpal, T.C. (2009). Carbon abatement potential of solar home systems in India and their cost reduction due to carbon
finance. Energy Policy, 37(1):115–125.
Curtis, K.R. (2010). Economic feasibility of solar photovoltaic irrigation system use in great basin forage production. Econ. Appl.
Econ.,2010-04p.
Elliott, D., “Energy efficiency and renewable”, Energy and Environment.15: 1099–1105 (2004).
Edlin, G., Golanty, E., (2000), “Essentials for Health and Wellness”
http://books.google.co.uk/books
GOP. (2012), “Economic Survey of Pakistan”, (2011-12), Economic Advisor’s wings, Finance Division, Government of Pakistan.
Islamabad, Pakistan.
GOP. (2012), “Pakistan Statistical Year Book” (2012), Pakistan Bureau of Statistics
Government of Pakistan, Islamabad, Pakistan. hppt;//www.pbs.gov.pk.
Harijan. K.; (2008), “Modeling and Analysis of potential demand of Renewable Sources in Pakistan”, PhD Thesis. Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Mehran University of Engineering Technology Jamshoro
Kolhe, M., Kolhe, S. and Joshi, J.C. (2002). Economic viability of stand-alone solar photovoltaic system in comparison with diesel-
powered system for India. Energy Econ., 24 (2) : 155-165
Mahjoubi, A., Mechlouch, R.F. and Brahim, A.B. (2010). Economic viability of photovoltaic water pumping systems in the desert of
Tunisia. Internat. Renewable Energy Congress ID84
Odeh, I., Yohanis, Y.G. and Norton, B. (2005). Economic viability of photovoltaic water pumping systems. Solar Energy, 80 (7) : 850-
860.
Offiong, A. (2004). Assessing the economic and environmental prospects of stand-by solar powered systems in Nigeria. J. Appl.
Sci. & Environ. Mgmt., 7(1) : 37-42.
Oparaku, O. (2003). Rural area power supply in Nigeria: A cost comparison of the photovoltaic, diesel/gasoline generator and grid utility
options. Renewable Energy, 28 (13) : 2089-2098
Panwar N.L., Kaushik S.C., Kothari S.C., “Role of renewable energy sources in environmental protection: a review”, Renewable and
Sustainable Energy Review 15: 1513–1524 (2011).
Panwar N.L., Surendra K., Kaushik S.C., “Techno-economic evaluation of masonry type animal feed solar cooker”, Energy policy, 52:
583-586 (2013).
Purohit, I. and Purohit, P. (2007). Technoeconomic evaluation of renewable energy systems for water pumping in India. Proceed.
ISES World Congress, Vol.1-Vol. 5 pp. 2910-2916.
Sako, K.M., N‘guessan, Y., Diango, A.K., and Sangare, K.M. (2011). Comparative economic analysis of photovoltaic, diesel

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generator and grid extension in cote D’ivoire. Asian J. Appl. Sci., 4 (8) : 787-793.
Schmid, A.L. and Hoffmann, C.A.A. (2004). Replacing diesel by solar in the Amazon: short-term economic feasibility of PV-diesel
hybrid systems. Energy Policy, 32(7): 881-898
Shah. S.A; (2012), Analysis of solar energy production, utilization and management for facilitating sustainable development in and
around the deserts of Pakistan. PhD Thesis. The School of Mechanical, Aerospace and Civil Engineering (MACE), at the University of
Manchester, United Kingdom (UK

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Comparison of thin film versus crystalline PV modules for

utility-scale electric power production in Pakistan
Ijaz Husnaina,b,*, Warda Mushtaqa, Zuhair S Khana
a
US-Pakistan Centre for Advanced studies in Energy (US-PCASE), NUST H-12, Islamabad 44000, Pak
b
School of Electrical, Computer and Energy Engineering, Arizona State University (ASU),Tempe AZ 85287, USA

* Corresponding author: ihusnain@asu.edu

Abstract

Today energy has become an important global concern. The development and economic growth of a country is directly
connected with the progress in the energy sector and energy availability. Combustion of fossil fuels is not only leading
towards the depletion of their resources, but also causing hazardous environmental impacts. That’s why the world is
searching for cleaner and sustainable resources which can replace fossils. Recent surveys show that renewables have
maximum consumption growth by source in the past few years. Among the renewable resources, Solar PV offers huge
potential as well as is relatively easy to deploy.

In this study, we first assess the feasibility of different sites in Pakistan for installation of solar photovoltaic (PV)
technology to produce utility-scale electric power. Energy performance of solar PV in ten different cities of Pakistan is
extensively studied. Furthermore, nowadays consumers are attracted towards deployment of thin film solar PV modules
instead of crystalline silicon solar cells due to low manufacturing costs. Here, we also determine the economic viability
of thin film PV and crystalline Si (c-Si) PV modules, for a 20MW power plant in Bahawalpur, Pakistan uses NREL
system advisor model (SAM). The weather data for this model is obtained from National Solar Radiation Data Base
(NSRDB). Upon detailed investigations and analyses, it is revealed that thin film PV is more suitable than crystalline Si
due to availability of the large barren area in Pakistan. Capacity Factor (CF) for thin film and c-Si PV is 18.86% and
18.54% respectively. Performance Ratio (PR) is calculated to be 0.76 and 0.75 respectively. Also, simulation results
show that total annual energy produced by thin film versus c-Si is 33,041 MWh and 32,469 MWh respectively. Finally,
analysis of the CF and PR for different cities of Pakistan demonstrates significant annual energy production for utility-
scale electric power production as compared to other European countries.

© 2016 Ijaz Husnain Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran
University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: : Solar energy;Photovoltaic system;Utility scale;System advisor model; performance ratio;

1. INTRODUCTION

The increment in consuming energy on our planet is threatening. The world energy consumption was about 1.17x1015
in 2005. [1] This trend estimates the energy consumption will increase 53% from 2008 to 2035 [2]. Energy consumption
for the OECD (organization for economic co-operation) countries i.e. U.S.A, Canada, Germany etc. increase only 0.6%
per year while for non- OECD countries like Pakistan, China, India increase up to averagely 2.3% per year. This
immense amount of increment in energy demand in non-OCED countries invoke to produce low cost and environment

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friendly production of electricity.
On average the Sun irradiance on Earth surface is ~ 5 kWhm-2day-1. With this solar irradiance it’s easy to fulfil the
increasing energy demands. The natural resources of energy on earth rapidly depleting and also the fossil fuels had bad
impact on environment make the renewable as a perfect alternative. While wind and hydro energies have been used for
many years, the solar market has been expanding rapidly as more efficient and cost effective solar devices begin to be
developed.
Among solar devices, silicon cells first come to mind. Efficiencies upwards of 15-20% have been achieved for
crystalline silicon devices [3]. However, the cost of purifying crystalline silicon is very high and energy intensive. Due
to this high cost, focus has shifted to thin film solar cells, which have greatly reduced cost of production. Currently the
most popular thin film device uses CdTe and CuInxGa(1-x)Se2 (CIGS) as the light-absorbing layer and thus far cell
efficiencies of up to 20.4% have been recorded [4].
Pakistan is struggling since last decade to fulfil its energy demand. Pakistan is huge potential of solar PV. For the last
decade or so, Pakistan has been facing a severe energy crisis. With installed generation capacity of about 23,600 MW,

Fig. 1. Pakistan solar radiation Map

the country is facing a power shortage of approximately 3,000 MW to 6,000 MW during peak hours. The crisis worsens
during summer months, leading to prolonged load shedding of 8 to 18 hours that varies significantly between urban and
rural areas. 37% of Pakistan’s fuel mix is based on fuel oil which means the cost of generation is expensive and highly
dependent on oil price changes leading to cost vulnerability. Renewables (other than large hydro), which could lessen
this cost vulnerability, contribute less than 1% of the current renewable energy mix.
Pakistan has tremendous potential to meet its power demand needs from renewable energy sources and, in particular,
solar.
In Pakistan the solar irradiance in the areas like southwest have potential relative with the world producing energy from
the solar PV. The global horizontal irradiance (GHI) of the southwest area is over than 1500 kWh/m² which is 90% of
the area. The preliminary analysis of The World Bank of GHI for Pakistan is 2071 kWh/m². It shows that Pakistan has
vast potential of solar PV for the energy production.

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a. Crystalline Si
Crystalline silicon is promising technology and well established in world. More than 80% of PV market share by
crystalline Si. The first generation solar cells are made of crystalline silicon, which is also known as traditional or
conventional solar cell ware developed in 1950s which is still used widely across the world. Crystalline solar cells are
made of silicon wafers about 160 to 200 µm, which is also called wafer-based solar cell.

b. Thin film (CdTe)

A second generation solar cell is thin film solar cell which is made of depositing one or more thin layers of photovoltaic
material on substrate, substrate is made-up by metal, plastic or glass. There are several solar cell such as copper indium
gallium diselenide (CIGS), cadmium telluride (CdTe) and amorphous silicon (a-Si) where thin film technology is used.
[5]. Among the thin film solar cells, CdTe mostly used as commercial solar cell. It’s a lower cost as compared to
conventional crystalline silicon for megawatt system. Its energy payback is less than a year as compared to silicon which
is 2.3 year [6-8]In the world the largest photovoltaic power plant CdTe solar cells are used in Topaz Solar Farm (550
MW) and Desert Sunlight Solar Form (550 MW) in California. It contributes 5.1% of the worldwide, more than half of
the thin film market is all about in 2013[9] . The company, First Solar which is situated at Tempe, Arizona is the
prominent manufacturer for the CdTe.
Table 1. Comparison of Mono-Si Vs CdTe module

Parameter Mono-Si CdTe

Cell efficiency 16.5% 15.6%
Derate cell to module efficiency 8.5% 13.9%
Module efficiency 15.1% 13.4%
Wafer thickness / layer thickness 190 µm 4.0 µm
Kerf loss 190 µm –
Silver per cell 9.6 g/m2 –
Glass thickness 4.0 mm 3.5 mm
Operational lifetime 30 years 30 years
Source: IEA-PVPS, Life Cycle Assessment, March 2015 [10]

2. MODELLING & METHODOLOGY

The computational software used in this project was SAM (System Advisor Model) which facilitates the researcher
involved in renewable energy industry to enhance the performance and assist with financial problems. System advisor
model use to predict the energy performance, grid connectivity installation and operating cost for specific designed
parameters and inputs.
Weather data file used of national solar radiation data base. The most recent version of NSRDB was established by
physical solar model. Data available in this version is from 1998 to 2014.meteorological data for NRSDB is comprised
of 30-minutes solar. Data available along the area by latitude 60° N on north and -20° S on south, and longitude 175°
W on the west and 25° E on the east.
In our work modeling is based on location, type of module used and assess the energy performance of utility scale PV
solar plant at ten different locations in Pakistan.

a. Capacity factor calculation

The capacity factor is defined as the ratio between the system's predicted electrical output in the first year of operation
to the nameplate output, which is equally defined as the amount of energy generated in a year operated at nameplate
capacity.
&'( )**+,- .*'/01 (234,5/1/) @
#$ % ? (1)
718('9 :,;,5<(1 (23=5 >/ 23,5) ABCD (4/1/)

The Nameplate capacity of the system depends on the modelled technology. One of the feature using same is it to convert
the units to an appropriated value such as (MW, kW, or W) before using in their calculations. A DC power rating is
used for photovoltaic model and for other AC power rating is used.
Capacity is to be defined as the optimal power generation of the power plant usually measured in kW, MW or GW
rating. Which is also rated the efficiency of that plant is actually the capacity factor.

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b. Performance ratio calculation

Industrialist uses a different method for the calculation of performance ratio. SAM method proposed by NREL of USA
[5]. Performance ratio calculated by SAM as follows

HIIJKL MINOPQ (RST)

E. G % (2)
(UIVJW XKYZKWZ[I (RST)?\[YJLN M]]Z^ZNI^Q (%))

Annual energy is the system total net AC electrical o/p per year, whereas the i/p radiation is the total solar energy
incident on the array after seeding and soiling for the year. Module Efficiency is the module nameplate conversion
efficiency.

3. DATA COLLECTION

3.1 Viability of 20 MW solar PV plants in Pakistan

Pakistan country has huge potential of solar PV. As the cost of solar PV decreasing worldwide. Now there is chance for
thirds world countries to take benefit from it and enhance the quality of life. Here below is energy assessment of PV of
different cities of Pakistan Using system advisor model.

Table 2. 20MW solar PV system in different cities of Pakistan

City Solar Radiation Annual Energy Capacity factor Performance E yield

(kWh/m2/Day) (GWh) (%) Ratio (kWh/kW)
Swat 5.18 33 18.8 0.79 1651
Peshawar 5.16 31 17.7 0.75 1547
Islamabad 4.02 30.7 17.5 0.76 1534
Lahore 4.68 29.5 16.8 0.74 1475
Faisalabad 5.03 30 17.1 0.74 1501
Bahawalpur 5.13 32.3 18.4 0.75 1614
Jacobabad 5.17 32.9 18.8 0.74 1648
Gilgit 4.57 33.8 19.3 0.84 1694
Karachi 5.34 35.5 20.3 0.76 1777
Quetta 5.46 38.2 21.8 0.78 1912
Sibi 5.23 34.6 19.8 0.75 1731

3.2 20 MW PV plant at Bahawalpur

20 megawatt AC solar PV system analysed by system advisor model located at Bahawalpur, Punjab Pakistan. System
is analysed for crystalline Si and CdTe thin film solar cells. Parameter of analysis are annual energy production, capacity
factor and performance ratio.

3.2.1 Energy production by c-Si

For analysis mono-c-Si (Sun Power SPR-E1910-COM) module is used. Capacity of each module is 310.1 DC Watts.
Total energy produced by c-Si in year is 32,459,000 kWh.

3.2.2 Energy production by thin film

For thin film CdTe solar cell were used. Capacity of each module is 117 dcW. Total energy produced per year is
33,041,000 kWh.

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Fig. 2. Performance of 20MW solar PV base on c-Si Fig. 3. Performance of 20MW solar PV base on CdTe

4. DISCUSSION
System advisor model to used analysed the performance of utility scale PV system for the different location in Pakistan.
Assessment is on the base of solar radiation data used for different location. In Table.2 performance of solar power in
different cities of Pakistan. In most cities, energy yield is greater than 1500 kWh per kW of nameplate capacity.
Performance ratio is greater than 0.75 and capacity factor is also good above 18%.At the base of above two parameters,
solar PV is suitable in most cities. But the problem of land for utility-scale production. So in Table.2 on the base of C.F,
P.R, and cheap & vast land availability south-west area of Pakistan like Quetta, Sibi, Jacobabad and Bahawalpur are
much suitable for the utility-scale production of electricity..

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Fig. 2. Loss diagram of CdTe system Fig. 3. Loss diagram of c-Si system

In the comparison of mono-crystalline silicon solar cell and Cadmium telluride, the thin film is based on their energy
out. It already is proven that efficiency of the thin film is less than crystalline technology but the cost of production
make thin film competitive with crystalline technology. Due to different properties of material both technologies have
different output power. Fig.2 and Fig.3 show that total energy produced by Mono-c-Si system which fed to the grid is
32,469,000 kWhac and the CdTe system is 33,041,000 kWhac. A CdTe system producing more energy as they both
have same input radiation and nameplate capacity is due CdTe is more resistant against high temperature. It produces
10% more power as the temperature of module rising up to 60oC or above.
Loss diagrams Fig.4 and Fig.5 tells the story of losses in both solar PV technologies. In both PV systems are same
except the module loss in mono-c-Si is 15% and 13.4% for CdTe base PV system. This module loss makes difference
in the final energy output of the both system Losses

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5. CONCLUSION
Utility-scale Solar PV system analyzed for ten different cities of Pakistan with various locations and different climate
using the NREL System Advisor Model (SAM) software. Performance comparison of crystalline silicon with the thin
film solar cell for utility scale power production in Bahawalpur area also done by using the SAM. Results show that
Quetta is the most suitable city for utility-scale PV power production with capacity factor 21.8% and performance ratio
is 0.78. Simulation result also suggests another city like Bahawalpur, Jacobabad, and Sibi also the good and exploitable
potential for utility-scale PV system.
In the comparison of crystalline silicon with Cadmium telluride (CdTe), thin film result shows that annual energy
produced by the thin film is greater than energy produced by crystalline silicon (Mo-c-Si). Annual energy produced by
CdTe thin film is 33,04,000 kWh and by Mo-c-Si is 32,469,000 kWh. Capacity factor and performance ratio of CdTe
and Mo-c-Si are 18.86% & 18.54% and .76 &.75 respectively.
The result also reveals that Pakistan is a tremendous amount of solar PV potential for Megawatt installation. Thin film
solar PV is more feasible as compared to costly crystalline silicon technology..

References
[1] Lewis, Nathan S., and George Crabtree. "Basic research needs for solar energy utilization: report of the basic energy sciences workshop on solar
energy utilization, April 18-21, 2005." (2005).
[2] Doman, L. E. A., Vipin. Metelitsa, Alexander. Leahy, Michael. ; International Energy Outlook 2011, Administration, U. S. E. I., Ed.; Government
Prinitng Office: Washington, 2011
[3] Bagnall, Darren M., and Matt Boreland. "Photovoltaic technologies." Energy Policy 36, no. 12 (2008): 4390-4396.
[4] Xu, Jun, Chun-Yan Luan, Yong-Bing Tang, Xue Chen, Juan Antnio Zapien, Wen-Jun Zhang, Hoi-Lun Kwong, Xiang-Min Meng, Shuit-Tong
Lee, and Chun-Sing Lee. "Low-temperature synthesis of CuInSe2 nanotube array on conducting glass substrates for solar cell application." ACS
nano 4, no. 10 (2010): 6064-6070
[5] Bagher, Askari Mohammad, Mirzaei Mahmoud Abadi Vahid, and Mirhabibi Mohsen. "Types of Solar Cells and Application." American Journal
of Optics and Photonics 3, no. 5 (2015): 94-113.
[6] Peng, Jinqing, Lin Lu, and Hongxing Yang. "Review on life cycle assessment of energy payback and greenhouse gas emission of solar photovoltaic
systems." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013): 255-274.
[7] de Wild-Scholten, MJ Mariska. "Energy payback time and carbon footprint of commercial photovoltaic systems." Solar Energy Materials and
Solar Cells119 (2013): 296-305.
[8] Fthenakis, Vasilis, and Hyung Chul Kim. "Life-cycle uses of water in US electricity generation." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 14,
no. 7 (2010): 2039-2048.
[9] Green, Martin A., Keith Emery, Yoshihiro Hishikawa, Wilhelm Warta, and Ewan D. Dunlop. "Solar cell efficiency tables (Version 45)." Progress
in photovoltaics: research and applications 23, no. 1 (2015): 1-9.
[10] Peng, Jinqing, Lin Lu, and Hongxing Yang. "Review on life cycle assessment of energy payback and greenhouse gas emission of solar
photovoltaic systems." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 19 (2013): 255-274.

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263. In-Pipe Hydropower, an Unexplored Green Energy

Asma Talpur*a, Rohit Rai Oada, Pervez Hameed Shaikha, Ashfaque Ahmed Balochb
a
Department of Electrical Engineering, MUET, Jamshoro 76062, Sindh, Pakistan.
b
Institute of Information and Communiction Technologies (IICT), MUET, Jamshoro 76062, Sindh, Pakistan.
E-mail address: 16el45@students.muet.edu.pk

Abstract

The development of urban areas has rapidly increased the global energy demand. Of which renewable
energy system can provide clean, reliable, secure, competitive energy to meet this demand. Despite of
various renewable resources available, the in-pipe hydropower is one of the unexplored green forms of
energy. These in-pipe water-to-wire power systems are considered to be more interesting and innovative
for the generation of power from excess head pressure of water pipelines that can be the solution for the
growing energy demand. The in-pipe power systems already proved to be successful. The in-pipe water-
to-wire power system would be helpful to recover the energy that is used to treat or supply water. The
energy is obtained from the pipe water; where the turbine will rotate due to flow and pressure of water,
and the rotating turbine is connected to a generator to generate electricity. This paper illuminates one of
the important pragmatic aspects of production of green energy and its integration to grid and other green
energy sources.

© 2016 Asma Talpur, Rohit Rai Oad, Pervez Hammed Shaikh, Ashfaque Ahmed Baloch. Selection and/or peer-review under
responsibility of Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and
Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: In-pipe; Hydropower; Green energy; water to wire

1. Introduction

Energy and water are strongly linked. A lot of energy is consumed to deliver water and a lot of water is
needed to produce energy. The cost of Energy is a big issue for municipal water utilities—waste and
drinking water facilities consume a lot of energy to treat water. To recover the consumed energy a new
technology known as in-pipe or in-conduit hydropower has been introduced. The in-pipe hydropower
system is water to wire energy recovery based solution. This renewable power system enables
agricultural industrial and municipal facilities to produce low cost, clean and reliable electricity from
gravity fed water pipes. The system includes in-pipe hydrodynamic turbine and generator to capture
clean energy from fast flowing water of large gravity fed pipes, converting the in-pipe water into
continuous source of electricity. The recovery of untapped energy is done by the excess head pressure in
gravity fed pipelines without affecting the operations. The hydrodynamic turbines are designed and tested
in order to maximize the power production without disturbing the flowing water. A company named
Lucid energy is testing and designing this in-pipe system since 2007. The company developed and
installed lucid pipe (in-pipe) power system in Portland. They have installed 200kW power system in
water pipelines of Portland. Which is able to produce an average of 1100Mwh of clean energy per year,
enough energy to light up to 150 houses? [1][2]

1.1 Advantages

• It produces neat and clean energy (it does not affect environment).
• It does not depend upon weather (like solar system depends upon sun and wind system depends
upon air).

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• It does not affect the quality of drinking water.
• It is the one of the cheapest way to produce power (where as in case of solar and wind they will
cost 3 or 4 times more to produce same amount of energy)
• It can also be installed in Agricultural, industrial, wastewater pipeline.
• Electricity can be produced all the time with the flow of water.
• Quick installation
• Recovers process-based energy

1.2 Applications

The system can be installed in:

• Water pipelines
• Waste water pipelines
• Tap pipes
• Agricultural
• Industrial

2. The system

The system depends upon two main components [4]

• In-pipe hydrodynamic turbines

• generators

The idea of the system is that one can fix hydrodynamic turbines in gravity fed water pipes that would
start rotating as the water flow through the pipe. More the velocity of water more will be the speed of
rotation of the turbine, which will result more extraction of energy. The turbine shaft is connected to
generator set. Voltage is generated at the terminals of generator. The design of system is main concern. It
consists of a hydro-electric generator which is connected externally and a hydrodynamic turbine that is
placed inside the flowing water of pipe. The turbine rotates with the flow of water and the shaft of
rotating turbine rotates the rotor of generator, in result the electricity is generated. Then the generated
electricity is transferred to the grid. The design of turbine is key point to obtain more clean energy from
the flow of water. A number of blades and a shaft at the central part are combined to form a hollow
turbine. The blades are specially designed to reduce the resistance to the flow of water. The blades are
sized according to the need of project (the thinner, the better).

3. Methodology

To give a recovery based and green energy solution to the crisis of energy in Pakistan, we had done this
research. Research was done from the reports and findings of lucid energy’s Portland project and
Toronto’s sewerage pipeline project. The project is water to wire hydropower system, consisted of
turbine and generator. Lucid energy had installed this system in Portland’s water pipelines and Toronto in
sewerage pipelines, turning the pipelines into continuous source of generating electricity. Lucid energy is
testing this system since 2007. They had tested 9 turbines in 2011, measuring their vibrations with
piezoelectric accelerometer, changes in pressure with piezoelectric pressure sensor and working speed
with tachometer. The tests had been conducted to make the design of system less noisy and more
sufficient for the production of electricity without disturbing the flow of water. All the 9 turbines had
different swept area; their resulted concluded that swept area is one of the major factors for the increase
in output power. The swept area of turbine should be smaller than area of remaining pipe. The smaller
swept area will cause the increase in velocity of water, which will result in more production of power
(higher the velocity, higher will be the power generated). The analysis and calculation for the extractable
power were made on data provided by lucid energy reports and their present work, the data includes
formula for the extractable power and parameters like head, flow rate and hydropower system efficiency.
We had also done a case study for Jamshoro, based on data provided by lucid energy. The case study of
Jamshoro is just to give idea that this system can be installed in Pakistan for producing clean energy with
low cost. We had calculated the power extractable from this system, if it is installed in Jamshoro. The
parameters included in calculations are flow rate, efficiency of system and head of Jamshoro which is
13m. [5] [6] [7].

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3.1 Results

The case study has been considered for Jamshoro.

(Case study - Jamshoro)

Table 1. Values for parameters [1]
S#: Parameters Formula Values
1 Flow rate Velocity x pipe area 1.784$% /'
2 Head Elevation 13m [7]
3 Efficiency Output/Input x 100% 90%

3.1.1 Formula for extracted power from system. [5]

( ) * ) +,,-.-/0.1
Total energy available (kW) =
22∙4
Where:
H = available head in feet
F = flow rate in cubic feet per second
Efficiency = efficiency of turbines
11.8 is a constant for converting the equation to kW
:; BC :; C
52%6)7%.94 =>)?2.@4A )7%.94 = G ) H.I
< DEF <
Total energy available (kW) =
22∙4
Total energy available (kW) = 204.27kW (it is energy extracted per pipe)

Fig-1 lucid in-pipe power system [1]

Fig.2. lucid in-pipe power system model

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Fig.3. transferring the power to grid

Fig.4. In-power system model of Toronto waste water pipeline

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3.1.2 Graph showing relation between Powers generated and Head drops:

4. Conclusion

In-pipe power system is one of the cheapest way to produce clean energy. Once the system is installed it
will produce energy with even lower cost. The system can be installed in water pipes and sewerage pipes,
making it the reason of recovery of energy that is wasted to treat and supply water through the pipe. The
process of recovery of clean energy can be done all the time with the flow of water as it is independent of
weather. The other advantage of system is its efficiency, which is 90 percent as it is a hydropower
system. The installation of system will also help us in management of all water networks without
affecting the quality of water. This system can be the solution for crisis of energy in Pakistan, as it will
produce clean energy from the already following water in pipes so there will be no need of any other
source. This idea will be helpful in retrieving the energy, previously consumed on the supply of water in
industrial and agricultural work, which will reduce the cost of farming and industrial work. [3] [6]

References

[1] "Home - Lucid Energy," 2016.

[2] newshour, "How drinking water pipes can also deliver electric power," 2016.
[3] "Portland Now Generates Electricity From Turbines Installed In City Water Pipes," 2015-02-24 2015.
[4] "Creating Electricity From Water Pipes | EfficientGov," 2013-01-17 2013.
[5] Cities of tomorrow (2015): "In-Pipe Hydroelectricity Generation from Wastewater Flow"
[6] "Portland's New Pipes Harvest Power from Drinking Water," @FastCoExist2015-01-23 2015.
[7] s. c. www.maps, "Jamshoro Maps - road map, satellite view and street view," ed, 2016.

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269. Municipal Solid Waste to Energy in Pakistan: A case

study of Haripur District (Pakistan)
J. Khana, K. Harijanb, M. A. Uqailib, G. Gillmorea and J. D. Nixonc*
a
Kingston University London. United Kingdom
b
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology Jamshoro, Sindh, Pakistan
c
Coventry University, United Kingdom
*E-mail address: ac2569@coventry.ac.uk

Abstract

This study attempts to estimate the energy recovery potential from Municipal Solid Waste (MSW) in
Haripur district. The data gathered in this study revealed that Municipal Authorities (MAs) are failing to
treat the collected waste and it is disposed without reuse, recycling or recovery. It is estimated that
approximately 3600 metric tons of highly combustible waste is disposed by the MAs in Haripur district,
which could be used to produce up to 3,222,960 kWh of energy every year. If recovered recyclable only,
the amount of waste going to landfill can be reduced by 59%. However, with the help of energy recovery,
the total volume of waste can be reduced by 90% while contributing to meet the ever-rising energy
demand of the country. Based on the quantity and composition of waste available in the district, this
study recommends the use of gasification technology for energy recovery although the gasification plant
requires comparatively frequent cleaning and maintenance than other thermo-chemical waste to energy
conversion techniques. In terms of cost and benefit of waste to energy, the Levelized Cost of Electricity
(LCOE) was identified to be 10.87 Pakistani Rupees (PKR) per kWh. The current selling price of
residential electricity is between 12-13.33 PKR per kWh. Though the overall economic profit from the
sale of electricity is low, the environmental public health benefits and the potential rise in energy
consumption prices in future makes the adoption of waste to energy technology promising.
© 2016 J. Khan, K. Harijan, M. A. Uqaili, G. Gillmore and J. D. Nixon Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy
and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro,
Pakistan.

Keywords: Municipal Solid Waste, Waste to Energy, Environmental Public Health

1. Introduction

The state of Municipal Solid Waste Management (MSWM) in most developing countries is dismal.
MSW produced in developing countries is either not collected, or it is inadequately disposed after the
collection. Poorly managed MSW releases pathogens and toxic compounds into the environment
affecting the environmental quality. In turn, poor environmental quality threatens public health [23].

In the context of Pakistan, JICA and PK-EPA [14] estimates that 55000 tonnes of MSW is produced in
urban areas of Pakistan every day. A large quantity of this waste is dumped in unscientific way without
treatment. According to Batool and Chaudhry [5], relevant MSWM authorities collect 60% of total waste
generated in the cities of Pakistan. A large quantity of this waste (up to 90%) is dumped openly. Such
waste management practices are causing serious environmental public health damage. Environmental
Protection Department of Pakistan highlights that poor MSWM is causing skin diseases, eye infections,
and dust related breathing problems in children and adults [8].

In contrast, MSW in developed world is not only collected efficiently but also used as a resource
preserving the public health and the environment. Hoornweg and Perinaz highlights that the average
MSW collection rates in developed world are nearly 98% [13]. The waste collected by waste
management authorities is mostly reused, recycled and recovered. A good example of MSWM can be
seen in Germany. It produced 47.7 million tonnes of MSW in 2010. Approximately, 62% of total waste
produced was recycled, 37% was incinerated to produce energy and the land filling was almost 0% [7].

Pakistan is facing serious energy crisis. According to Kugelman [15], the energy deficits of Pakistan are
around 5,000 MW that sometime soared up to 8,500 MW. Power shortage not only affected the lives of
ordinary citizens but business also suffered, causing serious economic damage. Deterioration in the

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power sector was identified to be a major cause of GDP decline and it shaved off 2 percent of annual
GDP growth [19]. The existing literature suggests that a major cause of energy crisis is the cost of
electricity production that exceeds the revenue generated from the sale of electricity [4]. For example, the
cost of electricity production from Residual Fuel Oil (RFO) is estimated to be 17 Pakistani Rupees
(PKR) per unit. In case of High Speed Diesel (HSD), it is 23 PKR per unit [18]. Lahore Electric Supply
Company estimates that, an average household consuming 200-700 unit of electricity per month pays
between PKR 11-13.33/unit [16]. It suggests due to expensive fuels to produce energy, the cost of
production is higher than its sale price. A stabilized, economically feasible, and environmental friendly
energy production system may help to fulfil energy demand, grow national economy and improve the
quality of life of people. In this context, MSW is an alternative source of energy that can contribute to
fulfil the energy demand of country while helping to protect the environment and public health.

The following section presents the current waste management practices in Haripur district, the quantity of
waste collected and Energy Recovery Potential (ERP) of collected waste.

2. Methodology

2.1 Introduction of study area

Haripur district is situated in the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa province of Pakistan. The area of the district is
1725 Sq. km [20]. It has 3 Municipal Authorities names Khalabat, Haripur and Ghazi managing MSW in
their allocated areas. Fig. 1 shows the geographic location of the district.

Fig. 1. Geographic location of Haripur district

2.2 Surveying Questionnaire

A survey questionnaire was developed to assess the current MSW management practices by local MAs in
the district and to estimate the quantity and composition of waste. It included open and close-ended
questions. All MAs in the district participated in this survey. The data about the composition of waste
was gathered in collaboration with Khalabat Township Municipal Authority (MA).

2.3 Energy potential modelling

To estimate ERP of mixed MSW; firstly, total quantity and composition of waste was determined and the
weight of inert contents was subtracted from total weight to facilitate the estimation of ERP. Inert
contents are inappropriate to be used in WtE system due to lack of energy content. ERP of waste was
calculated on the basis of dry mass that is, Total Moisture Content (TMC) of waste was determined and
subtracted.

In order to calculate TMC of various components in a sample of mixed waste, the total quantity of each
waste component in 1kg of sample was determined in g/kg. The information about the average moisture
content of each waste component was taken from the literature [1]. By using the equation (1), specific
moisture contents of each component in 1kg of sample was calculated and subtracted from normal weight
(as collected by MAs) to identify dry weight.
&'
TMC % *+ (1)
())

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Where TMC is Total Moisture Contents, NW means Normal Weight of each component in g/kg and MC
is Moisture Contents in percent.

In a sample of dried mixed waste, each component possesses specific energy contents. Han [11]
estimated the Lower Calorific Value (LCV) of various waste components based on dry weight. By using
the information about LCV of each waste component, the Total Energy Contents (TEC) of each
component was calculated by using equation (2);

,-+ % (.+/)01 (2)

Where TEC is Total Energy Content in MJ/kg, LCV is Lower Calorific Value in MJ/kg and DW is Dry
Weight in kg.

Based on TEC of mixed waste, ERP of MSW was calculated by using equation (3);

-23 % (.+/)1 (3)

Where ERP means Energy Recovery Potential in MJ, LCV is the Lower Calorific Value of waste and W
is total waste quantity in kg.

To facilitate the estimation of total ERP and the selection of appropriate waste to energy conversion
technology, characteristics of various technologies were consulted.

2.4 Waste to energy: Cost benefit analysis

Lastly, based on the total ERP, financial cost benefit analysis was performed to assess the economic
feasibility of waste to energy in the district. To identify the Levelised Cost of Energy (LCOE), firstly,
Fixed Charge Rate (FCR) was determined by the using equation 4.

(4)

Where Kd is real debt interest and n is number of years in terms of plant’s operating life.

The LCOE was calculated by using equation 5.

(5)

In this formula, CAPEX is Capital Expenditure of plant, FCR is Fixed Charge Rate, OPEX is Operating
Expenditure and annual output is electricity output in kWh.

3. Results

3.1 MA Survey

MAs were collecting the waste 6 days a week and up to 80% waste was reported to be collected from
allocated urban areas. Inadequate bins, deficiency of waste collection staff and vehicles were identified as
major causes preventing efficient waste collection.

To dispose the collected waste, MAs leased land where waste was simply spread on the ground.
Occasionally, it was set on fire to reduce its volume. No waste segregation was performed for material
recovery and no risk assessment was made in terms of potential environmental damage due to open waste
disposal.

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3.2 Quantity and Composition of Waste

The quantity and composition of MSW in Haripur is shown in table 1 and 2.

Table 1. Quantity of waste in Haripur District (MAs Khalabat, Haripur & Ghazi, 2015)
Municipal Authority Quantity of waste collected
Khalabat Township 10 metric tons per day
Haripur 12-14 metric tons per day
Ghazi 10 metric tons per day

Table 2. Composition of waste in Haripur District (Khalabat MA, 2015)

Waste Type % of total waste Waste type % of total waste
Food/kitchen waste 5 Metals 2
Paper 10 Glass 2
Textile 5 Garden waste 2
Wood 10 Carrier Bags 10
Plastics/Rubber 8 Inert waste 46

3.3 Estimation of reuse and recycling potential from MSW in the Haripur district

The following calculation is based on approximately 30 metric tons of waste collected in the district per
day. Inert contents of 13.8 metric tons are excluded with 16.2 metric tons of waste available for
recyclables extraction.
Table 3. Estimated material recovery potential from collected MSW in Haripur
Percent of Quantity of each
Price per Estimated income
Waste Type total waste (by component
kg (Rs) potential (PKR/metric ton/day)
weight) kg/metric ton
Food/kitchen
9 --- 90 ---
waste
Paper/card
18 8-12 180 1440-2160
board
Textile 9 --- 90 ---
Wood 18 8-14 180 1440-2520
Plastics/Rubber 15 7-22 150 1050-3300
Metals 4 20-35 40 800-1400
Glass 4 2 40 80
Garden waste 4 --- 40 ---
Carrier Bags 19 --- 190 ---
100 1000 4810-9460

Based on the quantity and composition of waste collected and current market price of various recyclables
(as suggested by respondents); material recovery for recycling can help to generate 4810 to 9460 PKR/
day/metric ton of waste collected. As 16.2 metric tons of mixed waste collected per day in the district
(approximately 9.6 tons of recyclables), the income potential from recyclables may range from Rs 46,176
to 90,816 per day depending on quality of recyclables. Segregation of recyclables can help to reduce the
quantity of waste going to landfill by 59%.

3.4 Waste to Energy: ERP of MSW collected by MAs in Haripur District

In order to determine ERP, dry weight of each component was determined by identifying and subtracting
TMC using equation (1) as shown in table 4.
Table 4. Dry mass weight of each component in a normal sample of mixed MSW
Percent of total Normal weight TMC Moisture loss Dry mass weight
Waste Type
waste (by weight) (g/kg) (%) (g/kg) (g/kg)
Food/kitchen
9 90 58.6 52.74 37.26
waste
Paper/card board 18 180 3.27 5.886 174.11
Textile 9 90 5.3 4.77 85.23
Wood 18 180 5 9 171
Plastics/Rubber 15 150 2.3 3.45 146.55
Metals 4 40 0.9 .36 39.64
Glass 4 40 1.2 .48 39.52
Garden waste 4 40 16.2 6.48 33.52
Carrier Bags 19 190 1.9 3.61 186.39
100 1000 86.78 913.22

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It is estimated that the mixed waste collected by MAs in Haripur district possesses approximately 8.6%
of moisture content by weight. By removing moisture from 16.2 metric tons of normal MSW, 14.81
metric tons per day of dry waste becomes available for energy recovery.

TEC of various waste components in 1kg of dry waste sample was determined using equation (2). These
values are shown in table 5.
Table 5. Total Energy Contents of various waste components in 1kg of dry waste sample
Waste Type Energy content for dry mass MJ/kg Dry Weight in sample (kg) Total Energy Content MJ/kg

Food/kitchen waste 13.9 0.0407 0.5657

Paper/card board 17.6 0.1906 3.354
Textile 20.5 0.0932 1.910
Wood 19.3 0.1872 3.612
Plastics/Rubber 25.6 0.1604 4.106
Metals 0.7 0.0433 0.030
Glass 0.2 0.0432 0.008
Garden waste 15.1 0.0366 0.543
Carrier Bags 33.4 0.2040 6.813
1 20.94

The TEC of waste (LCV) in Khalabat Township was estimated as 20.94MJ/kg based on 1kg of dried
mixed MSW sample. By using LCV of waste and an assumed Weight unit of 1 metric ton in equation (3),
ERP is equal to 20,940 MJ/metric ton.

Theoretically, 1 metric ton of mixed dried MSW can produce 5800 kWh of gross energy.

This ERP value is based on 100% energy extraction from the waste. By using RDF, total ERP can be
improved as RDF is normally composed of highly combustible material such as paper, plastic, wood and
textile. The table (6) shows the ERP of waste using RDF.
Table 6. Estimation of TEC of RDF
Total Energy Content Quantity of each component Total Energy Content
Waste Type
MJ/kg (kg/metric tons) MJ/metric tons
Paper/card
17.6 227.8 4009.28
board
Textile 20.5 113.9 2334.95
Wood 19.3 227.8 4396.54
Plastics/Rubber 25.6 189.8 4858.88
Carrier bags 33.4 240.5 8032.7
1000 23632

From total MSW collected by the MAs in Haripur district, a total of 11.69 metric tons of material can be
obtained as RDF per day. Each metric tons of dried RDF on average possesses 23,632 MJ of energy
(6546 kWh/metric tons). As gasification system can extract up to 90% of total available energy [6], a
steam turbine can covert at least 15% of this energy into electricity [2&3]. As a result, RDF can help to
produce 10,330 kWh of electricity per day. If waste is collected over 6 days a week, the total annual
electricity output will be approximately 3,222,960 kWh.

3.5 Cost benefit analysis: Estimating LCOE and revenue potential of waste to energy

To estimate LCOE, FCR was initially calculated by using equation 4. The Kd for this study was identified
as 6.5% [22] whereas; n was assumed as 20 years. As a result, FCR was calculated as 0.09.

LCOE was calculated by using the CAPEX as addition of RDF processing plant and a gasification plant.
The cost of RDF processing plant is taken from an operational RDF plant in Pakistan that is 320,000,000
PKR [9]. The cost of a 1MW capacity Gasification plant is suggested by Saini et al [21] as 10,000,000
Indian Rupees (15,000,000 PKR). Likewise, the O&M is estimated as 5.5% of total investment cost of
gasification plant which totals as 825,000 PKR/year. The O&M cost for RDF plant is estimated at 435
PKR/metric tons [10]. As collected waste in the district is 9300 metric tons/year, the total O&M cost of
RDF processing is calculated as 4,071,600 PKR/year. The total annual electricity output using RDF as
feedstock in gasification plant is estimated to be 3,222,960 kWh. By using equation 5, the LCOE is 10.87
PKR/kWh.

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4. Discussion

Although waste collection efficiency in Haripur district is significantly higher (80%) than many other
places in Pakistan, the collected waste is inadequately disposed by local MAs. Such waste disposal
practices in Pakistan are highlighted by researchers in the existing literature [5]. The composition of
waste suggests that the percentage of inert contents is significantly higher. The food contents of waste
were surprisingly low in contrast to a number of other studies [5&12]. High amount of inert contents in
waste are likely due to dry weather resulting into formation of dust. Likewise, as MA Khalabat
particularly serves residential area, low commercial activities such as few food markets appeared to be
contributing to the production of low food waste. A number of contents in the waste were highly
combustible, suitable for waste to energy. The presence of high combustible components is also observed
by a number of other studies conducted on MSW in Pakistan [12&17]. The results of survey revealed
that a significant amount of recyclables can be recovered and sold in the market from the waste disposed
by MAs previously overlooked by many researchers.

The existing literature suggests that bio-chemical processes requires high organic components. Since
organic components are identified to be low in the collected waste, only thermo-chemical waste to energy
technologies are considered for energy recovery. Incineration and gasification are among most prominent
technologies used to recover energy from the waste. However, World Bank highlights that mass burn
incineration requires at least 50,000 metric tons of waste to sustainably operate an incineration plant [24].
As the amount of waste collected in the district is approximately 9300 tons/year (3600 metric tons as
RDF), a small-scale 1MW gasification plant appeared to be most suitable option to recover energy from
the waste in the district. A gasification plant require frequent cleaning than an incineration plant that adds
to the cost of maintenance. However, the existing literature suggests that the capital cost of gasification
plant is 3 times lower than incineration plant [21]. It favours the installation of a gasification plant for
waste to energy recovery.

5. Conclusion

This study revealed a greater potential of energy recovery from the waste collected in Haripur district by
MAs. MSW can offer a renewable source of energy reducing the dependency on non-renewable sources
such as fossil fuels which helps to protect the environment.

The results of survey revealed that the waste collected by MAs in Haripur district possesses a high
calorific value. Energy content of RDF was identified to be 6546 kWh/metric ton, enough to produce
3,222,960 kWh of energy every year. As the aim of MSWM is to reduce the amount of waste going to
landfill, the results of this study revealed that waste to energy is most appropriate option to significantly
reduce the amount of waste going to land fill that is up to 90%. Recycling only can reduce the amount of
waste going to landfill by 59%. Waste to energy process also allows the segregation and collection of
recyclables during RDF production facilitating additional revenue generation. The waste characteristics
revealed that gasification was most suitable technology to use in the district. Unlike the utilization of
fossil fuels, the revenue generated from the sale of electricity can compensate the cost of production.
However, further research is required to assess the quantity and composition of waste involving other
districts to effectively manage MSW on national level in Pakistan.

References
[1] Ahmad, S. R., & Mahmood, K. (2015) ‘GIS Based Landfill Site selection for Faisalabad City’, International Journal of
Scientific and Engineering Research, 6(4), PP.67-72.
[2] Arena, U., & Mastellone, M.L. (2009) Fluidized bed gasification of RDF and PDF. AMRA Scientific Report. Retrieved
20 October, 2015 from www.amracenter.com
[3] Arena, U., Di Gregorio, F., Amorese, C., & Mastellone, M. L., (2011) ‘A techno-economic comparison of fluidized
bed gasification of two mixed plastic wastes. Waste Management, 31, pp. 1494-1504.
[4] Aziz, R., & Ahmad, M. B., (2015) Pakistan’s Power Crisis. Special Report. United States Institute of Peace.
[5] Batool, S. and Chuadary, M. N. (2009) ‘Municipal Solid Waste Management in Lahore City District,
Pakistan’, Waste Management, 29(6), pp.1971-1981
[6] Bhavya, B., Singh., R., & Bhaskar, T. (2014) ‘Preparation of Feedstocks for Gasification for Synthetic Liquid Fuel
Production’, in Luque, R., & Speight, J. (2014) ‘Gasification for Synthetic Fuel Production: Fundamentals, Processes
and Applications’. 1st edn. Oxford. pp.57-71
[7] EEA (2013) Managing municipal solid waste: a review of activities in 32 European countries. European Environmental
Agency, Report No; 2. Copenhagen.
[8] Environmental Protection Department (2012) Solid Waste. Retrieved May 02, 2015, from
http://epd.punjab.gov.pk/solid_waste.

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[9] FCCL (2009) Retrieved 22 October, 2015 from http://www.fauji.org.pk/fauji/businesses/associated-companies/fauji-

cement-company-limited
[10] GIZ (2013) Status Paper on Utilisation of Refuse Derived Fuel (RDF) in India. Retrieved 24 October, 2015 from
http://www.igep.in/live/hrdpmp/hrdpmaster/igep/content/e54413/>
[11] Han, D. (2012) Concise Environmental Engineering. 1st edn. Ventus publishing.
[12] Haydar, S. & Masood, J. (2011) ‘ Evaluation of Kitchen Waste Composting and its Comparison with Compost Prepared
from Municipal Solid Waste’, Pakistan Journal of Engineering and Applied Sciences, (8), pp.26-33.
[13] Hoornweg, Daniel; Bhada-Tata, Perinaz. (2012.What A Waste: A Global Review of Solid Waste Management. Urban
Development Series Knowledge Papers no.15. World Bank, Washington, DC.
[14] JICA & PK-EPA (2005) Guidelines for Solid Waste Management. Pakistan
[15] Kugelman, M. (2015) Pakistan’s Interminable Energy Crisis: Is There Any Way Out? Washington, DC. The Wilson
Center.
[16] LESCO (2014) Electricity Tariff. Retrieved September 19, 2015,from http://www.lesco.gov.pk/3000063
[17] Mukwana, K. C., Samo, S. R., Tunio, M. M., Jakhrani, A. Q., & Luhur, M. R. (2014) ‘Study of Energy Potential from
Municipal Solid Waste of Mirpurkhas City’, Quaid-E-Awam University Research Journal of Engineering, Science &
Technology, 13(2), pp.26-28.
[18] National Power Policy, Government of Pakistan (2013) Retrieved September 19, 2015,from
http://www.ppib.gov.pk/National%20Power%20Policy%202013.pdf.
[19] Pakistan Economic Survey (2013) Hihghlights of the Pakistan Economic Survey 2012-13. Retrieved September 11,
2015,from http://www.finance.gov.pk/survey/chapters_13/>
[20] PBS (2016) ‘District at a glance Haripur’. http://www.pbs.gov.pk/content/district-glance-haripur. Retrieved 22 October,
2015 from
[21] Saini, S., Rao, P., & Patil, Y (2012) ‘City Based Analysis of MSW to Energy Generation in India, Calculation of State-
Wise Potential and Tariff Comparison with EU. Procedia: Social and Behavioural Sciences, 37(20102), pp.407-416
[22] State Bank of Pakistan (2015). ‘Pakistan Interest Rate’ Trading Economics.
[22] USEPA (2002) Solid Waste Management: A Local Challenge With Global Impacts. Retrieved May 22, 2015 from
http://www3.epa.gov/epawaste/nonhaz/municipal/pubs/ghg/f02026.pdf
[23] ]World Bank (1999) Municipal Solid Waste Incineration. Washington, DC. Technical Guidance Report.

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290. An Intelligent MPPT Design of DC-DC

Converter for PV in a PV/SC Hybrid Power System
Tariq Kamala,*, Mithulananthan Nadarajaha, Syed Zulqadar Hassanb, Umair Younasc,
Hina Gohard, Alfredo Vaccaroe
a
Power and Energy System Group, School of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, University of Queensland,
Brisbane, QLD 4072, Australia
b
State Key Laboratory of Power Transmission Equipment and System Security and New Technology, School of Electrical
Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, 400044, China
c
Department of Electrical Engineering, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology, 22060, Abbottabad
d
Balochistan University of Information Technology & Management Sciences BUITMS, Quetta, 87300, Pakistan
e
Department of Engineering, University of Sannio, Benevent, 82100, Italy
E-mail address: tariq.kamal.pk@ieee.org

Abstract

The current literature is greatly populated with various conventional control schemes for Photovoltaic
(PV) system to acquire maximum power from it. This piece of work presents an intelligent fuzzy logic
Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) controller for a boost converter to control PV under variable
real weather conditions in a PV/Super-capacitor (SC) hybrid power system. The proposed intelligent
fuzzy logic controller makes the control of nonlinear characteristic of PV array more feasible.
Additionally, a SC module is used to regulate the DC bus voltage and store energy during surplus power
and/or backup device during load demand. The proposed hybrid power system operates under classical-
based supervisory switching algorithm. The performance of proposed controller is compared
with/without Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) perturb and observe MPPT controllers for the real
weather patterns and load conditions at Sibi, Pakistan. MATLAB results indicate the effectiveness of
proposed controller in terms of feasibility and dynamic response.

© 2016 “Tariq Kamal, Mithulananthan Nadarajah, Syed Zulqadar Hassan, Umair Younas, Hina Gohar, Alfredo Vaccaro” Selection
and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University
of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: Fuzzy logic MPPT controller; PV system; Super-capacitor; Hybrid power system; Load
tracking

1. Introduction

The researchers are keen to develop technologies which are inexpensive, efficient, and environmentally
friendly. The demand for the renewable energy is increasing due to the increasing demand of electrical
energy. In Pakistan, the total energy supply is above 24,000 MW in the year 2014-2015 as reported in
[1]. The report also concludes that only 106 MW (0.43% of total generation) is generated from
Renewable Energy Sources (RES) while the remaining power is produced from fossil fuels. In recent
years the Pakistan government initiated various RES mini projects to reduces the use of fossil fuels and
protect the environment from excessive pollutions [2], [3], [4]. Therefore, PV industry annual growth rate
is significantly raised to 40% in the recent years [5]. PV based power generation is becoming
progressively important as RES since they present many advantages such as pollution free, emitting no
noise, non-depleted, incurring no fuel costs, and requiring less maintenance among others. However, PV
needs a favorable condition as the power and cost of electricity are greatly dependent on the local
climatological variables. The output power of PV systems is heavily dependent on the weather patterns
and thus the instantaneous power available from PV often does not meet the instantaneous load demand.
Energy storage systems support transient stability during the rapid solar radiation change and load

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 4th International Conference on
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variations while electronic interface is used to extract maximum power from PV and also convert into
AC appropriate voltage level [6]. Maximum Power Point (MPP) of PV has a non-linear relationship with
cell temperature and solar irradiance. Hence, in order to operates PV at MPP, the system must have MPP
tracker [7]. Several intelligent and conventional control schemes are established by different experts and
researchers to capture maximum power and achieve optimum efficiency [8]. Conventional schemes
contain perturbation and observation (P&O), voltage-feedback methods, Hill Climbing (HC) and
Incremental Conductance (IC) etc., while intelligent method includes Fuzzy Logic Control (FLC),
Genetic Algorithm (GA), Ant Colony Optimization (ACO) and Neural Network (NN),etc. [9]–[12].

Several studies have been performed on conventional and intelligent control MPPT based schemes. In
[13]–[16], the authors track the MPP with P&O, IC and HC schemes due to its simple operation.
Nevertheless, the authors are unable to eliminate the power oscillation created on MPP and divergence
caused due to weather changes. For example, the P&O algorithm, which moves the operating point near
to the MPP through increasing or decreasing the array voltage periodically, is often applied in many PV
power applications. This method is beneficial in a situation where the irradiation does not fluctuate
quickly with time; however, the P&O method is slow and get confused due to quick variations of
atmospheric conditions. The IC algorithm is also often used in the PV based power systems. This method
tracks the MPP by matching the incremental and instantaneous conductance of the PV array. The IC
method provides good performance during rapidly changing weather conditions. Nevertheless, the IC
technique has two parts, and the structure is analogous to the P&O method due to the condition dP/dV =
0 that rarely occurs. Moreover, in the IC technique, four sensors are essential to accomplish the
measurements for computations and decision making. Therefore, it is required to have an appropriate
MPPT which can reduce oscillation and coverage quickly. Hence, intelligent control methods are used to
overcome the drawbacks of conventional control techniques [17].

In literature different researcher established intelligent control based MPPT schemes in different studies
[18], [19]. GA is used to increase the accuracy of an ANN-based MPPT algorithm and reported in [20].
Population size, mutation rate and number of generations are the common expected problems with GA.
In [21], the authors used PSO with the capability of direct duty cycle to track MPP of a PV system but
PSO still has the dependency problem on initial values of the particles. In [22], a novel ACO is
implemented to get the PI-MPPT controller gains. ACO is used to enhance both the design efficiency of
PI control systems and its performance to get optimal PI parameters. In ACO, the optimal selection of
number of ants, solution archive and locality of search space etc., are some thoughtful issues.

In this manuscript, an Artificial Intelligent (AI) based MPPT PID controller is designed. The proposed
controller extracts maximum power from PV system and operates on two primary inputs i.e., PV voltage
and power and generates an appropriate duty cycle. This study mainly targets on investigating MPPT
performance, which was created by studying P-I graph of PV array and determining rule base of fuzzy
logic controller with different weather conditions. Diffident linguistic variables are used to develop fuzzy
model.

This work is distributed in six different sections. Introduction is covered in Section 1. Section 2 defines
the proposed test-bed. PV array modelling is covered in Section 3. Section 4 describes the proposed
methodology for designing intelligent fuzzy logic MPPT controller. Section 5 explains the detailed
simulation results followed by conclusion in Section 6.

2. Proposed Test-bed

The test-bed comprises a PV system along with storage device (i.e., SC) which is connected to Utility
Grid (UG) via three phase inverter. The PV is connected to inverter via DC-DC boost converter, which is
controlled by an intelligent fuzzy logic MPPT controller. SC is added to regulate the DC bus voltage and
also provide backup to the grid during demand. UG receives power from PV and SC during peak hours
while delivering power to SC for charging during off peak hours. Power sharing between different
sources is performed by Power Management System (PMS). The complete architecture of test-bed is
shown in figure 1.

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 4th International Conference on
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Supercapacitor Inverter

PV Array Distribution
Transformer
+ Utility
Grid
+

_
_

VPV Maximum Power Voltage, Vabc

SC charging and Utili ty grid
Point Tracking, FLC Current and
IPV discharging controller PL controller
and P&O Algorithm Frequency
Iab c
PS TS P*S regulator
PPV P*PV PG P*G

Power Management System (PMS)

Fig. 1. Architecture of proposed system

3. PV Modeling

The structural unit of PV array is the solar cell (SC), which is fundamentally a p–n semiconductor
junction. The current–voltage (I-V) characteristic of a solar PV is a non-linear nature and is given by
[23], [24].

 AkT   ( N p I SC − I PV + N p I ′)  N s
VPV = N s   ln  − I PV RS (1)
 Q   NpI′  N p
where, Isc is the short circuit current, Ns is number of cells in series of a PV module, Np is number of cells
in parallel of a PV module, Io is diode saturation current, T is PV cell temperature, A is temperature
coefficient for short-circuit current, q is charge of an electron and k is Boltzman’s constant. The output
power delivered by the PV system into the DC bus could be written as

PPV = VPV I PV (2)

Eqs. (1) and (2) are implemented during the simulations to get the output characteristics of PV system at
weather patterns. The output power of PV system varies according to atmospheric condition or load
current as shown in figure. 2.
Array type: SunPower SPR-305-WHT; 13 series modules; 66 parallel strings

1 kW/m2
400
0.75 kW/m2
Current (A)

300
0.5 kW/m2
200
0.25 kW/m2
100

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Voltage (V)
5
x 10
3
1 kW/m2

0.75 kW/m2
Power (W)

0.5 kW/m2
1
0.25 kW/m2

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800 900
Voltage (V)

Fig. 2. P-V and I-V characteristic curves of PV

The parameters used in the modelling of PV are given in table 1. At 1000 W/m2, the maximum output
power is 260 kW.

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Table 1. PV Parameters
Parameter Value
Model SunPower SPR-305-WHT
No of cells used/module 96
No of series string used 13
No of parallel strings used 66
Voltage at MPP per module 54.7 V
Current at MPP per module 5.58 A
Short Circuit Voltage 5.98 V
Open Circuit Current 64.2 A

4. Proposed Methodology

Modelling a non-linear system with a conventional controller in terms of regulation, damping, etc is
difficult. The intelligent fuzzy logic MPPT controller is based on the set of fuzzy rules developed using
expert knowledge. An intelligent fuzzy logic MPPT controller contains a fuzzifier, fuzzy inference
engine, fuzzy rule base and defuzzifier as shown in figure 3. In this research, Mamdani fuzzy model is
used

Fig. 3. Intelligent fuzzy logic MPPT controller

For designing fuzzy-PID hybrid controller, initially it is recommended to find out the variables for the
proposed system. In this paper, two input parameters i.e., Change in array power (∆P) and array voltage
(∆V), and one output (Change in duty cycle (∆k)) are used to develop intelligent fuzzy logic MPPT
controller. Input and output variables of intelligent fuzzy logic MPPT controller are defined as;

∆ V = [V ( n ) − V ( n − 1)] × Z 1 (3)

∆ P = [ P ( n ) − P ( n − 1)] × Z 2 (4)

k ( n + 1) = [ k ± ∆ k ] × Z 3 (5)

where n represents the time index, Z1, Z2 and Z3 are input and output scaling gains, V(n) and P(n)
represents the instantaneous voltage and power of PV array.

Five fuzzy sets are established using seven linguistic variables. These linguistic variables are associated
on two input variables. The linguistic terms used in establishing a fuzzy model are Negative Big (NB),
Negative Small (NS), Zero (ZE), Positive Small (PS) and Positive Big (PB). The Membership Functions
(MFs) are defined in interval of [-1,-1] with Z1 and Z2 as input scalar and Z3 as output. Initially, different
types of MFs are selected i.e., Trapezium, Cauchy, Gaussian, Triangle, etc. Using expert knowledge [25],
trial and error method, Triangle and Trapezium methods are used together. MFs for ∆V, ∆P and ∆D are
shown in figures 4, 5 and 6, respectively.

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NB NS ZE PS PB PB
1 NB NS ZE PS
Degree of Membership 1

Degree of Membership
0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2
0.2

0
0 -1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
∆P
∆V

Fig. 4. MF for input variable ∆V Fig. 5. MF for input variable ∆P

NB NS ZE PS PB
1
Degree of Membership

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
-1 -0.8 -0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
∆k

Fig. 6. MF for input variable ∆k

The input-output control surface for fuzzy controller is shown in figure 7. After understanding system
parameters and error manipulations, the rules are developed for intelligent fuzzy logic MPPT controller.
The rule based developed for system is shown in table 2. The fuzzy inferences system is designed using
Mamdani model.

0.5

0
∆D

-0.5

1
1
0 0.5
0
-0.5
-1 -1
∆V ∆P

Fig. 7. I/O surface waveform of intelligent fuzzy logic MPPT controller

Table 2. Rule base of intelligent fuzzy logic MPPT controller

∆V
NB NS ZE PS PB
∆P
NB NB NB ZE PS PB
NS NB NS ZE PS PS
ZE ZE ZE ZE ZE ZE
PS PS PS ZE NS NB
PB PB PS ZE NB NB

During designing of intelligent fuzzy logic MPPT controller, a base of 9 rules was used due to its low
computational cost, but it does perform so well. Therefore, in this research a base of 25 rules is used for

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 4th International Conference on
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better performance. To find an optimal MPP, P-V characteristics of PV panel are taken. Based on input
parameters (∆P and ∆V), appropriate output signal (∆k) is generated. The output is a Pulse Width
Modulator (PWM) signal. The PWM signal (known as k) is fed to DC/DC boost converter to operate
inverter. The crisp output is obtained by center of gravity defuzzification process [26].
n

∑k µ
j =1
j A (ki )
k= n
(6)
∑µ
j =1
A (ki )
5. Simulation Results and Discussion

In this research, the real time weather data (solar irradiance and temperature) of Sibi, Pakistan is used.
The weather statistics is recovered by Pakistan Metrological Department (PMD) for 1st July, 2016 [27],
[28]. The weather data for Sibi, Pakistan is shown in figure 8. However, for simplicity, only minutes

(a)
1000
Irradianc e (W/m 2 )

500

0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

(b)
60
Tem perature (o C)

50

40

30

20
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Time (Minutes)

when sun rises and sets are shown in figure which are nearly 6 AM and 8PM.

Fig. 8. Weather data of Sibi, Pakistan (1st July 2016)

Initially, to test the proposed system, all the energy sources are modeled ideally in MATLAB/Simulink
via simpower system toolbox. The PV boost converter is simulated without any control applied to the
boost converter attached to it. Hereafter, the conventional PID based MPPT controller is installed. The
PID is tuned with automatic build-in tuner in Simulink. The PID based system is simulated and the
results are stored. Finally, based on corresponding inputs (∆P and ∆V), rules based fuzzy control is
developed through Fuzzy toolbox.

The simulation results of PV MPPT controller in terms of PV output power are shown in figure 9. The
black dotted line, blue solid line, brown dashed line and pink dot-dashed line represents the PV power
reference (P*PV) (theoretically calculated with formula), actual power using FLC (PFLC), PV actual power
via PID technique (PPID) and without any controller (PWC), respectively. From figure 9, due to continuous
change in irradiance level, the output powers using FLC and PID controllers are likely to be nearly same.
However, in zoom figure, the power difference is clearly visible at 676.5 minute.

The performance of any controller is evaluated by plotting absolute difference of reference and actual
powers obtained from each controller. Using the same idea, absolute error is calculated at each sample
and plotted with respect to time is shown in figure 10. From figure 10, without any controller, the
average absolute error is 12 kW with a peak error of 20 kW. Similarly, the average absolute error using
PID controller is 1 kW while with fuzzy controller it’s 0.5 kW.

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200

180 100

P *PV 90
160
P FLC
140 80
P PID
120 70
P ower (k W )

P WC 676 676.5 677

100

80

60

40

20

0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Time (Minutes)

Fig. 9. PV array output power with different controllers

22

20

18

16 P*PV -PFLC
14
P*PV -PPID
|e i | (kW)

12
P*PV -PWC
10

0
400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200
Time (Minutes)

Fig. 10. Error in PV power with respect to reference power

The average absolute error for each controller is calculated as;

T
1
ei = ∫ ( PPV
*
(t ) − Pi (t ) ) dt i = FLC, PID,WC (7)
T0
Using above equation, the efficiency of proposed FLC is calculated as;

*
PPV −e
ηi = * i % (8)
PPV
where $%&'
∗
is the average reference power and calculated as;

T
1
T ∫0
* *
P PV = PPV (t )dt (9)

After evaluating the above equations, the $%&'

∗
is calculated as 23.4 kW for complete day. Similarly, using
equation (7), the average error for proposed FLC, PLD and without controller are obtained as 0.208 kW,
0.519 kW and 4.582 kW, respectively. Putting the values of average errors of each controller into
equation (8), the efficiency for proposed FLC, PID and without controller are calculated as 99.11%,
97.7% and 80.41 %, respectively. So, it is concluded that, after applying proposed FLC based MPPT
algorithm to boost converter, its efficiency is significantly improved.

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 4th International Conference on
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Before finally concluding the performance of proposed FLC, let go through the impact of proposed FLC
on power system voltage, frequency and Total Harmonic Distortion (THD). In light of IEEE 1547
Standards [29], the maximum alteration in system voltage RMS, frequency and THD level are 0.8%, 6%
and 5%, respectively. The test-bed simulated in this research have a fundamental system frequency of 50
Hz with line-line RMS voltage of 440V. Keeping these facts, the allowable alteration in system
frequency/voltage RMS are ±0.2Hz/±26V. Now, the figure 11 represents that, the alteration in system
parameters are in allowable range.

460
Voltage (V)

440

420
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
50.2
Frequency (Hz)

50

49.8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24

4
THD %

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24
Time (Hrs)
Fig. 11. System RMS voltage, frequency and THD level.

6. Conclusion

The intelligent fuzzy logic MPPT control of boost converter for PV is established to provide power to the
grid in PV/SC hybrid power system. Evidently, the proposed controller outperformed in transitional
states than with and without P&O PID based MPPT schemes. The feasibility of the proposed controller is
supported by the simulations done in MATLAB under real-world record of weather patterns. The
proposed method concludes that that MPP of any PV systems find with intelligent controller in shorter
time runs compared to classical control methods.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to thank Australian Government and the University of Queensland for financial
support during the completion of this research work and also Pakistan Meteorological Department for
providing weather statistical data for Sibi, Pakistan.

References
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[7] S. Lalouni, D. Rekioua, T. Rekioua, and E. Matagne, “Fuzzy logic control of stand-alone photovoltaic system with
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[13] G. M. S. Azevedo, M. C. Cavalcanti, K. C. Oliveira, F. A. S. Neves, and Z. D. Lins, “Comparative evaluation of
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PV With Reduced Steady-State Oscillation,” IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 27, no. 8, pp. 3627–3638, Aug. 2012.
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2003.

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292. Sustainable Energy Measures in Saudi Arabia Based on

Renewable Energy Sources: Present Actions and Future
Plans
Muhammad Saleema*, and Mehmood Ali b
a
Department of Civil Engineering, Jubail University College, Jubail Industrial City 31961, Saudi Arabia
b
Department of Environmental Engineering, NED University of Engineering & Technology, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
*Email Address: saleemm@ucj.edu.sa

Abstract

Conventional power generation sources are a major cause of environmental pollution and have had a
grave impact on public health and safety through greenhouse gas emissions, acid rains, etc. A global
transition towards sustainable energy options is underway in order to meet present day demands without
jeopardizing the environment and future generations. Even though Saudi Arabia is the top oil producer of
the world, it has a se interest in participating in the development and utilization of new environment-
friendly technologies that exploit renewable energy sources. It is projected that about US $117 billion
will be invested in the country’s power sector according to its 25 year strategic energy plan. This plan
ensures that the future energy sources should be practically accessible, sustainable, affordable, and costs-
optimal to adopt. Despite the current economic constraints, the Kingdom has established a scientific city,
‘King Abdullah City for Atomic & Renewable Energy’ (KACARE) which is working on the potential of
utilizing renewable energy sources in the Kingdom. This paper addresses the current status and future
potential of renewable energy applications in the Kingdom. A technical and economic assessment, of
major renewable energy sources in this heavily subsidized, oil-rich country, is also discussed.

© 2016 Muhammad Saleem, and Mehmood Ali. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and Environmental
Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: Sustainable energy, Environmental pollution, Major oil producing country, renuable energy,
KACARE

1. Introduction

Global increase in energy demand and environmental awareness has brought great concern to supply
sustainable energy in an environment-friendly manner. Conventionally, oil, coal and natural gas are the
chief energy sources being utilized in the major part of world [1]. Mainly the conventional energy
sources are responsible in contributing in environmental degradation via greenhouse gases emission and
other ways. The renewable clean energy sources appear to be viable substitutes to protect the
environment and public health [2].

A large portion of the oil and natural gas reserves is located in the Gulf Cooperative Council (GCC)
countries. The GCC countries are rated as in the top 25 countries with the highest CO2 emissions per
capita [3]. The GCC has recently adopted a progressive approach towards environmental reformation,
however, to have consistent developments in this direction, lots of work has to be done [4]. The Kyoto
protocol in 2005 stressed that the European Union (EU) and GCC broaden their cooperation and that they
should take a collaborative approach in the direction of CO2 reduction. EU and GCC increased their
interactions and set realistic goals. They took various innovative measures to accomplish these objectives
however; there is still a great need to speed up the resolution of major issues, such as CO2 emissions and
controlled use of energy [5].

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA), with an area of about 2.25 million km2 is the largest country in the
Middle East. Oil reserves of the KSA were discovered during the year 1938 and the country started
exporting oil from next year. Within a few years the country became the chief oil producer and exporter
in the world [6]. Saudi Arabia, with a population of more than 31 million and a rapidly growing

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 4th International Conference on
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industrial sector, is facing high growth rate in energy demand, with an average of 5% per annum [7]. The
domestic electricity use and, ultimately, oil consumption in the KSA is increasing at a very alarming rate
compared to the other countries in the world. Therefore, it is important to work out energy conservation
measures for the various sectors in the Kingdom as early as possible [8]. It is estimated that the electricity
demand in KSA is going to reach more than 60 GW by the year 2020. It is also estimated that by year
2020 a reduction of 1% in the annual electricity consumption could provide saving in electricity bills
about $35 billion [9]. Even though Saudi Arabia is the main producer of oil, it has taken a profound
interest in participating in the development and utilization of new technologies for exploiting renewable
energy sources. The central grid system is supplying the power to roughly 80% users within cities but, it
is not practicable to further extend the power supply grid system to sparsely populated remote areas.
Therefore, there is still requirement for power source in these areas. Hence, these locations represent a
substantial potential for renewable energy applications. It is to be noted that these energy sources may
also be connected to the central grid in order to utilize during high demand periods [10]. It is projected
that more than US $117 billion will be capitalized in the power production according to the country’s 25
year strategic energy plan. The plan ensures that the future energy sources should be practically
accessible, sustainable, affordable, and costs-optimal to adopt. Furthermore, despite the current
economical constrains the Kingdom has established a scientific city ‘King Abdullah City for Atomic &
Renewable Energy’ (KACARE) which is working on the potential of utilizing renewable energy sources
in the Kingdom.

The utilization of renewable energy resources which includes solar, wind, hydro, waste material and
geothermal energy seems to be one of the most efficient and effective ways of achieving this goal. Saudi
Arabia has plans to develop self-reliance on various power sources including renewable energy. Country
aims to invest in its solar and wind power sources utilization programs to fulfill its energy requirement in
the future. Various studies in the KSA indicate that, among various renewable resources, the most
sustainable and appropriate energy sources for the country are solar and wind energy.

This paper addresses the current status and future potential of renewable energy source applications in
the Kingdom. A technical and economical assessment of major renewable energy sources such as solar,
wind, hydro, waste-to-energy and other clean energy technologies is discussed. In addition to the present
status, environmental and technical evaluation of the sources and their potential in the future is also
discussed.

2. Solar Energy Option

The geographic location of Saudi Arabia on the solar belt has endorsed it as one of the most suitable
producer of electricity using solar energy. Saudi Arabia has an abundant of solar radiation, which is
estimated at about 2200 kilowatt hours per unit area (kW h/m2). Availability of solar radiation and
enormous areas of vacant desert which can be used for installation of solar equipment makes Saudi
Arabia an excellent site for solar power generation [10]. This shows that solar energy is one of the
valuable renewable energy sources for Saudi Arabia and need further exploration to materialize the plans.

According to Aljarboua [11] the available solar energy is sufficient to produce 12,425 TW-h of electricity
that can power the kingdom for more than 70 years. The proximity with the equator and a huge desert
area qualifies Saudi Arabia as a well suitable country to utilize solar energy for power production. As
reported by Aljarboua it can be seen from figure 1 that the annual average monthly incident radiation for
Saudi Arabia is quite promising [11]. Three cities; Jeddah, Riyadh and Dammam are receiving high
levels of solar radiation due to their geographic location on the equatorial region. On the local scale (5.78
kW h m-2 per day average), all three cities ranked about average. However, on the international scale
(1.36 kW h m-2 per day average), they are ranked significantly higher [12]. In addition to altitude,
Aljarboua pointed out factors such as surface air temperature and the zenith angle are responsible for the
small variations between cities [11].

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Fig. 1. Annual average monthly incident horizontal radiation for Saudi Arabia [12]

2.1. Progress in solar energy utilization

Although practical implementation of solar energy in the country materialized during 1960, work in this
field had started quite earlier [13]. Organized research work on solar energy technology was started after
15 years by ‘King Abdul-Aziz City for Science and Technology’ (KACST). Several researchers studied
the viability of solar radiation in the KSA. For example Baras and co-workers discussed the opportunities
and challenges of solar energy in Saudi Arabia which detailed the heating mechanisms as well as solar-
thermal processes and desalination prospects [14]. Similarly Pazheri has given an update of the solar
energy projects in KSA including the current status and future prospects [15].

The Energy Research Institute at KACST led numerous joint programs at international level in the area
of solar energy which includes SOLERAS with the USA. Research activities throughout Saudi Arabia
showed that solar radiation has feasibility to produce electrical power in the country [13]. Ibrahim
Babelli, the country’s deputy minister for economy and planning during a press conference in Dubai
emphasized on the use of solar energy as a major energy option for the country [16]. In addition to power
generation, options such as Water and Ventilation-Air Preheating systems where solar energy is used to
heat water or air are also studied and found promising areas of solar energy utilization.

2.2. Future plans

The cost of installation of solar power plants is tremendously decreasing globally due to increase in
manufacturing capability, modified design and reduction in component costs. Saudi Arabia is planning to
increase renewable energy production to 9.5 G-Watts, according to new energy plan. Saudi Aramco
installed a 10-MW solar powered plant in Dhahran city. Country has planned to spend about $100 billion
in producing 41 G-Watts of power by 2030. Chadbourne a US based company involved in installing 4-G-
Watts independent power projects (IPP) in Qurayyah said to be the biggest IPP in the world [17]. In order
to implement the plans still some hindrances such as dust in the desert area, intermittent availability in
addition to availability of subsidized oil need to be further evaluated. However, the available information
and obtained experience declaring solar energy option a feasible one.

3. Wind Energy Option

Numerous studies in the past indicated that wind energy is one of the most efficient and promising option
of the renewable energy [18]. During 1980’s concern for harnessing wind energy augmented enormously
in most of the developed countries due to increase in energy demand and persistent issues of
environmental degradation [19]. By the end of 1998 the global installed capacity of modern wind

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turbines connected to grid was around 10 G-Watts and the annual global progression rates of installation
were around 40%. In addition to that during last decade the cost of wind energy decreased by 35%.

Studies in the Kingdom at various locations revealed that country has viable wind energy potential,
which is estimated to 5-hour of full-load wind per day on average. In Saudi Arabia the coastal areas
along Arabian Gulf and the Red Sea having great potential for wind energy development.

3.1. Progress in wind energy utilization

A Prof of Anderson's College, Glasgow has installed first windmill which was used as a source of
electricity production in Scotland in 1987 [20]. Early 5000 B.C, Egyptians have used wind energy to sail
their ships in Nile river [21]. During 1940, Vermont hilltop has the largest wind turbine of their time
which has the maximum capacity of 1.25 MW which supply electrical power to the local area network
[22]. Recent studies have shown that the global projected wind energy potential is 72 TW for the next 10
years [23]. Every 3 years capacity of wind energy is steadily increasing at the average rate of 25.7%.
During these days among renewable energy sources, wind energy is the rapidly growing energy source in
the world whose installed capacity reached to 14 GW. USA, Spain, Germany and India are considered as
the leading countries which has total about 80% of worldwide installation energy power [10].

In Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, various studies of potential of wing energy have been conducted. Martin
and Bakhsh during 1985 have studied twenty different locations which are suitable of wind energy
potential and having feasibility for wind energy harnessing in Saudi Arabia. It was suggested that the
North and coastal region of country has the maximum potential for generation of wind energy [24].
Good potential between 16° to 26° latitudes of Red Sea coast has been found by Khogali and coworkers
when they evaluated the wind energy potential in Makkah. However the inland area has the low potential
for generation of wind energy [25]. The good potential has been found for coastal and Northern areas of
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia by Radhwan when he analyzed the wind pattern in 1994 using weather stations
data for 10 years [26]. Different technical details, equipment installation and detailed specifications of
sites was provided by Alawaji in various region of Kingdom of Saudi Arabia in 1996.

Economically, for installation of wind parks, Yanbu and Dhahran have been considered as most feasible
locations for potential wind energy based on feasibility report by Rehman in 2005 [27]. Haql has been
considered as the most potential location for production of maximum wind energy by Khrishna and
Thalhi during last year study as it has the wind speed maximum throughout the year [29]. Average wind
speed of 5.04 m/sec have been recorded for Al Wajh. Umluj and Duba can be selected for the wind
power but Tina and Tabuk do not have wind speed sufficient for wind energy harnessing. Economic and
potential viability of wind has been indicated by these studies for conversion of wind energy into
electrical energy.

3.2. Future plans

Studies have suggested that Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has promising potential of wind energy utilization.
In Yanbu, annual wind speed reported at fifty meters above the ground level is 6.7 meter per second
which ranges 7.1 to 8.1 meter per second during summer months. In the nearest future, grid connected
wind farms and wind-diesel hybrid systems will be introduce by the authority [30]. The major challenge
being faced for utilizing wind energy by KSA is that the wind energy is irregular and without batteries it
cannot be stored. Additionally, the location feasible for these grid farms is far from the demand centers.
It has been reported that despite of hurdles, KSA will be expected to issue procurements for 13 Giga
Watts of geothermal, wind and waste-to-energy plants by year 2032. The release of a white paper by the
KACARE, to the renewable energy procurement agency is considered to be the first step for this process
[17]. It was found that the possibility of utilizing wind energy in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is not
fully explored and most of them are funded student projects.

Studies indicated the need of probing more in this area from economic feasibility point of view. Study
also revealed that Kingdom of Saudi Arabia has two major regions along the Red sea and Arabian Gulf
coasts where wind speed and duration is economically feasible to produce energy from wind power.

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Application of previous experience shows a good potential for exploring wind power as one of the
renewable energy source in the KSA.

4. Hydro Power

Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is the country which does not have any natural river system but holds few
perennial streams [31]. The precipitation value of the world as an average is 1123 mm while Kingdom of
Saudi Arabia receives an annual rainfall of 100 mm per year which is considered to be far behind the
world [32]. Due to this reason the water bodies like major ponds and lakes are not present. Rain recharge
does not replenish available ground water and is depleted rapidly. Water table significant drawdown can
be seen in most of the aquifers [33] .There is a massive desalination network which at present is covering
up to 70% potable water demand. Some dual-purpose desalination facilities in the country are
contributing to fulfill more than 20% of total electricity demand of the country.

There are several dams constructed in the country despite of less rainfall in order to control flood and
providing recharge to groundwater aquifers. It has been estimated that there are more than two hundreds
of dams which have cumulative reservoir capacity of about 770 Million m3 [35]. The largest dam in
Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is King Fahad Dam (storage capacity of 325 Million m3) in Bishah which is
considered as the 2nd largest dam in the Middle East. It has hypothetical potential energy of about 91.2
Megawatt hour [36]. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia is not been feasible to construct any hydrological
structure for generation of electricity because of significant evaporation and excessive sedimentation of
dams to achieve the targeted purpose of storage.

5. Geothermal

Saudi Arabia has significant tectonic activity due to its geographical location. Many volcanic ridges are
existing along the Red Sea shore. With respect to geothermal resources, there are 10 hot-springs with
varying temperatures ranges from 50 to 120°C and different flow rates. In addition to this, there are three
major harrats namely Khaybar, Kishb, and Rahat of geothermal concern. The crust thickness in these
areas varies between 20 and 40 km and its lower part consists of mafic meta-igneous granulite [37].

In order to promote renewable energy sources during 2008 Ministry of higher education provided huge
funds for establishing a centre of research excellence in renewable energy at King Fahd University of
Petroleum and Minerals. The research activities in the centre include wind, solar and geothermal power
resources to evaluate and utilize [38]. Lashin in early 2014 conducted various research studies in two
potential areas Al-lith and Jizan investigating potential of utilizing geothermal energy in those areas.
They reported Al-Khouba geothermal resources as an important site for exploiting geothermal energy for
power production [39]. In their studies they evaluated thermal parameters heat flow, discharge enthalpy
and subsurface temperature and estimated as 144 mW m-2, 318 kJ kg-1 and 135°C, respectively. A good
geothermal potential of 17.9 MW is estimated for Al Khouba hot spring having estimated volume of
1.125 cubic kilometers. They recommend the site for future technical investigation to explore geothermal
energy as a source to obtain electrical energy. [39].

In another study Lashin characterize the reservoir surface area of the volcanic flows, flow rates, heat flow
and geothermal grades. They reported that the wet geothermal systems can produce energy up to 23 x 109
kWh. Lashin also reported that in the western region a large number of pre and post orogenic highly
radioactive granites with very high generating capacity (from 15 to 134 µW m-3) is existing. They
reported that this granite can produce about 160 TWh of electricity [40]. Therefore, it seems that
geothermal energy is one of the potential sources of renewable energy in the kingdom.

6. Waste To Energy

Rapid increase in global population and living standards promote the generation of more solid waste as
well as energy requirement. The trend is with increasing order which is forecasted to reach about 2.2
billion tons per annum in 2025 [41]. The final disposal place for of municipal solid waste (MSW) is
landfills or dump sites. In Saudi Arabia few steps have been taken to manage the MSW. Option of

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producing energy from waste material has duel benefit controlling the environmental pollution and
utilizing waste material to produce valuable energy [42].

In the year 2010 KACARE was established and after 3 years the new regulations stressed the
implementation of an integrated MSW management program in the country. KACARE proposed a
framework to utilize the MSW for renewable energy production. Plan covers twenty years schedule
including production of about 54 GW from nuclear and renewable energy sources. KACARE reported
the potential of generating about 2073 MW of electricity by the year 2032. The results show that energy
production from waste has great potential in the Kingdom. MSW can be a good source to produce
electricity and contribute to electricity supply in the Kingdom [43].

7. Hybrid Energy System

Renewable energy technologies have its inherent limitations and use of a single source is practically not
feasible. For example intermittent availability of wind energy and diurnal variation in solar energy limits
the use these options for sustainable supply to grid. The use of storage source such as battery bank is
required to utilize these technologies. Therefore, use of two or more renewable sources, called as hybrid
system is appropriate. Generally, to overcome economy two systems are preferred [44]. the feasibility of
combinations such as wind or solar with diesel generator or power bank is essential. Selection should be
made based on ease of availability of technology and performance of conversion. One of the criteria is
the capital and operational cost of the hybrid system. Study reported that the hybrid system is the best
means of providing decentralized power with higher reliability. Typically the selection of one or more of
these options mainly depends on the reachable energy, the efficiency of conversion system and the
characteristics of the electrical load [45].

In Saudi Arabia related information and data is inadequate and there is a need to further evaluate the
hybrid system in detail. The feasibility studies for practical implementation are imperative to decide
future plans in the kingdom.

8. Summary and Conclusions

The gradual shift from fossil fuel to renewable sustainable energy sources is imperative for global
environmental protection. Among other countries, Saudi Arabia has tremendous potential for renewable
energy sources, mainly solar and wind, for electricity production. During the last fifty years, extensive
research has been done in the area of solar and wind energy and valuable data and information has been
obtained which has acted as the basis for the establishment of renewable energy programs in the KSA.
The most promising energy source in the KSA is solar energy, having a wide range of applications,
including electricity generation. It has been demonstrated that solar water and ventilation-air preheating
have great economic benefits. Wind energy is the second most potential renewable source available in
sufficient amounts in various coastal regions of the Kingdom. However, feasibility of wind energy has
not been fully explored and experience gained in the field is mainly based on various research projects
and installation experience obtained through governmental establishments such as KACST. Other energy
sources such as geothermal and waste-to-energy have some potential. However, available data and
information on these sources is up to pilot-scale level only. Operation of hydro power has insignificant
potential in the region due to the unavailability of it’s main components such as rivers or significant
water bodies. However, studies show that the use of hybrid systems, such as solar and wind with diesel
generators, has great potential to be implemented as they minimize the limitations of these technologies.
Therefore, uninterrupted power supply is possible if considering hybrid systems. There is a need for
future applications to explore more in this area, in order to make them economical and practical. A
generous subsidy from the government is also required, at least for the initial period, to bring these
ambitious plans to realization. There is a need to develop a framework, to encourage private sector
investments in the renewable energy sector, including financial support incentives to potential
developers.

At present, in a country which has huge oil reserves, and where the oil supply is profoundly subsidized, it
is very difficult to utilize renewable energy sources as a prime energy source. Today’s conventional
energy costs, when compared to solar and wind energy, leave no chance for competition in the Saudi

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market. Even if the country is eager to shift from conventional to renewable energy sources, a great deal
of change in the country’s policies is required. The key factors which may bring about this
transformation could be the environmental concern and longer sustainability.

It is confirmed that the long-term future of renewable energy is looking quite bright, as a great reduction
in greenhouse gas emissions will be achieved when using renewable energy sources instead of
conventional fossil fuel. This will result in a reduction in environmental pollution and reduced
expenditures on public health care. As the trend shows, the cost of reusable energy is declining steadily,
and in the future, its cost will be less than that of conventional energy sources and will make this option
even more attractive.

Acknowledgements

Authors are grateful to the Jubail University College, Saudi Arabia for providing help and support in the
research and preparation of the paper.

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302. Voltage Stability Improvement by Using FACTS Device

Static VAR Compensator (SVC)
Bilawal Abro*, Parkash Gujar, Muharram Ali
Mehran University of Engineering and Technology Shaheed ZA Bhutto Campus KhairpurMir’s Sindh Pakistan
Email Address: bilawal-abro@muetkhp.edu.pk

Abstract

"Power system engineering forms an immense and foremost part of electrical engineering studies. It is
mainly concerned with generation of electrical power and its transference from Launching end to
acceptance end as per client need, meet with least quantity of losses. The power at acceptance end is
regularly subjected to changes because of burden distinction and due to turbulences tempted inside length
of transmission line. Therefore the expression "Power System Stability" is of most extreme significance
in this field, and used to characterize the inclination of framework to convey back its operation to
relentless state condition inside least likely time subsequent to having experienced some kind of
transition or aggravation in the line. Power System Stability depends upon various factors one of them is
“voltage stability”. If we don’t take measure to preserve the voltage stability in our power system,
ultimately we have to face worst conditions under such circumstances that is voltage collapse & how we
can mitigate it. In order to improve voltage stability and diminish the losses of power system we are
using one promising FACTS device called “Static VAR Compensator”. Static VAR Compensator using
the modern technology of power electronic switching device in the arena of power transmission system
economically enhancing the voltage regulation. The Static VAR Compensator is increasingly applied in
electrical power transmission system economically to improve the post disruption retrieval voltages that
can lead to system instability. We will study few models using MATLAB for scrutinizing the above
defined parameters of power system. How they act and what impact of SVC on power system."

© 2016 Bilawal Abro, Parkash Gujar, Muharram Ali Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and
Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: "FACTS (Flexible AC Transmission System); SVC (Static VAR Compensator)”

1. Introduction

Day by Day, demand on transmission network are increasing due to escalating number of non-utility
generators and utility among your contenders. The increase in demand on transmission system, the lack
of long term planning and the need to provide open access to energy production firms and consumers; all
together they have created trend toward a reduction in safety and reduction in quality of supply. The
alternating current transmission system has several limitations, classified as static and dynamic limits
[1-3]. These inherent limitations restrict the feeding operation, which lead to under-utilization of existing
transmission resources. Conventionally, motionless or mechanically switched capacitor series and shunt
reactors and synchronous generators have been used to solve many of these problems. However, there are
some constraints on the use of these conventional strategies. It was able to attain desired performance
successfully. The wear of mechanical components and sluggish response were the biggest glitches. As a
result, it has been necessary for alternative technology power electronic devices with fast response
characteristics. The requirement has been further fueled by the restructuring of worldwide utilities,
environmental regulations, and increasing efficiency and difficulty in obtaining permits and right of way
for the construction of electricity transmission, materials mounting [4]. This, along with the invention of
the thyristor semiconductor switch, opened the door for the development of FACTS controllers. The
route drivers based historical facts to modern thyristor converters technically advanced voltage source
based FACTS controllers, made possible by rapid progress in high-power semiconductor switching
devices [1-3]. A compensator Static VAR (SVC) is an electrical device to provide reactive power

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compensation fast action in networks of high voltage transmission and can help improve the voltage
profile in the transient state and, therefore, improving the performances of quality electrical services. An
SVC is one of the FACTS controllers, which can control one or more variables in a power system [5].
The dynamic nature of the superior vena cava is the use of thyristor devices (e.g, GTO, IGCT) [4]. The
thyristor, which is usually located inside a "house of the valve" can change the capacitors or inductors
input and output circuit on a per-cycle, allowing rapid superior control system voltage.

The compensator studied in this paper consists of a fixed reactor connected in series to a thyristor-
controlled (TRC) reactor, based on bi-directional valves- and a fixed capacitor bank in parallel with the
combination reactor-TRC. The thyristors are activated by suitable control which regulates the magnitude
of the current.

2. Static VAR Compensator

2.1 Configuration of SVC

SVC provides an outstanding source of shunt reactive compensation quickly controllable for dynamic
voltage control through use of thyristors high-speed switching / controlled devices [6]. A SVC is
generally composed of coupling transformer, thyristor regulators, reactors, capacitance (often tuned for
harmonic filtering).

2.2 Advantages of SVC

The main advantage of SVC on simple, mechanically switched compensation schemes is their almost
instantaneous response to variant the system voltage. For this cause, they are often used close to their
zero point, to maximize the correction of reactive power [7] - [10]. They are larger overall capacity
cheaper, faster and more reliable than dynamic compensation systems as synchronous compensators
(condensers). In a word:

1) Improved system stability at steady state.

2) Improved stability in the transitional system.
3) Better division burden on parallel circuits.
4) Reduced voltage drops in load areas for serious disorders.
5) Reduction of transmission losses.
6) Better adaptation expense line.

2.3 Control Concept of SVC

SVC is a controlled shunt susceptance (B), as defined by the control settings injecting reactive power (Q)
for the system based on a square of the terminal voltage. Fig. 1 illustrates an SVC TCR, containing the
operational concept. The control objective is SVC to maintain a desired voltage on the high voltage bus.
At steady state, the SVC will provide a steady state control voltage to keep the high voltage bus to a
predefined level.

If the high voltage bus begins to fall lower than its range of set point, the SVC will inject reactive power
(Qnet). In increasing the voltage of the bus back to your network desired level of tension. If the bus
voltage increases, the SVC will inject less (or TCR will absorb more) phantom power, and the result will
achieve the desired bus voltage. From Fig. 1, + QCAP is a fixed capacitance value, so the magnitude of
the reactive power injected into the system Qnet is controlled by the magnitude of reactive power
absorbed by the TCR-Qind. The foundation operation of the valve which controls the thyristor TCR is
described here. The thyristor switch is self each zero current, therefore the current through the reactor is
obtained by gating or triggering the thyristor into a conducting or desired firing angle in relation to the
voltage waveform [11].

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Fig. 1 SVC TCR

3. Static VAR Compensator

The base of the thyristor-controlled reactor (TCR) shown in Fig. 2. The control element is the thyristor
controller, shown here as two oppositely propelled thyristors conducting alternate half cycles in the
power frequency. If the thyristors are closed in driving precisely the peaks of the supply voltage, the
results of driving full in the reactor, and the current is the same as if the driver were shorted thyristors.

Fig. 2 TCR

3.1 Principle of Operation

The reactive current is primarily going voltage at about 900. It has a small in-phase components due to
power losses in the reactor, which can be of the order of 0.5-2% reactive power. Total drive current
shown by the waveform in Fig. 3 (a). If the gating is stuck by equal amounts on both thyristors, a series
of current waveform is obtained, such as in Fig. 3 (a) to 3 (d). Each of these corresponds to a particular
value of α propagation angle which is measured from a zero crossing of the voltage. Total drive is
attained with an angle part 90o. Drive selection is obtained from propagation angles between 900 and
1800. The effect of increasing the propagation angle is to reduce the fundamental harmonic component of
the current. This is equivalent to an increase in the inductance of the reactor, reducing its reactive power,
as well as its current. So far as the major component of current is concerned, the reactor is controlled by a
controllable thyristor susceptance, and can therefore be applied as a static compensator.

4. Performance Analysis of SVC Controller

4.1 Modeling for Dynamic Performance Analysis with SVC Applications

By studying the performance of the system and dynamic voltage control, system modeling is an
important aspect, especially in and around the specific area of study. It is typical of many power
companies to share large system models consisting of thousands of buses representing the interconnected
system. The details of the modeling are discussed elements "system" such as transformers, generators,

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transmission lines and shunt reactive devices (ie, capacitors, reactors), etc., for short term stability
analysis. A significant aspect and continually debated modeling is the model "load". For the short-term
stability analysis, the loads are modeled with both (eg real power, reactive power) static and dynamic
characteristics [12]. The block control voltage automatic regulator (AVR) is an important part of SVC
models that operate in a voltage error signal. The AVR basic control block is defined by the transfer
function as shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3. Transfer Function of AVR Control Block

Where Kr and Tr indicates the gain and time constant, respectively. The tilt adjustment, maximum and
minimum Susceptance, thyristor firing lag transport, lag measuring voltage, etc. are the functions of the
additional control block commonly used dynamic models SVC.

4.2 Controller Design Analysis

SVC is operated as a bypass device for supplying power to support voltage or inductance to reduce the
bus voltage. The fixed capacitors are tuned to absorb the harmonics generated by the TCR operation.
Although the SVC is able to provide support for the short-term stability and power oscillation damping,
its main function is to support dynamic voltage and reactive power. The SVC in principle is a controlled
shunt susceptance (+/- B) as defined by the SVC control settings injecting reactive power (+ Q) or
remove reactive power (Q) based on the square of its terminal voltage. The block diagram shown in Fig.
4.
In this application, Q = V2 × B, and L and C are the components that are dimensioned such that Q≥ 0 is
the single margin of operation. The AVR in the form of proportional and integral control, operates in a
voltage error signal there are also measuring delay (DT) and thyristor transport lag burning (T1). The B
output of this control block diagram of the pulse generator feeding controller that generates the thyristor
trigger signal required for the light triggered TCR.

Fig. 4: Detailed SVC Block Diagram

4.3 Performance Criteria of SVC Operation

The control objective is to uphold the system voltage in 275 kV bus at 0.038+j0.32 p.u. Voltage. If the
bus starts to drop below 0.038+j0.32 p.u., SVC will inject reactive power (Q) in the system (controlled
within their limits), thereby growing the bus voltage back to its desired 0.038+j0.32 p.u. voltage
according to its tilt configuration, XSL. On the contrary, if the bus voltage increases, the SVC will
inoculate less (or TCR will absorb more) reactive power (within their controlled limits), and the result
will be the voltage required bus in [9]-[10]. Simulink block diagram of SVC controller is given in Fig. 5.
The steady state response in SVC will follow the current-voltage (IV) characteristic curve shown in Fig.
6. The feature VI is used to illustrate the VCS classification and steady state performance in the typical

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region of operation steady state is mainly based setting Vref in, XSL, and system impedance.

Fig. 5. Simulink Block Diagram of SVC Controller

Fig. 6. Steady State V-I Characteristics of SVC

4.4 Typical Parameter of SVC

Table 1. Typical parameters for SVC model

Parameter Definition Typical Value
Td Time Constant 0.001-0.005
T1 Time Delay 0.003-0.006
Xsl Slope Reactance 0.01-0.05 pu

Scope 1: The Required Pulse

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Scope 2: The Susceptance which is increased due to drop of the Bus Voltage

Scope 3: The Voltage Error Signal

5. Performance Testing

HUB – JSO is a 500kV single circuit line of 181 kM. This line consists of 4 wire bundle conductor
arrangement. The conductor used in this circuit is code named GREELEY. Greeley is an AASC
(Aluminum Alloy Stranded conductor) type conductor. When wind velocity is zero m/s, a current fellow
of 566 A will rise the conductor temperature to 40 degree Celsius, and current fellow of 681A will rise
conductor temperature to 50 degrees Celsius. When wind velocity is 0.61m/s (2.2km/h), a current fellow
of 791 A will rise the conductor temperature to 40 degree Celsius, a current fellow of 901A will rise
conductor temperature to 50 degrees Celsius. An extensive series of tests was made during and after
commissioning to check the performance of the compensator. These tests included measurements of
regular transfer function.

Case-1: Voltage and current waveforms as shown in Fig. 7(a).

500 KV
Phase Voltage
ean

500KV
Line Current ia

Reactor Line Current

Reactor Phase Current

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Case-2: Energizing the capacitor bank producing a sudden change of MVAR as shown in Fig. 7(b).

500 KV
Phase Voltage ean

500KV
Line Current ia

Reactor Line Current

Reactor Phase Current

References
[1] N.G. Hingorani, and L. Gyugyi, "Understanding FACTS: concepts and technology of flexible ac transmission systems,"
IEEE Press, NY, 1999.
[2] Y. H. Song, and A. T. Johns, “Flexible AC transmission system (FACTS),” IEE Power and Energy Series 30, London,
U.K., 1999.
[3] “FACTS application,” FACTS application task force, IEEE Power Engineering Society, 1998.
[4] J. J. Paserba, “How FACTS controllers benefit AC transmission systems,” IEEE Power Engineering Society General
Meeting, Denver, Colorado, 6-10 June 2004.
[5] T.J.E. Miller, Reactive Power Control in Electric Systems. Wiley & Sons, New York, (1982).
[6] P. Lips, “Semiconductor power devices for use in HVDC and FACTS controllers,” CIGRE Technical Brochure 112,
Paris, France, April 1997.
[7] A.E. Hammad, “Comparing the voltage control capabilities of present and future VAR compensating techniques in
transmission systems,” IEEE Trans. Power Delivery, vol.11, no.1, pp. 475-484, Jan. 1996.
[8] J. Verseille, Convenor, CIGRE task force 39.02, “Voltage and reactive control,” Electra No.173, pp. 115-143, Aug.
1997.
[9] C. Taylor, Power System Voltage Stability. Textbook ISBN 0-07-113708-4, McGraw Hill, 1994.
[10] P. Kundur, Power System Stability and Control. Textbook ISBN 0-07-0359580-X, McGraw Hill, 1994.
[11] R.J. Koessler, “Dynamic simulation of SVC in distribution systems,” IEEE Trans. Power System, vol.7, no.3, pp. 1285-
1291, Aug. 1992.
[12] D. J. Sullivan, J.J. Paserba, G.F. Reed, T. Croasdaile, R. Pape, R., D.J. Shoup, et. Al., “Design and application of a static
VAR compensator for voltage support in the Dublin, Georgia Area,”
[13] FACTS Panel Session, IEEE PES T&D Conference and Exposition, Texas, May 2006..

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322. Performance Evaluation and Model Development of

Solar Photovoltaic System: A Case Study for Hyderabad
Talib Hussain Ghoto*, Majid Ali Wassan, Abdul Ahad Nohani and Awais Junejo
Mechanical Engineering Department, Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Shaheed Zulifqar Ali Bhutto, Khairpur
Mir’s 66020, Sindh, Pakistan
*E-mail address: ghototalib@gmail.com

Abstract

One of the major causes for the environmental degradation is the use of fossil fuels to produce electric
energy. Thus, people of developing countries such as Pakistan still depend upon the use of grid system
and uninterruptible power supply (UPS) system for the supplying of electrical energy. These systems are
not only harmful to their surroundings but very expensive too. Solar photovoltaic system (SPV) can be
best substitute to conventional energy generation and supply methods. SPV system is a renewable energy
system that generates and supply electricity simultaneously from solar radiation, as solar energy is not
only cheap but it is also environmental friendly. The prime object of this research is to generate electric
energy from solar radiations. This study is carried out by developing the mathematical model of solar
photovoltaic (SPV) system for Hyderabad. Due to recent advance in technology and falling price of SPV
system, these systems are more reasonable for use to generate and supply electricity, especially in rural
areas where other power sources are unreachable. From this research it was found that electricity supply
from SPV system is more significant and cost saving than grid and UPS systems.

© 2016 “Talib Hussain Ghoto, Majid Ali Wassan, Abdul Ahad Nohani and Awais Junejo.” Selection and/or peer-review under
responsibility of Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and
Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: “Model development, evaluation, solar photovoltaic system, renewable energy;”

1. Introduction

Pakistan is facing energy crisis as a consequence of tremendous growth in population and heavy reliance
on imported fuel. Our national economy has been under a tremendous pressure due to the change in
international oil markets and because of these changes unit cost of electricity keeps on fluctuating and
inflation rate has become difficult to manage. The addiction to conventional sources for electricity
generation has hit Pakistan’s economy badly. Currently, Pakistan relies on completely on conventional
energy resources to fulfill its energy demand; the share of renewable energy is even less than 1% as
shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Existing Energy Mix of Pakistan’s electricity generation

S. No. Existing Energy Mix MW
1 Public Hydro 7013
2 Public thermal 5861
3 Nuclear 665
4 IPPs Hydro 84
5 IPPs Thermal 8678
6 K- Electric 2422

Electric-machines have become essential part of human life. Many rural areas in developing countries
will not have access to cheap electricity for several years to come. Urban and rural areas of Pakistan are
becoming automated and require continuous supply of energy for the better development. There is a
direct relation between the energy consumption and development of a country. The 80% of primary
energy supply are met by fossil fuels and remaining 20% by other sources [1] & [2]. The rise in demand
for energy is necessary for the safe world for future generation. The fossil fuel resources are decreasing
continuously and the cost of production of electricity using fossil fuels is higher. Another disadvantage of

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the utilization of fossil fuel resources is increase in greenhouse gases. The increase in greenhouse gases is
causing increase in global warming and environmental pollution. The utilization of renewable energy is
increasing due to the environmental damage caused by greenhouse gases. The solar energy being a
renewable energy source has received worldwide attention as it is a sustainable solution to meet energy
needs. The solar light reaches the surfzace of earth in the form of electromagnetic waves. The solar
radiation is a carbon- free and environmental friendly source of energy. It has been observed that the
amount of solar energy reaches the earth is about (4.3×1020 J) and that is greater than 5% of the total
annual energy consumption of the world. Solar photovoltaic (PV) cells convert the solar radiation in the
form of electric energy. Solar PV cells are easily available solar technology. Despite huge potential, solar
photovoltaics do not yet have significant contribution in the energy mix of developing countries and
emerging economies. The use of solar PV cells is increasing due to the advancement in solar panel
manufacturing and efficiency. Electric current is produced when electrons are released from the atomic
bonds of the semiconductor material of the PV cells when the solar radiation strikes on it. The solar PV
cell has a life period of about 20 years. Hyderabad is the second largest city of Pakistan and is situated at
25.3792 Latitude and 68.3683 Longitude. Hyderabad receives a handsome amount of solar radiation
annually and receives annual radiation between 4.0-4.5 kWh/m/2/day. The solar PV cell has negligible
maintenance and no moving parts. The power output from solar PV cell is maximum when the sun is
directly above the solar PV cell. If a mechanical device is fiited with the solar PV cell that allows it
change the orientation by tracking the sun’s position, efficiency of solar PV cell is increased since the
power output from solar PV cell is maximum when the sun light is dirctley above the surface at 90°
angle.

2. Methodology

A solar PV technology coverts the solar radiation in the form of electrical energy, it has no moving parts
and no or less maintenance as compared to conventional fossil fuels.

2.1. Solar Photovoltaic System

During the last decade, there has been some promising progress in photovoltaic systems in Pakistan.
Appreciable advancement is achieved in the solar cells, modules and systems fabrication expertise of the
institutes of the country. Photovoltaic systems are more suitable for remote areas and small power
requirements. First large scale solar power generation project is in operation in Pakistan, having 100MW
capacity in first phase and additional 900MW in next two phases. It is named as Quaid-e-Azam Solar
Power (QASP) park and is located in Bahawalpur, Punjab [6]. Three thousand solar power systems are
set up in villages of district Tharparkar, Sindh. During the last fifteen years private companies have
imported almost 54.77 MW Solar panels. AEDB has approved and received many project feasibility
studies conducted by different companies [7]

The main components of solar photovoltaic system are battery, solar panel, inverter and solar charge
controller as shown in Fig 1. A solar panel is the most important component of a solar photovoltaic
system.

Fig. 1: Schematic diagram for solar photovoltaic system

The input of a solar panel is heat energy from the sun and output is the electrical energy [3]. The
generation of electrical energy from solar panel is dependent on the amount solar radiation being strike
on the solar panel surface. The electrical energy from solar panel is in the form of DC current. The DC

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electrical energy from the solar panel can be utilized by home appliances only if they are working on DC
current. Since most of the home appliances in our country are working on AC current therefore an
inventor is used to convert DC current from solar panel in to AC current so that home appliances can
utilize it. DC current from solar panel is stored in battery, and then DC current from battery is converted
to AC current by inventor. Charge controller is used to regulate current and voltage.

2.2. Solar photovoltaic system’s mathematical formulation

The following steps are taken in to consideration while designing of solar photovoltaic.

2.2.1 Determination of power consumption demands

This is the basic step in order to design a solar photovoltaic system for any home, office or any building.
The load of each appliance is measured in Watts and the running (operating) time on daily basis of that
appliance is measured in hours [2]. Load and the running time vary from appliance to appliance.

For calculating the total energy consumption demand,

The load of each appliance and its corresponding running time both are multiplied to give individual load
for the appliance.

Load for appliance (Watt-hours) =Power (Watts) x Running time (Hours)

Total Load (Watt-hours)=Summation of Individual loads for appliances

E# $ P& ' t (1)

2.2.2 Determining the size of PV Module

A PV module is rated in peak-watts. Peak-watts produced by the PV panels depend upon the size of the
panel and the climate conditions of the location selected.

Knowing the fact that PV panel can’t be used to run directly the AC appliances, the battery, solar charge
controller and inverter must be used along with PV panel. Hence, in order to determine the peak-watts for
a solar panel, the efficiency of battery, solar charge controller and inverter must be counted. The
efficiency of most of the batteries ranges from 80% to 90% while the efficiency of solar charge
controllers is about 90% [3].When this efficiency is counted, A solar panel must produce an additional
thirty percent (30%) energy. Secondly, amount of energy produced by the PV panel depends upon the
location where it is going to operate. Number of hours of day sunlight varies from one location to the
other.

The mathematical formula for determining the size of PV panel can be given as

()*,+ $ (+ ' 1.3 (2)

2.2.3 Determining the size of Battery

When determining the size of battery, it is essential to remember that Battery is the alone energy source
for running the appliances for some duration. Size of battery depends upon total load of appliances, the
efficiency of the inverter, the days of autonomy, depth of discharge and the nominal voltage of the
battery. The load of appliances can be calculated as discussed in section (2.2.1). Efficiency of an inverter
plays a vital role because battery needs an inverter to run any AC appliance. Inverters are not 100%
efficient because of the losses. Efficiency of most of the inverters is from 85% to 90% (10 to 15 percent
power wasted).The days of autonomy are the days without sun or cloudy days in which there will be no
power generation from the PV panel. Battery will be the only source of power. The days of autonomy
depends upon the location selected. As a standard, there are 1.5 to 3 days of autonomy. Hence, the size of
battery should be increased by a factor of 1.5 to 3.Depth of discharge ranges from 40 % to 80 %[4].The

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battery capacity is highly effected by the time at which it is discharged. The discharging time should be
as high as possible within the limits. Finally, nominal voltage of battery also needs to be counted while
selecting a proper battery capacity.

Considering all above variables a mathematical formula can be formulated for determining the battery
size

12
(./ $ 0 9 ' :;< (3)
(3.45'3.6'78 )

2.2.4 Determining the size of solar charge controller

Overcharging and discharging are two main problems associated with the batteries. These two problems
can be overcome by utilizing a solar charge controller between a solar panel and a battery [5]. It controls
the current and voltage coming from the panel to a battery and avoids chances of back current to the solar
panel. The size of a solar charge controller is measured in units of amperage and voltage [6]. Amperage
is obtained from the PV panel or array while the voltage is the same as the nominal voltage of a battery.

Mathematically, the size of a solar charge controller can be expressed by the formula

=>/ $ =>.+ ' 1.3 (4)

2.2.5 Determining the size of Inverter

All the household appliances take AC power as an input. A solar panel generates DC power which is
stored in a battery. This stored DC power is converted into AC power by a device named inverter. For
ensuring safety, the inverter size should be designed 25 % - 30 % greater as compared to the power to be
utilized by the appliances. If a motor or a compressor is to in any appliance, the size of inverter is
considered as 5 times the energy demanded by the appliance [7].

?@ $ ?+ ' 5 (5)

3. Result and discussion

A huge variation of Direct and Diffuse radiation intensities is because of cloudy conditions. These
varying intensities results are plotted and presented in Fig 2. The figure clearly defines the trend of direct
and diffuse solar radiations. The direct radiations values are highest in the month of April and November.
The effect of diffuse radiation to global radiation is small during winter season because during these
months sky is sunny and clear and does not surpass 40% even in the cloudy condition.

Fig. 2. Profile of direct and diffuse radiation

Pakistan Council of Scientific and Industrial Research provided the data for daily radiation and
temperature conditions as presented in Fig. 3 (a) and (b). This data is average for the year of 2011 in
winter and summer seasons of Hyderabad.

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1000

Radiation (W/m2)
800
600 Solar Radiation
400
200
0
7 9 11 13 15
Time (h)

50
Temperature (oC) Ambient Temperature
40

30

20

10

0
7 9 11 13 15
Time (h)
(a) (b)
Fig. 3. Climatic condition of Hyderabad

Average radiation for a week was about 728.1953 WATT/m2 in the month of June for Hyderabad.

Design and analysis of solar system of current study is done by considering a small house having two
washrooms, two dining rooms and a kitchen as given in Table 2.However, electrical appliance power
consumption and solar panel’s produced power for an identified number of hours is given in Table 3.
Table 2 shows physical features of solar panel for finding electricity requirements.

Table 2: House appliance characteristic

Utilizations Number Power (W) Hours (Average) Watt Hours (Total)
Ceiling fan 2 1.80×102 8 1.44×103
Refrigerator 1 5.0×102 12 6.0×103
Electric iron 1 1×103 1 1.0×103
Television 1 2.0×102 6 1.2×103
Energy savers 8 1.92×102 8 1.536×103
Computer 1 1.2×102 5 6×102
Total 14 2.192×103 40 11.776×103

Table 3. Power required and generated description

S. No. Factors Value and unit
1 Total power consumption 1.53×104 Wh/day
2 Battery capacity 2.89×103 Wh
3 solar charge controller size 45.5A
4 Total power consumption per day 1.2×104 Wh
5 Generated power by solar panel 1.8×104 Wh/day
6 Inverter size 6.6×103W

Whereas price description for solar panel is presented in Table 4

Table 4. Prices solar panel components

S. No Components of Solar Panel Price
1 2900 Ah battery cost 0.46 Million Rupees
2 2kW solar panel array 0.20 Million Rupees
3 12V 50A solar charge controller 0.42 Million Rupees
4 7kW inverter cost 0.98 Million Rupees
Total 0.80 Million Rupees

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The Table 5 shows electrical appliance power requirements via grid system and bill paid for each unit.

Table 5. Grid System Characteristics

S. No Grid System Characteristics Value & unit
1 Daily consumption of power = 11776Wh 1.2×104 Wh
2 Monthly consumption 3.5×102 kWh
3 Monthly bill paid 0.045 Million Rupees
4 Annually bill 0.54 Million Rupees

Characteristics of solar panel are presented in Table 6

Table 6. Solar Panel System Characteristics

S. No Solar Panel System Characteristics Value & unit
1 Energy generated (on daily basis) 1.8×104 Wh
2 Energy generated (on monthly basis) 0.54×103 kWh
3 Cost saved per month Rs. 2,240
4 Cost saved annuay 0.027 Million Rupees

Total Cost Saved by Solar Panel System WAS 0.027 Million Rupees.

The cost for solar panel system and the parts of UPS system for 25 years is presented in following tables.

Table 7. Rate list for the UPS system

S.No Element Price
1 48V 400 Ah liquid battery 0.035 Million Rupees
2 for 25 years 1.75 Million Rupees
3 7000W inverter 0.098 Million Rupees
4 for 25 years 2.45 Million Rupees
Total UPS system cost for 25 years 4.2 Million Rupees

Table 8. Rate list for solar panel system

S.No Component Price
1 2 kW panel array 0.20 Million Rupees
2 12V 2900 Ah battery 0.46 Million Rupees
3 for 25 years 2.3 Million Rupees
4 12 V 50 A solar charge controller 0.042 Million Rupees
5 for 25 years 0.21 Million Rupees
6 7 kW power inverter 0.098 Million Rupees
7 for 25 years 0.49 Million Rupees
Total solar power system cost for 25 years 3.2 Million Rupees

The comparison of cost saving show that the solar power system will save RS 980,000 in 25 years as
compared to UPS system.

As UPS requires electric power from external source which is water and power development authority
(WAPDA) therefore for the comparison electric bills were not considered. If yearly bills are also
considered then amount of capital cost saved by solar system will also be huge cost of UPS system
depends upon these bills. As UPS requires electric power from external source which is water and power
development authority (WAPDA) therefore for the comparison electric bills were not considered.

4. Conclusion

It is observed from the obtained results that the operating cost of grid power and UPS system is higher
than solar based power system, while the initial cost of solar power based system is higher than grid
power and UPS system. The UPS system is less appropriate than the solar power based system because
the life of battery and invertor in solar power based system is higher than the UPS system. In solar
system the dry batteries are used which require no water filling while in the UPS system batteries require

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change of water regularly. Solar system does not depend upon grid power hence it work continuously
whereas UPS system function depends upon grid power hence due to load shedding its operation will
also be affected.

References
[1] A. Mahmood, N. Javaid, A. Zafar, R. Ali Riaz, S. Ahmed, and S. Razzaq, “Pakistan’s overall energy potential
assessment, comparison of LNG, TAPI and IPI gas projects,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 31, pp. 182–193, Mar.
2014.
[2] F. Azadian and M. a. M. Radzi, “A general approach toward building integrated photovoltaic systems and its
implementation barriers: A review,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 22, pp. 527–538, Jun. 2013.
[3] Michael Boxwell, “Solar Electricity Handbook: A simple practical guide to solar energy-designing and installing
photovoltaic solar systems”. Green stream Publishing Sixth Edition 2012.
[4] Mark Hankins, “Stand Alone Solar Electric Systems: The Earth scan Expert Handbook For Planning, Design and
Installation”. Earthscan. p-85-87 First Edition 2010.
[5] C.Singh Solanki, “Solar Photovoltaics: Fundamentals Technologies And Applications”. Eastern Economy Edition.p-
405-408.
[6] Solar Energy International and New Society Publishers. “Photovoltaics: Design and Installation Manual” p-62-64.
[7] Robert Foster, Majid Ghassemi, Alma Cota, “Solar Energy: Renewable Energy and the Environment”.
[8] Elena Papadopoulou, “Energy Management in Buildings Using Photovoltaics” Springer.p-94-96
[9] C. A. Brebbia, “Eco-architecture IV: Harmonisation Between Architecture and Nature”. WIT press.p-45-46.
[10] (Solar map http://www.nrel.gov/gis/pdfs/swera/afg_pak/pak_10km_dir.pdf).

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323. Enhanced Solar PV MPPT System for 12V Battery

Charger
Kashif Ishaquea, Shoaib Ahmed Siddiqueb*, Hooma Amjadc, Mubashir Irshadc
a
Associate Professor, Dept. of Electrical Engineering, Mohammad Ali Jinnah University, karachi-Pakistan.
b
Research Assistant & Lab Engineer, Dept of Electrical Engineering, Mohammad Ali Jinnah University, Karachi-Pakistan.
c
Lab Engineer, Dept. of Electronics Engineering, Karachi Institute of Economics & Technology, Karachi-Pakistan
*Email Address: shoaib.siddique@jinnah.edu,pk

Abstract

When a Photovoltaic (PV) panel is exposed to sunlight an I-V characteristic curve of that panel is
observed. The I-V characteristics of the PV panel continuously changes with the change in irradiance and
temperature of the surroundings which also changes maximum power point MPP of the PV panels. This
affects the charging process of the batteries connected with the PV panels. This paper presents an
efficiently designed Solar PV system for charging the batteries. The system uses Perturb & Observe
(P&O) algorithm to track the MPP. The MPP tracking algorithm works in conjunction with a DC-DC
Buck (step-down) converter. The power from the PV panels is fed into a charge controller, which equals
the PV voltages to the battery voltages with maximum power being delivered from PV panels to the
batteries. A dsPIC microcontroller is used which continuously tracks the MPP even with the changing
conditions and handles the charging battery voltages. A MATLAB based modelling and simulation is
also designed and is first used to test the algorithm along with the charge controller under the changing
conditions and then it is implemented on the hardware. The simulation results shows that the algorithm
tracks the MPP point of the PV panels, including the hardware results which verifies the efficient
working of the proposed design.

© 2016 Shoaib Ahmed Siddique, Hooma Amjad, Mubashir Irshad. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and
Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT); Perturb and Observe (P&O); MATLAB; DC-DC
Converter.

1. Introduction

With the increasing crisis in the availability of energy and its resources; like fossil fuels, solar energy has
become one of the most demanding resources for the production of electrical energy. Solar panels need to
be operated at maximum power point (MPP) in order to extract maximum power out of it. This is done
with the help of a power dc-dc converter allowing the panels to thoroughly operate at maximum power
point. PV Panels when being operated at the maximum power point gives the highest efficiency. There
are numerous algorithms for MPP tracking, the one used here is hill-climbing algorithm commonly
known as Perturb and Observe (P&O), which is one of the most extensively used algorithm due to its
simplicity and ease of implementation [1] [2]. It operates by perturbing the operating voltages of the PV
array. The P&O works well under slight variations in irradiance [3].
The solar panel used is JC120S-12/Zb and the characteristics are enlisted below:
Table 1. Parameters of JC120S-12/Zb Module under STC
Maximum Power at STC Pmax 120 Wp
Open Circuit Voltage Voc 19.8 V
Optimum Operating voltage Vmp 16.0 V
Short circuit current Isc 8.03 A
Optimum operating current Imp 7.50 A

For a battery with lower voltages the power rate of charging losses increases when directly connected to
the solar panels, which is catered by this MPPT charger. These losses occur because of the current-
voltage (I-V) characteristics curve of the solar panels. Every PV module has its own I-V curve which
gives information about the characteristics of the module. The proposed power converter for this project
is a step-down DC-DC converter known as Buck Converter, which steps down the input DC voltages.
This paper focuses throughout on efficient battery charging through solar panels with minimal losses.

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2. MPPT Battery Charging System Model

PV panels provides dc output voltages with a certain I-V curve characteristics, each panels has its own
curve characteristics depending upon the design. This dc voltage is not stable enough to directly charge
the batteries therefore they need to be converted up to a voltage level to stably charge the batteries. This
is done with the help of a dc-dc converter which is a buck converter in this case. A MPP tracking
algorithm is implemented using a dsPIC microcontroller. This controller keeps tracking the MPP and
operates the panels at this point. A simple block diagram of this model is shown in Fig 1.

Fig. 1. MPPT Battery Charging system model

3. Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

Maximum Power Point Tracking as the name suggests is an algorithm used for the tracking of maximum
power of the solar panels being used. MPP can easily be understood referring to a non-MPPT based
system; in which if we talk about a non-MPPT based battery charger means that the solar panels are
directly connected to the battery terminals without any kind of circuitry in between them. In this case the
panels operate only on the battery voltages thereby not delivering their maximum power.
Contrary to it a MPPT charger ensures solar panel to function on voltages at which it is able to supply
maximum power to the batteries for charging. A solar panels comes with the specs including Voc and Isc
and each panels have different I-V Curve under constant irradiance as discussed. The real-time I-V curve
of two JC120S-12/Zb solar panels in series is shown in Fig. 2.

Fig. 2. Real-Time P-V & I-V curve of 2 series connected solar panels

The I-V curve in Fig. 2 is a real time graph plotted on MATLAB. The Voc and Isc are 35 volts and 6.5
Amperes respectively. The maximum power point MPP lies on the knee of this curve which is around the
point where Ipv=5.8A & Vpv = 25V. The basic objective of MPP algorithm is to track this knee. The
maximum power can be seen from the PV curve which is at 145 Watt.

3.1 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)

A number of researches have took place in this field for efficiently tracking the MPP of a panel. There
are a number of ways to track the MPP, out which few are listed below:

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i- Perturb and Observe
ii- Incremental Conductance
iii- Current Sweep
iv- Constant Voltage

The method used here is Perturb and Observe MPPT algorithm.

4. Perturb & Observe (P&O)

Perturb and Observe, an MPPT algorithm commonly known as P&O algorithm; in this method the
voltages in small amount from the PV panel are set by the controller, the controller calculates the power
and if there is an increase in power the controller makes further adjustments in that direction until the
power no longer changes [4].

The P&O algorithm measures the voltage, current and calculates the power of the PV panels and then
perturbs the voltage to estimate the changing direction. Fig. 3 shows a PV curve of a PV panel.

Fig. 3. P-V Curve of a Solar Panel

It can be witnessed from the left side the PV panel power increases with the increase in panel voltages
and after the maximum power point (MPP) at the right hand side the power starts decreasing. This
concludes that if he power is increasing in a certain direction the perturbation must also be performed in
the same direction either from left to right or right to left. Contrary to it if there is a decrement in power
reverse perturbation must be performed [5].
The MPP is achieved when the ratio of change in power and change in voltage is equal to zero i.e. dP/dV
=0. The functional operation of P&O algorithm can be summarized with the help of the table below:
Table 2. P&O Operation Table
∆PPV ∆VPV Perturbation
>0 >0 Increase V
>0 <0 Decrease V
<0 >0 Decrease V
<0 <0 Increase V

Table 2 with reference to Fig. 3; when the change in power and voltage of the panels is greater than 0 the
perturbation must be done so as to increase the panel voltages. If the change in power is greater than 0
and the change in voltage is less than 0, the perturbation must be done in a manner to decrease the
voltage of the panels. A flow chart representing the flow of P&O algorithm is shown in Fig. 4.

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Fig. 4. P&O Algorithm Flow Chart

The solar panel voltage and current is initially measured and the power is then calculated. The change in
power ∆PPV and change in panel voltages ∆VPV are then calculated after this the panel voltages are
perturbed by a constant value. If this perturbation causes the power to increase the perturbation must be
done in the same direction else if the case is opposite then reverse perturbation must be applied. This
P&O algorithm is also known as hill climbing algorithm [6].

5. DC-DC Converter

It is a power electronic circuitry that converts DC voltages from one level to another. It can be either a
step-up (boost) or a step-down (buck) converter and is a class of power converters. Depending upon the
applications there are a wide range of DC-DC converters. There are a variety of DC-DC converters
depending on the method of voltage level conversion two of them are:
i- Linear DC-DC Converters
ii- Switched mode DC-DC Converter
The dc-dc converter is the main circuitry responsible for the tracking of MPP [7] [8]. There are some
drawbacks of linear DC-DC regulator in terms of power losses; like they can only output lower voltages
than the input supplied to them. Considering the efficiency of the switched mode converters (75-98%) we
will be using these for MPPT purpose to charge the battery.
The dc-dc converter used here for the MPP tracking is a Buck Converter.

5.1 DC-DC Buck Converter

A buck converter is a step-down DC to DC converter which reduces the voltages applied to its input by a
certain factor. A general circuit diagram of buck converter is shown in Fig. 5.

Fig. 5. Circuit Diagram of a Buck Converter

Where Vi is input voltage, Vo is the output voltage, S is an active switching device, D is a diode, L is an

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inductor and C is the capacitor.

5.2 Working Of Buck Converter

A switch mode converter; buck converter in this case contains a switch which is usually a mosfet an
active device. When a switching device is introduced there exist a dual state of operation; namely ON
state and OFF state. These states are named with reference to the switching device in the converter, a
mosfet.
During the ON state, when the mosfet is on the circuit in Fig. 5 becomes as shown below:

Fig. 6. Buck Converter in ON state.

In this state the switch S is on, the current from the input voltage source passes through the switch, the
inductor and capacitor finally it flows through the load. Initially the current does not pass to the load
directly when the switch is on because the inductor stores the charge in itself. And as the diode is in
parallel with the Vi source therefore a positive voltage occurs on it reverse biasing the diode, hence it
acts as if it is not present in the circuit.
During the OFF state the Buck converter looks as shown in Fig. 15.

Fig. 7. Buck Converter in OFF state

In this state the switching device (mosfet) is switched off, now the energy stored in the inductor L comes
into play this energy is released in the circuit. The voltages developed across the inductor known as
electromagnetic force (emf) causes the current to flow in the circuit through the diode D and the load R.
The diode in this case is forward biased. When all the energy stored in the inductor is supplied then the
capacitor becomes the source for current. Now the current flows till the next ON state occurs.
The major portion here is the switching part for the converter, without which the converter is of no use to
us. The switching is done through an external source through a controller or a function generator which
supplies a square wave generated at 20 KHz or above. Below 20 KHz is an audible range and the
inductor starts producing noise as it gets saturated [9].

5.3 Equation Analysis Of Buck Converter

The transfer function of the buck converter elaborates the functioning of the buck converter. In order to
derive a T.F for this converter we will have to consider both the cases i.e. the ON state and the OFF state.
Referring to Fig. 6; the ON state, we can observe the inductor voltages are:
vL (t) = Vi – vC (t)
vL (t) = Vi – v (t)
v (t) = V – vripple
Where;
| vripple | << V
vL (t) = Vi – V
Now referring to Fig. 7; the OFF state, we can observe that the inductor voltages are:
vL (t) = – vC (t)
vL (t) = – v (t)
vL (t) = – V
The ON time is represented by [ DTs ] and OFF time is represented by [ D’Ts ] where D is the duty cycle,

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Ts is the switching time which is the inverse of switching frequency and D’+D = 1 which is the complete
duty cycle. Using the area formula we get the equation below:
(Vi – V) DTs + (-V) D’Ts = 0
Vi D – V D –V D’ = 0
Vi D – V (D+D’) = 0
Vi D – V = 0
Vi D = V
V = D x Vi (Equation A)
Equation A above is the final transfer function of an ideal buck converter.

6. Equation Analysis Of Buck Converter

The MATLAB model for 12V battery charger is shown in Fig. 8 is simulated at different values of
irradiance at standard temperature conditions STC of 25ºC. The PV simulator simulates the PV
characteristics which gives us the P-V curve of the panels. The MPPT controller when comes into play
the PV curve shows the red dots on the Pmax points which indicates that the P&O algorithm is being
processed and it tracks the MPP. The P&O algorithm works in combination with the buck converter. The
result of processed P&O algorithm is shown in Fig. 9.

Fig. 8. MATLAB Model for MPPT Battery Charger

Fig. 9 Processing and output of P&O algorithm

The red dots in Fig. 9 shows that the hill top or in other words the maximum power has been tracked, and
that too not only for a single irradiance but for all changes in irradiance.

7. Hardware Results And Discussions

The complete hardware setup designed for this project is shown in Fig. 10.

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Fig. 10 Hardware setup for MPPT charger.

The real time result of P-V and I-V curve is shown in Fig. 2. The maximum power point MPP lies on the
knee of this curve which is around the point where Ipv=5.8A & Vpv = 25V, the P-V curve also shows that
the maximum power is 145 Watts, the MPP tracking algorithm is implemented in a dsPIC30F4013
microcontroller which is responsible for the tracking of MPP throughout the entire function of the
designed battery charger. The MPP tracking graph for this system is shown in Fig. 11.

Fig. 11. Real-Time P-V & I-V Curve of MPP Tracking

The MPP algorithm tracks the MPP of the solar panel in real time which can be observed by the dense
blue dots at the top left corner of the P-V & I-V curves of the hardware results plotted on MATLAB. The
result is more evident in the left graph of Fig. 11 which shows the P-V curve of tracked MPP at 145
Watts.

8. Conclusion

In this paper, P&O algorithm is used for the application of battery charging with MPP tracking for
efficient charging of batteries while maximum power is being delivered for the charging process, which
increases the efficiency of the system reducing the losses which occurs in the case of direct connectivity
of the batteries for charging purpose. The paper shows the results of MATLAB simulations and its
implementation on actual hardware.

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thank PAF-KIET and especially Dr. Kashif Ishaque for his untiring efforts
throughout this research with his worthy knowledge.

References

[1] D. G. S. a. M. V. N.Femia, "Predictive & adaptive MPPT perturb and observe method," IEEE Trans. Aerosp Electron. Syst.,,
Vols. vol. 43, no. 3, p. pp. 934–950, Jul, 2007.

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[2] W. C. a. R.Ramesh, "Comparative Study of P&O and InC MPPT Algorithms," AJER.
[3] S. R. C.Thulasiyammal, "Performance Analysis of Converters Using Solar Powered Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT)
Algorithms," International Journal of Advance Research in Computer Science and Management Studies.
[4] K. E. Abdullah M.Noman, "DSPACE Real-Time Implementation of MPPT- Based FLC Method," International Journal of
Photoenergy, 2013.
[5] S. S. T. S.Gomathy, "Design and Implementation of Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) Algorithm for a Standalone PV
System," IJSER.
[6] K. M. M. V R Bharambe, "Implementation of P&O MPPT for PV System with using Buck and Buck-Boost Converters".
[7] R. Saxena, "DC-DC Buck-Converter for MPPT of PV System".
[8] Z. S. A. S. Kashif Ishaque, "Application of Particle Swarm Optimization for Maximum Power Point Tracking of PV System
With Direct Control Method," IEEE, 2011.
[9] M. A. R. Dr. B.J. Ranganath, "Design of DC/DC Buck-Boost Converter Charge Controller for Solar Power Applications".

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52. Thermodynamic Assessment of Solar Chimney Based Air-

Conditioning System for Agricultural and Livestock
Applications
Muhammad Sultana,*, Takahiko Miyazakib, Hassan Niaza, Faizan Shabira, Sahrish
Ashrafa, Zahid M. Khana, Muhammad H. Mahmoodb, Hafiz M.U. Razaa
a
Department of Agricultural Engineering, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Bosan Road, 60800 Multan, Pakistan
b
Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Engineering Sciences, Kyushu University, 6-1 Kasuga-koen, Kasuga-shi, Fukuoka 816-8580,
Japan
E-mail address: muhammadsultan@bzu.edu.pk

Abstract

The present study addresses the applicability of solar-chimney based passive-air-conditioning (SCAC)
system for agricultural and livestock applications. As the system is free from any kind of refrigerant,
therefore enables zero ozone depletion (ODP) and global warming (GWP) potential. The SCAC utilizes
well-known Maisotsenko cycle (M-Cycle) in order to achieve the sensible load of air-conditioning (AC)
efficiently. Recent studies have proven the advancement of M-Cycle in the field of AC. Therefore, in the
present work SCAC system’s applicability together with M-Cycle conception has been
thermodynamically investigated. Ideal AC zones are established on psychrometric charts for storage of
various agricultural products (including: green tomatoes, sweet potatoes, sapodilla, banana, bitter melon,
breadfruit, papayas, sweet pepper, pineapples, ugli fruit, sugar apples, cabbage, onion, mushroom, dew/
blue/ black- berries, grapes, and dates etc.), and for animals’ thermal comfort (including: sheeps and
lambs at growing stage, dairy cattle and cows, pig farrowing houses, pig nursery barns, beef cattle and
cows, poultry breeders and laying houses etc.).

A simplified correlation has been established in order to predict the M-Cycle performance for SCAC
system on the basis of experimental data available in literature. The correlation shows good agreement
with the experimental data, and therefore is analyzed for four big cities of Pakistan namely (1) Karachi,
(2) Lahore, (3) Multan, and (4) Peshawar. The thermodynamic analysis shows that the SCAC can
efficiently achieve the sensible AC load for various agricultural and livestock applications, however, the
performance index may vary according to the nature of application. Results showed that the SCAC
system’s applicability is limited in humid areas because of the nature of M-Cycle operation, therefore,
may not be sustainable standalone AC system for various applications. However, it can be handy solution
in order to minimize the AC load as well as to develop low-cost chilled ceiling for various agricultural
and livestock applications. It is worth mentioning that it can be efficiently utilized in most of the dry and
moderate areas.

© 2016 M. Sultan, T. Miyazaki, H. Niaz, F. Shabir, S. Ashraf, Z.M. Khan, M.H. Mahmood, H.M.U. Raza. Selection and/or peer-
review under responsibility of Energy and Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of
Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: air-conditioning; solar chimney; M-Cycle; agricultural products; livestock

1. Introduction

Modern life style requires huge amount of primary energy due to extensive & precise thermal comfort in
terms of heating, cooling, humidification, dehumidification and ventilation. In this regard, air-
conditioning (AC) becomes basic need for offices, buildings, schools, shopping malls, and transport
busses/trains etc. Therefore, lots of research and systems have been studied and are in practice in order to
achieve humans’ thermal comfort. However, animals’ thermal comfort is hardly studied and implement

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specially in developing countries. Similarly in agricultural sector of developing countries, proper storage
structures as well as conditions are rarely accomplished for the storage of post-harvest agricultural
products due to the high pricing of conventional AC technologies.

From the above prospective, authors investigate the M-Cycle based [1] renewable energy (i.e. solar-
chimney) driven passive air-conditioning (SCAC) system for various agricultural and livestock
applications. The concept of M-Cycle [1] driven SCAC system was first time introduced by Miyazaki et
al. [2] which presents the numerical simulation model for the SCAC system. One of the key component
of SCAC system is M-Cycle unit for indirect evaporative cooling. In the present work, authors tried to
utilize the experimental findings of M-Cycle (available in literature) in order to investigate the SCAC
system’s applicability in agricultural and livestock applications. Consequently, a simplified correlation
has been established in order to find out the performance by M-Cycle unit on the basis of Anisimov et al.
[3] and Pandelidis et al. [4].

Fig. 1. Psychrometric representation of ideal AC zones for: (a) animals’ air-conditioning; and (b) agricultural products’
storage

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1.1. Development of ideal AC zones

Temperature and humidity requirements for ideal air conditioning vary according to nature of an
individual application. As far as storage of post-harvest agricultural products is concern, it may vary
according to respiration, transpiration, and fermentation etc. of the agricultural product [5]. On the other
hand the AC requirements for animals are completely different as compared to conventional AC for
humans’ thermal comfort which is due to the variability in metabolism rate, respiration rate, nature of
food and genetic factor etc. In the present study ideal AC zones are developed on psychrometric charts
for various agricultural and livestock applications on the recommendation given by ASHRAE (American
Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-conditioning Engineers) [6] and FAO (Food and Agriculture
Organization) [7]. Fig. 1(a) shows the ideal AC zones for animal’s thermal comfort for: (i) sheeps and
lambs (growing stage), (ii) dairy cattle and cows, (iii) pig farrowing houses, (iv) pig nursery barns, (v)
beef cattle and cows, and (vi) poultry breeders and laying houses. Fig. 1(b) shows ideal storage zones for
various agricultural products which include: green tomatoes, sweet potatoes, sapodilla, banana, bitter
melon, breadfruit, papayas, sweet pepper, pineapples, ugli fruit, sugar apples, cabbage, onion, mushroom,
dew/ blue/ black- berries, grapes, and dates etc.

2. Solar chimney based air-conditioning (SCAC) system

A typical renewable energy operated M-Cycle based SCAC system was first time introduced by
Miyazaki et al. [2] in 2011. The system captures the psychrometric renewable energy from the ambient
air (from roof-side) and produces cooling effect via chilled ceiling (in room side). The driving force for
the system air flow comes from thermal head of the solar-chimney. A typical schematic diagram of the
SCAC system is shown in Fig. 2. Referring to the system schematics, it can be seen that ambient air from
roof side is passed from the wet and dry channels of M-Cycle and exhausted into the ambient air.
However, water evaporated into the wet channel of M-Cycle unit produced cooling effect due to the heat
of water vaporization. Therefore, cooling effect has be induced in the room side by means of convective
and radiative heat transfer from the additional dry channel of M-Cycle unit. This is a kind of indirect
evaporative cooling, however, the in this case air has the potential to be cooled to the ambient air dew-
point temperature by means of innovative conception of M-Cycle. M-Cycle attains energy from air by
utilizing psychrometric renewable energy available from the latent heat of ambient air water evaporation
[1]. It can be seen that M-Cycle unit has three channels in which two are dry but intermediate channel
possesses water for evaporation. Firstly, air from roof side enters in dry channel and then moved to wet
channel where it is cooled due to water vapor evaporation similar to IEC. On the other hand, heat is
transfer from the room air (lower dry channel in Fig. 2) via radiative and convective heat transfer while
keeping the humidity ratio constant. The details of M-Cycle can be found from the authors’ previous
work [1]. It is worthy to mention that the conventional IEC system limits the cooling effect up to the
ambient air wet bulb temperature.

Fig. 2. Schematic diagram of SCAC system for agricultural and livestock applications, reproduced from [2].

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3. Research methodology and development of simplified correlation

In the present study SCAC system has been proposed for various agricultural and livestock applications.
As the efficiency of SCAC system is based on performance by the M-Cycle unit, therefore, experimental
data of M-Cycle unit is explored from the literature carefully. Upon review of available literature on M-
Cycle [1], it has been realized that the studies published by Anisimov et al. [3] and Pandelidis et al. [4]
can give the real insights of M-Cycle performance. In the studies [3-4] authors also developed a precise
model for the estimation of M-Cycle performance based on experimental data of M-Cycle for various
ambient air conditions. However, the model is relatively complicated, therefore, in the present study a
simplified correlation has been established in order to find out the M-Cycle performance for various
ambient air conditions. In this regard, experimental result points of M-Cycle unit at different ambient air
conditions were taken from the studies [3-4], and optimizations has been made for: #$ ≈ 20°C to 45°C
&'(
and %$ ≈ 10 g/kgDA to 25 g/kgDA, using the following fundamental conceptions:

#) * + ,#$ , %&'( -
(1)
&'( &'(
%) * %$ * %&'( (2)
&'(
.%) , /) , #0' , #12 * + ,#) , %) -
(3)

3 * + ,#$ , %&'( -
(4)

Where #) and #$ represent the outlet and inlet air temperature [ºC], respectively, in the product channel
&'( &'(
(lower dry channel in Fig. 2) of M-Cycle. %) and %$ represent the specific humidity (humidity ratio)
of corresponding outlet and inlet air [g/kgDA]. Q represent the cooling capacity of M-Cycle unit
[kJ/kg/s] whereas subscript i & o represent inlet and outlet to the product channel of M-Cycle. Rest of the
parameters are explained in nomenclature in detail. Optimization has been made for the statistical error
minimization and consequently the R2 values were kept more than 0.95 in each formulation.

Using the above mentioned correlation, the performance of M-Cycle as well as SCAC system has been
investigated for four big cities of Pakistan namely: (1) Karachi, (2) Lahore, (3) Multan, and (4) Peshawar.
As the scope of the M-Cycle is limited in humid areas, therefore, different ambient air conditions were
selected. Similarly, the scope may be limited depending upon the nature of application as well as air flow
rates. It is worthy to mention that, the metrological data of the cities was obtained from the Meteonorm 7
(licensed version) from Swiss Meteotest Company. Consequently, Fig. 3(a) shows the outdoor air profile
(monthly basis) of ambient air temperature and relative humidity whereas Fig. 3(b) represents the
outdoor air profile (monthly basis) for ambient air enthalpy and ambient air dew point.

Fig. 3. Outdoor air profile on monthly basis for four big cities of Pakistan: (a) ambient air temperature and relative
humidity; and (b) ambient air enthalpy and ambient air dew point.

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4. Results and discussion

In the present study M-Cycle based solar-chimney driven passive air-conditioning (SCAC) system has
been proposed for the storage of various agricultural products and for animals’ thermal comfort.
Schematic diagram of SCAC system is shown in Fig. 2 whereas the various agricultural and livestock AC
applications are represented on psychrometric charts on Fig. 1. It is obvious that the output consistency of
SCAC system is based on the net performance of integrated M-Cycle unit and the net effect of solar-
chimney. The M-Cycle [1] is well known in AC field due to its potential of dew-point evaporative
cooling. The M-Cycle conception was first time integrated in SCAC system by Miyazaki et al. [2] and
the authors developed a simulation model for the system. However, in the present study, experimental
results of M-Cycle available in the literature by Anisimov et al. [3] and Pandelidis et al. [4] are utilized
for the formulation of simplified correlation for the approximation of thermodynamic properties of M-
Cycle product air. Although model of Anisimov & Pandelidis et al. [3-4] is precise but relatively
complicated, therefore, a simplified correlation is established using the fundamental conceptions (Eqs. 1-
4) as explained in methodology (heading 3). The developed simplified correlation is represented by Eq. 5
and Eq. 6 for product air temperature (To) and for cooling capacity (Q), respectively. The validity range
&'(
of simplified correction is: #$ ≈ 20°C to 45°C and %$ ≈ 10 g/kgDA to 25 g/kgDA.

#) * 45 6 75 (#$ ) 6 85 (%&'( ) (5)

3 * 49 6 79 (#$ ) 6 89 (%&'( ) (6)

where #) and #$ represent the outlet and inlet air temperature [ºC], respectively, in the product channel of
M-Cycle (see Fig. 2). The parameter A, B, and C are the constants of simplified correlation, and their
optimized values given in Table 1. A comparison has been made between the developed simplified
correlation (Eq. 5-6) with the experimental data [3-4]. Fig. 4(a) and (b) shows comparison outcomes for
outlet air temperature (To) and cooling capacity (Q), respectively. It can be seen that the simplified
correlation can represent the experimental data reasonably for both of the cases with R2 values more than
0.95.

It is obvious that SCAC system’s functionality is based M-Cycle unit whose performance indices are
based on ambient air humidity [1]. Therefore, the performance of M-Cycle unit is investigated for four
big cities of Pakistan (namely: 1. Karachi, 2. Lahore, 3. Multan, and 4. Peshawar) which enable different
nature of atmospheric conditions of temperature and humidity. In this regard, thermodynamic properties
of M-Cycle product air are estimated from simplified correlation (Eqs. 1-6) for four big cities of Pakistan
for summer and winter seasons. Fig. 5(a)-(f) shows the resulted profile for: (a) outlet air temperature
(dry-bulb) profile; (b) relative humidity profile; (c) dew point temperature profile; (d) wet-bulb
temperature profile; (e) enthalpy profile; and (f) cooling capacity of M-Cycle unit, respectively. It can be
seen that the Karachi possesses the worst scenario in all the profiles due to excessive ambient air
humidity (as depicted in Fig. 3) which is the outcome of sea water evaporation. It is because the M-Cycle
performance is based on net amount of water vapor evaporation, and the humid air is unable to support
the phenomena which results in low cooling effect. Similarly, in moon-soon season all the cities don’t
have much different results due to the higher humidity.

From the above mentioned results, it can be concluded that the SCAC system should only be adopted
where the ambient air humidity is relatively lower with higher solar radiations. Moreover, system can be
utilized in the hours of a particular day when there are drier conditions as well as sunny hours (or in
optimised situations). Same as, SCAC systems’ applicability will be limited for the agricultural and
livestock applications which has to carry out in humid climates. Therefore, the SCAC conception may
not be feasible as a standalone AC device in various climates,
Table 1. Optimized values/parameters of simplified correlation presented via Eqs. 1-6.
Parameters Values
45 [-] 6.70
49 [-] -5.48
75 [-] 0.2630
79 [-] 0.7317
85 [-] 0.5298
89 [-] -0.5946

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(a)
50
Anisimov et al. @11.2 g/kgDA
Outlet air temperature, To [˚C]

45 Anisimov et al. @25.0 g/kgDA

Anisimov et al. @16.5 g/kgDA
40
Correlation @11.2 g/kgDA
35 Correlation @25.0 g/kgDA
Correlation @16.5 g/kgDA
30

25

20

15
20 25 30 35 40 45
Inlet air temperature , Ti [˚C]
(b)
25
Correlation @11.2 g/kgDA
Anisimov et al. @25.0 g/kgDA
20 Anisimov et al. @16.5 g/kgDA
Anisimov et al. @11.2 g/kgDA
Q [kJ/kg/s]

15 Correlation @25 g/kgDA

Correlation @16.5 g/kgDA

10

0
20 25 30 35 40 45
Inlet air temperature , Ti [˚C]
Fig. 4. Validation of developed simplified correlation (Eqs. 1-6) with the experimental data of Anisimov et al. [3] and
Pandelidis et al. [4] for: (a) outlet air temperature; and (b) cooling capacity. The correlation is valid for the range of :; ≈
=>?
20°C to 45°C and <; ≈ 10 g/kgDA to 25 g/kgDA.

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(a) (b)
35 120
Peshawar Multan Karachi Lahore Peshawar Multan Karachi Lahore
Outlet air temprature, To [˚C]

110

Relative Humidity, RH [%]

30
summer season
summer season 100
25
90
winter season
winter season
20 80

70
15
60

10 50
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct NovDec Jan Feb Mar Apr
Months Months
(c) (d)

40 35
Peshawar Multan Karachi Lahore Peshawar Multan Karachi Lahore
Dew point temprature, Tdp [˚C]

Wet bulb temprature, Twb [˚C]

30
30 summer season
summer season
25

20 20 winter season
winter season
15
10
10

0 5
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct NovDec Jan Feb Mar Apr
Months Months
(e) (f)
Peshawar Multan Karachi Lahore Peshawar Multan Lahore Karachi
100
12
summer season
Enthalpy [kJ/kg]

80 Cooling capacity
Q [kJ/kg/s]

8 Summer season
60
winter season
4
40

20 0
May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct
Months Months

Fig. 5. Thermodynamic properties of M-Cycle product air estimated from simplified correlation (Eqs. 1-6) for four big cities
of Pakistan for summer and winter seasons: (a) outlet air temperature (dry-bulb) profile; (b) relative humidity profile; (c)
dew point temperature profile; (d) wet-bulb temperature profile; (e) enthalpy profile; and (f) cooling capacity of M-Cycle
unit.

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however, it will be a handy and low-cost solution for the reduction of AC loads in various applications.
Moreover, a hybrid systems can also be developed for sustainable operation. Also, innovative ceiling
structures can be developed using this conception for many applications shown in Fig. 2.

5. Conclusions

The present study addressed renewable energy (i.e. solar-chimney) operated passive air-conditioning
(SCAC) system for the storage of various agricultural products and for animals’ thermal comfort. In this
regard, ideal air-conditioning zones are established on psychrometric charts for the storage of various
agricultural products and for animals’ thermal comfort. The SCAC system can produce cooling effect by
means of water vapor evaporative similar to indirect evaporative cooling using the concept of chilled
ceiling. However, M-Cycle evaporative cooling technique is integrated intelligently in SCAC system by
which air can be cooled to the dew point of the ambient air. In this regard, experimental data of M-Cycle
unit available in the literature has been investigated, and a simplified correlation has been established
which can predict the M-Cycle performance accurately. The simplified correlation has been verified
against the published data of M-Cycle experiments and a reasonable agreement has been found (with R2
values more than 0.95 for all cases).

The correlation is further utilized for the analysis of SCAC system for four big cities of Pakistan namely:
(1) Karachi, (2) Lahore, (3) Multan, and (4) Peshawar. Results showed that the system’s applicability is
limited in humid areas and worst situation (among the studied) are resulted for the climate of Karachi.
Similarly, it has been found that the system may not be valid for the highly humid period and/or climates
e.g. moon soon season of Pakistan and climate of Malaysia etc. Therefore, it is recommended that the
system may not be a sustainable as standalone system for optimum AC, however, it can be a handy
solution in order to reduce the AC load as well as in order to develop the chilled ceiling for various
application in agriculture and livestock.

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge the financial support from Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan for this
study through the research project entitled “Evaluation of solar chimney driven passive air-conditioning
system for agricultural and livestock applications in Pakistan”.

References
[1] M. H. Mahmood, M. Sultan, T. Miyazaki, S. Koyama, and V. S. Maisotsenko, “Overview of the Maisotsenko cycle – A way
towards dew point evaporative cooling,” Renew. Sustain. Energy Rev., vol. 66, pp. 537–555, Dec. 2016.
[2] T. Miyazaki, A. Akisawa, and I. Nikai, “The cooling performance of a building integrated evaporative cooling system driven
by solar energy,” Energy Build., vol. 43, no. 9, pp. 2211–2218, Sep. 2011.
[3] S. Anisimov, D. Pandelidis, A. Jedlikowski, and V. Polushkin, “Performance investigation of a M (Maisotsenko)-cycle cross-
flow heat exchanger used for indirect evaporative cooling,” Energy, vol. 76, pp. 593–606, Nov. 2014.
[4] D. Pandelidis, S. Anisimov, and W. M. Worek, “Performance study of the Maisotsenko Cycle heat exchangers in different
air-conditioning applications,” Int. J. Heat Mass Transf., vol. 81, pp. 207–221, Feb. 2015.
[5] M. H. Mahmood, M. Sultan, T. Miyazaki, and S. Koyama, “Desiccant Air-Conditioning System for Storage of Fruits and
Vegetables: Pakistan Preview,” Evergr. Jt. J. Nov. Carbon Resour. Sci. Green Asia Strategy, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 12–17, Mar.
2016.
[6] ASHRAE, Handbook—HVAC Applications. 2007.
[7] L. Kitinoja and A. A. Kader, “Small-scale postharvest handling practices: A manual for horticultural crops (4th Edition),”
University of California, Davis, Manual for Horticultural Crops Postharvest horticulture series: 8E, Jul. 2002.

Nomenclature

A, B, C constants of correlation [-]

AC air conditioning
GWP global warming potential
% humidity [g/kgDA]

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 4th International Conference on
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h enthalpy [kJ/kg]
IEC indirect evaporative cooling
M-Cycle Maisotsenko Cycle
ODP ozone depletion potential
3 specific cooling capacity [kJ/kg/s]
RH relative humidity [%]
SCAC solar chimney based air conditioning
# outlet air temperature [ºC]
@ M-Cycle effectiveness [-]

Sub/super-scripts
amb ambient
dp dew point
ex exhaust
i inlet
o outlet
spc specific
wb wet bulb

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Optimization of Dye Sensitized Solar Module for High Hydrogen Production
from Photoelectrochemical Water Splitting
Norani Muti Mohamed*, 1, Mehboob khatani2 , Robabeh Bashiri1, Nor Hisham Hamid2, Azeela Zain1, Adeel Eskandar2
1
Centre of Innovative Nanostructures & Nanodevices (COINN) ,2Electrical& Electronic Engineering Deptt:
Universiti Teknologi PETRONAS, 32610 Bandar Seri Iskandar, Perak, Malaysia
noranimuti__mohamed@petronas.com.my

Abstract
The working capability of the dye sensitized solar module (DSM) in low light conditions and transparency make them
suitable to assist water split in a photoelectrochemical cell (PEC) for clean and low cast hydrogen production. In this
study, a transparent and double sided ( bifacial ) W-typed dye sensitized solar module (DSM) of active area ~100cm-2
was design to assist water split in an optimized photoelectrochemical cell (PEC) for efficient and commercialization of
hydrogen production. The optimal width and thickness of the TiO2 film obtained for high hydrogen production were
12mm and 18µm respectively. To optimize the efficient hydrogen production we have connected five optimized cells of
width 12mm of area 20cm2 in series on a single substrate to obtain the optimized voltage. We have measured ~ 9mLh-1
and ~ 2.31mLh-1 of hydrogen gas at light intensities of 100 and 33mWcm-2 respectively, from an optimized W-typed
DSM with an optimal voltage of 3.34V connected in series with an optimize PEC cell in a water electrolysis system. The
optimized tandem cell with high stability produced maximum hydrogen of 443.4 mL (9.24 mL/cm2.h) for 48 h.

Keywords: Dye solar module, Photoelectrochemical cell, hydrogen production, water electrolysis system

1. Introduction
To reduce our dependence on fossil fuels and control the exhaust of CO2, we need to make a large-scale
transition toward new, sustainable source of energy [1]. Solar energy is one of sustainable sources of energy that has the
potential to meet all our energy needs. As the contribution of solar energy to the total energy mix increase, the energy
storage solutions need to be implemented [2]. One of the best possibilities to store solar energy is in the form of chemical
fuel that has advantage of high energy storage densities and ease of transportation. The hydrogen, methane, methanol,
gasoline, diesel, etc., are the examples of the chemical fuel. The hydrogen is one of the best chemical fuels that require
no source of carbon to store energy among all. Also it can be readily converted into electricity–and back again–with fuel
cells and electrolyzers. This offers the prospect of a future energy infrastructure based on sunlight, hydrogen, and
electricity [3-4].

The conversion of solar energy into hydrogen appears to be a much more attractive route. Water is a convenient
and abundant source of hydrogen, and there is more than enough water available. A back-of-the-envelope calculation
shows that ~3.5 x 1013 L of water is needed to store the energy the world uses in 1 year (4.7 x 1020 J) in the form of
hydrogen. Many techniques have been used to produce hydrogen from the conversion of water and sunlight.
Photoelectrochemical water splitting with semiconductor photoelectrode is one of the most promising techniques due to
production of hydrogen and oxygen on separate electrode at room temperature [3-6]. The key component for PEC systems
is the semiconductor photoelectrode. The light absorption, charge separation, charge transport, and H2 or O2 evolution at
its surface are the task performed by photoelectrode [7-8]. No semiconducting material has yet been found that can
simultaneously and efficiently oxidize and reduce water without external assistance.

A photoelectrochemical cell combines visible light harvesting by a nanocrystalline semiconductor thin film
with the electrolysis of water. Photons with energies higher than the band gap of the semiconductor generates electron–
hole pairs in the conduction and valence bands. At the semiconductor surface, holes oxidize water to oxygen, whereas
the photo-excited conduction band electrons are transferred to the counter-electrode of the PEC cell, and reduce water to
form hydrogen gas [9-13]. The PEC cell give very low efficiency because the device mostly used the large bandgap
semiconductors. Moreover, the band edge potentials of many semiconductors are unsuitable for oxygen and hydrogen
evolution. For efficient water cleavage PEC cell should have negative conduction band to provide enough potential
(~ 1.9 – 2V) [14].

H2O + Solar energy H2 + ½ O2

The generated holes oxidized water to oxygen at the semiconductor’s surface,

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2h+ + 2OH- H2O + ½ O2

While the generated electrons, transferred to the counter-electrode of the PEC cell, reduce water to form hydrogen,

2H2O + 2e- 2OH- + H2

The most appropriate configuration to date for water splitting using two devices with semiconductor of different
band gaps coupled in a cell arrangement is known as tandem cell. The tandem cell configuration of two photovoltaic
cells is a practical approach to unassisted water photosplitting. Dye sensitized solar cell, due to its low cast fabrication
and longtime operation has attracted significant attention for use in solar water splitting tandem cell with a stable
photoanode. In a tandem arrangement, a PEC cell generates electron-hole pairs. An oxygen gas has been produce at the
surface of the semiconductor when holes react with water. A DSM increased the electrochemical potential of collected
electrons injected in the conduction band of semiconductor and feeds them back through the counter electrode (CE) of
PEC cell where hydrogen has been produced by reducing the water [14]. In current study for the production of hydrogen,
a parallel DSM connected in series with PEC cell produced low amount of hydrogen because the system did not exceed
the maximum voltage of 0.8V. Therefore, to produce an efficient hydrogen a serial DSM is required that give ~2.0 V or
more. Thus, the study has been focused on using next-generation photovoltaic that can also be fabricated with
inexpensive, solution processing method for an efficient hydrogen production technology in comparison with Si solar
cell which are too expensive and required direct sunlight. Mishra et al. [15] reported a hydrogen production rate of 2.5
mL/cm2.h over the TiO2 thin film which was immersed in the 1 M NaOH electrolyte and connected to 5 V silicon-based
solar panel. Deng et al. [16] produced hydrogen connected to a triple-junction amorphous silicon that exhibit 2.3 V.
Grätzel used a dye-sensitized solar cell to provide a bias voltage to WO3 or Fe2O3 photoanode [ 17-18]. M.kang et al.
reported [19] about dye sensitized solar module with open circuit voltage of 3.51V produce hydrogen of 2.1 ml h-1.
N.M.Mohamed et al. [20] reported the hydrogen production of 2.12 mLh-1 achieved under the optimum conditions using
the parallel DSM in series with PEC in the aqueous KOH and glycerol solution under visible light irradiation. Mendes et
al. [21] connected two dye sensitized solar cell in series in a tandem arrangement for hydrogen production by water
splitting method. Though, the voltage of the solar cell increased by connecting the cell in series but the hydrogen
production efficiencies still low. Therefore, a more efficient and optimized design is needed for commercialization of
PEC cell connected in series with DSM.
In the present work, we have fabricated a transparent and double side W-typed DSM of active area 100 cm2
with optimized width of 12mm at constant film thickness of 18 µm in series with optimized PEC cell for the hydrogen
production from water electrolysis. The photoelectrode and counter electrode are printed on the same substrate in turn,
delivering identical output when illuminated from either sides in a fabricated W-type DSM. The optimal width and
voltage for the high hydrogen production were determined. The hydrogen production was measured under the different
light intensities. The area of the cells were enlarged by varying the width of TiO2 film fabricated separately. The
performance parameters are extracted from standard current-voltage characteristic and electrochemical impedance
spectroscopy.

2. Experimental
2.1. Dye Solar Module and PEC fabrication.
The W-typed DSM fabrication process initiated on Fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO) glass by marking,
engraving, drilling to make hole for the injection of electrolyte on one side of the substrate, washing, and sintering at 510
o
C. The working photoelectrode and counter electrode are printed on the same FTO substrate. First, on the FTO substrate
Pt paste (Dyesol) was printed and dried. Second, the Dyesol 18NRT TiO2 paste printed three times to achieve the
optimized thickness on the odd number of cell dried and sintered to get the high efficiency. The same method is applied
to the second substrate to make the module. First the Pt was printed on the odd number of cell and dried. The TiO2 paste
was screen printed three times dried and sintered at 510 oC. The silver paste printed to collect the electron from the
electrodes. The sintered electrodes were immersed in N719 dye at room temperature overnight. A 50 µm Surlyn
thermoplastic sealant was placed between substrates, heated and pressed at 175 oC for 10s. The electrolyte iodide/triiodide
couple solution was injected through a hole drilled on one side of substrate. The hole was then covered using a transparent
epoxy (Dyesol). The fabricated five columned W-type DSM had an open circuit voltage of 3.34 V.
The fabrication of optimized photoanode of area 2cm2 used in PEC cell of the tandem system reported in [20].
A standard three electrode configuration consider for the purpose of characterization, Ag/AgCl/sat electrode (Autolab,
Metrohm) as a reference electrode; a pure platinum wire as a counter electrode where the hydrogen production collected
using an inverted burette [22], and the optimized photoanode as working electrode.
A tandem system was designed based on PEC cell and optimized W-typed DSM to produce hydrogen from
water splitting presented in Fig.1. A PEC cell generates electron-hole pairs. First, the oxygen has been produced when
generated holes are migrated to the surface of semiconductor and react with water. Second, generated electron injected

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into the conduction band of semiconductor collected by DSM that increase the electrochemical potential of the photo
excited electron of the PEC cell and feed them back through the PEC cell’s counter electrode to split the water for
hydrogen production. Optical hydrogen efficiency calculated based on the assumption that all the current generated from
the optimized W-typed DSM transfer completely for hydrogen production using water splitting system.

Figure.1 schematic diagram of experimental setup

2.2. Characterization

To study the photoelectrochemical behavior, a computer controlled potentiostat (Autolab PGSTAT302N,

Metrohm) was used with a frequency response analyzer (FRA) module supported by NOVA software. The frequency
range of 0.1 Hz-100 KHz with the magnitude of the modulation signal was 10 mV considered for electrochemical
impedance spectroscopy (EIS) measurements. The photocurrent- voltage curve was tested using universal photovoltaic
test system at 100 mW/cm2 intensity of illuminate Xenon lamp at AM 1.5 radiation angle connected to a voltmeter and
ampere meter (Keithley, model 2420) with variable load.

2.3. Result and Discussion

To optimize the W-typed DSM for efficient hydrogen production, the dye sensitized solar cells of different
area were fabricated by varying the width of the TiO2 film and their impedance were measured. Fig.2a shows the
impedance according to the change in the width of the TiO2 film (6mm, 8mm and 12mm). The lengths of the TiO2 films
were at constant 168 mm. An optimized 18 µm thickness of TiO2 film were considered reported in [23-25]. The
impedance spectrum of the dye sensitized solar cells of different area showed two semicircles over the frequency range
0.1-100 kHz. The first semicircle, Rpt, is related to charge transfer at the counter electrode, and was measured in the kHz
range. The second semicircle, Rbr, is related to electron recombination at the TiO2/dye/electrolyte interface in the range,
1-100 Hz [26-29]. Here, the ohmic serial resistance (Rs) is associated with the series resistance of the electrolytes and
electric contacts in the DSC cell. Nyquist plot shows typical EIS spectra of DSCs as a function of device area, in which
both real (Z’) and imaginary (Z”) parts of the total impedance marked a surprising decrease in magnitude with increase
in area. In addition, the frequencies corresponding to the recombination shifted to higher values with increase in device
area showing its crucial dependence on charge transport. The 450 behavior in the EIS curve, from where the Rt is
calculated using the transmission line model (juan bisquert, et al., 2000) [30] shifted to slightly lower Z’ showing that
the Rt decreased with increase in device area. Fig.2b shows the AC resistance calculated directly from the Nyquist plots.
The high frequency region of the AC resistance that corresponds to the first semicircle in the Nyquist plots, showed a
weak dependence on frequency thereby confirming the electron transport process. The transport resistance decreased as
area of the electrode increased. The lower Rt is preferred for fabricating high efficiency DSCs, shifting of frequencies
corresponding to Rbr have adverse effects as discussed below. The radius of the second semicircle corresponding to the
charge transfer process continuously decreased with increasing electrode area thereby shifting the characteristic
frequency corresponding to the Rbr to higher values. It is important to note that the area of the cells varied but sheet
resistance of DSC cell is approximately constant due to the close relationship of surface resistance, Rs with FTO glass.
In general, the surface resistance of FTO glass was approximately 15Ω per unit area. The constant value of the RS shows
lower dependency on increase of FTO area with increase in the width of TiO2 films.

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6mmx168mm 8 6mmx168mm
1.5 Recombination
8mmx168mm 8mmx168mm
12mmx168mm 6 region 12mmx168mm
1

|z| ohm
Z" (ohm) img

4
transport region
0.5
2
(b)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0.1 10 1000 100000
Z' (ohm) real frequency (Hz)

Figure.2 (a) Nyquist plot, and (b) AC impedance of the devices as a function of frequency for representative areas, 10,13.4 and
20 cm2 area respectively

Fig.3 shows the Bode plots calculated from the Nyquist curves, which mark the variation in phase angle of the complex
impedance as a function of frequency. The phase angle peak corresponding to the electron diffusion time constant in the TiO2 film
usually appears in the 100 – 1 Hz frequency range, from which the electron lifetime can be calculated using the equation τn = 1/
2Пfc. The peak frequency (fC) for 10cm2 DSC is 6.33Hz and the fc shifted to ~ 10.0 Hz for area > 10 cm2. The characteristic
charge transfer frequency, ωrbr for 10 cm2 DSC is 39.75 Hz and for area > 10cm2 is ~ 62.8 Hz. The electron lifetime for the area
10 cm2 was 25.15 ms and the life time for area > 10 cm2 were ~ 15.92 ms. i.e., electrons are short lived as a result of enhanced
diffusion path as the electrode area increases. The ~ similar efficiency of area 10 cm2 and > confirm that all electrons are collected
though the area increases due to proper interfacing of the working electrode this is what we expected.

Figure.3 Bode plots of the fabricated DSCs as a function of device area

3. Optimized W-typed DSM and hydrogen production

Fig.4 shows the optimized W-typed DSM was connected to the multiple layers of the thin film printed on FTO
substrate as WE and the Platinum (Pt) rod as a CE in the PEC cell. All electrodes were immersed in the fabricated glass
reactor vessel with an aqueous solution of 1 M KOH and 10 vol% glycerol (sacrificial agent). Glycerol as an industrial
by-product was mixed with the KOH solution to capture irreversibly the photogenerated holes and reduce the
recombination rate. The production of hydrogen was calculated when a fabricated PEC cell was connected to the DSM
in series and irradiated with a 500 W halogen lamp with an adjusted intensity of 100 mWcm-2 and 33 mWcm-2at room
temperature respectively. We have obtained the 9.24 ml h-1 hydrogen evolution at the optimum voltage of 3.4 V under
light intensity of 100 mWcm-2 and ~ 3.21 ml h-1 at light intensity of 33 mW cm-2.To check the stability of the system,
tandem cell illuminated under light intensity of 100 mw cm-2 and produced maximum hydrogen production of 443.4 ml
(9.25 mL/ cm2 h) for 48h.

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Figure.4 experimental setup using PEC + DSM for high hydrogen production

Fig.5a shows the I-V curves, photoelectric efficiency and the Nyquist plot of the optimized W-typed DSM of
area 100 cm2 illuminated under different light intensities used for hydrogen production. The electrochemical study of the
DSM verifies the results obtained from the I-V characterization. The low internal resistance of the 100cm2 DSM shows
the proper interface between TiO2/dye and electrolyte, so that the current remain same in five cells connected in series to
make an efficient W-typed DSM.

W-typed DSM Voc Isc FF η H 2

evolution
(ml h-1)
DSM@1Sun 3.354 89.838 0.506 1.525 9.25
DSM@0.33 3.254 31.25 0.612 1.885 2.31
Sun

100 wtype DSM @ 1Sun

W-typed DSM @ 0.33Sun
80 15 Wtype…
60
Isc (mA)

Z" (ohm)

10
40
5
20

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 20 Z' (ohm) 40 60
Voc (V)

Figure.5. I-V curve, photoelectric efficiency and Nyquist Plot of optimized W-typed DSM.

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Fig.6 shows the hydrogen evolution for first eight hour when an optimized five columned W-typed DSM
connected to optimized PEC cell for water splitting under 100 mWcm-2 and 33 mW cm-2 light intensities. The hydrogen
evolution is four time higher than the M.kang et al. reported [19] about dye sensitized solar module with open circuit
voltage of 3.51V produce hydrogen of 2.1 ml h-1 at 100 mWcm-2 and ~ same amount of hydrogen has been produced at
the light intensity of 33 mWcm-2. In current study we have observed the high hydrogen production replacing the parallel
DSM module with optimize W-typed DSM connected to optimized Cu-Ni/TiO2 photoanode [20].

80 DSM@1Sun
70 DSM@0.33 SUN
hydrogen evolution (ml)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
reaction time (h)

Figure 6. Hydrogen evolution when optimized five columned W-type DSM connected to PEC cell measure
under light intensity of 100 and 33 mWcm-2 respectively.

4. Conclusion

An efficient DSM was prepared with optimized TiO2 film width and with optimum voltage to assist the optimized PEC
cell for the enhancement of hydrogen production in a water electrolysis system. To obtained an optimized DSM of area
100 cm2 we have fabricate separately the cell of different area (10cm2, 13.4 cm2, and 20 cm2) by varying the width of
the TiO2 film (6mm, 8mm, and 12mm) and keeping the thickness of TiO2 film 18µm constant. The length of the cell was
168 cm for all the cells. An optimized width of 12 mm was considered for the fabrication of the W-typed DSM of area
100 cm2. We have measured the hydrogen production by connecting the optimized PEC cell in series with DSM. The
optimized tandem arrangement give high hydrogen production i.e., 9.25 ml h-1 at light intensity of 100 mwcm-2 and 2.31
ml h-1 at light intensity of 33 mwcm-2 with an optimum voltage of 3.4V. This study introduces a practical approach to
improve the solar hydrogen production and photo conversion efficiency of the system for large scale application. The
optimized tandem cell with high stability produced maximum hydrogen of 443.4 mL (9.24 mL/cm2.h) for 48 h.

5. References

1. Oppenheim, J., Beinhocker, E.D.: Climate change and the economy - myths versus realities. Davos, Switzerland.
McKinsey & Company, Inc. (2009)
2. Lewis, N.S., Nocera, D.G.: Powering the planet: chemical challenges in solar energy utilization. Proc. Nat. Acad.
Sci. U S A 103, 15729–15735 (2006)
3. Hoffert, M.I.: Farewell to fossil fuels? Science 329, 1292–1294 (2010)
4. Lewis, N.S., Crabtree, and G.: Basic Research Needs for Solar Energy Utilization: report of the Basic Energy
Sciences Workshop on Solar Energy Utilization, April 18-21, 2005. US Department of Energy, Office of Basic
Energy Science, Washington, DC (2005)
5. Rajeshwar, K., McConnell, R., Licht, S.: Solar Hydrogen Generation – Toward a Renewable Energy Future.
Springer, New York (2008)
6. Grimes, C.A., Varghese, O.K., Ranjan, S.: Light, Water, Hydrogen – The Solar Generation of Hydrogen by Water
Photoelectrolysis. Springer, New York (2008)

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7. Liao YT, Huang CW, Liao CH, Wu Jeffery CS, Wu Kevin CW. Synthesis of mesoporous titania thin films (MTTFs)
with two different structures as photocatalyst for generating hydrogen from water splitting. Appl Energy 2012;
100:75–80.
8. He YR, Yan FF, Yu HQ, Yuan SJ, Tong ZH, Sheng GP. Hydrogen production in a light-driven photoelectrochemical
cell. Appl Energy 2014; 113:164–8.
9. Grätzel M. Solar energy conversion by dye-sensitized photovoltaic cells. Inorganic Chemistry 2005; 44:6841-51.
10. Krol Rvd, Liang Y, Schoonman J. Solar hydrogen production with nanostructured metal oxides. Journal of Materials
Chemistry 2008; 18:2311-20.
11. Jun Y, Son JH, Sohn D, Kang MG. A module of a TiO2 nanocrystalline dye sensitized solar cell with effective
dimensions. J Photochem Photobiol A: Chem 2008; 200:314–7.
12. Mishra PR, Shukla PK, Srivastava ON. Study of modular PEC solar cells for photoelectrochemical splitting of water
employing nanostructured TiO2 photoelectrode. Int J Hydrogen Energy 32, (2007) 1680–5.
13. Shukla PK, Karn RK, Singh AK, Srivastava ON. Studies on PV assisted PEC solar cells for hydrogen production
through photo electrolysis of water. Int J Hydrogen Energy 27, (2002) 135–41.
14. M. Gratzel, Photoelectrochemical cells, Nature 414 (6861) (2001) 338-344.
15. P.R. Mishra, P.K. Shukla, O.N. Srivastava, Study of modular PEC solar cells for photoelectrochemical splitting of
water employing nanostructured photoelectrode, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 32 (12) (2007) 1680-1685.
16. Miller EL, Rocheleau RE, Deng XM. Design considerations for a hybrid amorphous silicon/photoelectrochemical
multijunction cell for hydrogen production. Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 28, (2003) 615–23.
17. Sivula, K., Le Formal, F., Grätzel, M.: WO3–Fe2O3 photoanodes for water splitting: a host scaffold, guest absorber
approach. Chem. Mater. 21, (2009) 2862–2867.
18. Kay, A., Cesar, I., Grätzel, M.: New benchmark for water photo oxidation by nanostructured alpha-Fe2O3 films. J. Am.
Chem. Soc. 128, (2006) 15714–15721.
19. Byeong Sub Kwak, Jinho Chae, Misook Kang: Design of a photochemical water electrolysis system based on a W-typed
Dye-sensitized serial solar module for high hydrogen production. Int. J. of Applied Energy 125 (2014) 189-196.
20. Bashiri R, N.M.Mohamed, C.F.Kait, S.Suriati, S.Kakooei, Mehboob. K, Zahra. G. Optimization hydrogen production
over visible light-driven titania supported bimetallic photocatalyst from water photosplitting in tandem
Photoelectrochemical cell. Renewable Energy 99 (2016) 960-970.
21. Andrade L, Cruz R, Ribeiro HA, Mendes A. Impedance characterization of dye sensitized solar cells in a tandem
arrangement for hydrogen production by water splitting. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2010; 35:8876–83.
22. N.M. Mohamed, R. Bashiri, C.F.Kait, S. Sufian, S. Kakooei, Photoelectrochemical behavior of bimetallic Cu-Ni and
monometallic Cu, Ni doped TiO2 for hydrogen production, Int. J. Hydrogen Energy 40 (40) (2015) 14031-14038.
23. Mehboob.K, N.M.Mohamed, N.H.Hamid, Effect of photoanode thickness on electrochemical performance of dye
sensitized solar cell, AIP conference proceedings 1669, 020064 (2015).
24. N.M.Mohamed, Mehboob.K, N.H.Hamid, J. of Materials Science in Semiconductor Processing, MSSP (2015); 38:
381-386.
25. Mehboob.K, N.M.Mohamed, N.H.Hamid, Effect of cell area on the performance of dye sensitized solar cell, AIP
conference proceedings 1621, 631(2014).
26. Han LY, Koide N, Chiba Y, Mitate T. Modeling of an equivalent circuit for dye-sensitized solar cells. Applied Physics
Letters, 2004; 84:2433-5.
27. Wang M, Chen P, Humphry-Baker R, Zakeeruddin SM,Gratzel M. The influence of charge transport and recombination
on the performance of dye-sensitized solar cells. Chemphyschem 2009; 10:290-9.
28. Fabregat-Santiago F, Bisquert J, Garcia-Belmonte G, Boschloo G, Hagfeldt A. Influence of electrolyte in transport
and recombination in dye-sensitized solar cells studied by impedance spectroscopy. Solar Energy Materials and Solar
Cells 2005; 87:117-31.
29. Fabregat-Santiago F, Garcia-Belmonte G, Bisquert J, Zaban A,Salvador P. Decoupling of transport, charge storage, and
interfacial charge transfer in the nanocrystalline TiO2/electrolyte system by impedance methods,J. of Physical
Chemistry B 2002; 106:334-9.
30. Bisquert J. Theory of the impedance of electron diffusion and recombination in a thin layer. The Journal of Physical
Chemistry B, 2002; 106:325-33.

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99. Modeling and Simulation of Diffuser Augmented Wind

Turbine
Bilal Ahmed, Ateeque Ahmed, Ahmad Hussain*
a
Department of Mechanical Engineering NED UET, Karachi 75270, Pakistan
E-mail address: 12me76@student.muet.edu.pk

Abstract

In this work the diffuser augmented wind turbines have been studied to increase the mass flow rate
through the rotor which results in improved energy extraction from the wind. The pressure drop is caused
by a flange at the exit of diffuser. For analyzing the flow behaviour of bare and flange type diffuser
ANSYS Fluent 12.0 is used. The study showed that power can be augmented using flange type diffuser
on simple horizontal axis wind turbine. Power coefficient increases due to addition of flange type
diffuser and wind velocity also increases at rotor of the turbine. Further this study also confirms the
experimental work of Yuji Ohya a Professor at Kyushu University Japan.

© 2016 “Bilal Ahmed, Ateeque Ahmed, Ahmad Hussain. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and
Environmental Engineering Research Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: diffuser augmented wind turbine, flow behaviour, flange type diffuser, CFD, Power
coefficient

1. Introduction

With the growing requirement of sustainable energy sources and growing crisis of climate change and
clean environments in the whole world therefore the development of clean and sustainable energy
gradually become more and more important research subjects. Wind energy is one of important
sustainable energy source. Researchers around the world have been making many efforts to develop
advanced wind power systems. Wind turbine is one way to extract the power from the wind. The power
output is directly proportional to cube of velocity so that small changes in velocity can significantly
increase.

Therefore the development of an effective wind acceleration system by placing the turbine rotor inside a
shroud has attracted much attention of researchers. This kind of wind turbine is often referred to as
diffuser augmented wind turbine (DAWT) [1]. The research on Diffuser augmented wind turbines has
been shown by many studies can significantly increase the power output. The present study on the
development of a wind power system with high output aims at determining how to collect the wind
energy efficiently and what kind of wind turbine can generate energy efficiently from wind. For this
purpose we have modelled a diffuser type shroud in Gambit software that is capable of collecting and
accelerating the approaching wind. Furthermore we placed a wind turbine inside the diffuser shroud
equipped with a flange and evaluated the power output generated. As a result the shrouded wind turbine
equipped with a flanged diffuser demonstrated power augmentation for a given turbine diameter and
wind speed by a factor of about 4-5 compared to a standard micro wind turbine [2]. Simple diffuser
consists of three sections (Fig. 1a): inlet section, turbine section or throat and diffusing outlet section.
Despite the importance of diffuser geometrical parameters there is limited experimental study comparing
the performance of bare turbine with shrouded turbine under controlled flow condition and rotor speed
[3]. Diffuser causes the flow to accelerate because the flange on diffuser causes the drop in the pressure
at the exit of Diffuser. Vacuum causes flow to accelerate and increase in mass flow and velocity which
eventually lead to increase in power co- efficient. The ANSYS Fluent 12.0 and Gambit Softwares have
been used for simulation and modelling purpose respectively. The diffuser design parameter play very
important role in increasing the mass flow and wind velocity. There are four parameters which can effect
the power output which is length, angle of diffuser, and flange height. ANSYS Fluent have been for
simulation purpose in this study and k-ѡ and k-ɛ model have been used for obtaining the results the k-ɛ
and k-ѡ model are best methods to apply from design analysis.

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Subject to axial and non-axial inflow conditions

(a) (b)

Fig. 1. Simple shroud designs for wind turbine: (a) nozzle-diffuser and (b) diffuser-
Brim shroud [3].
2. Modeling and Simulation

To create the geometry of the DAWT we have used the GAMBIT 2.4.6 software. Our model design
starts with the designing of hub, designing of blades, designing of diffuser and meshing of geometry.

2.1 Designing of Hub

The diameter of hub we have taken is 62mm and length is 95mm.

Fig. 2. Shaded view of Design of hub

2.2 Designing of blades

The span of blades is 64mm, chord is 25mm, the thickness of blades is 2.5mm and number of blades are
3.

Fig. 3. Shaded view of design of blades

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2.3 Designing of Diffuser

The rotor diameter (D) is 190mm, Outlet diameter is 240.73mm, Length (L) is 120mm and the Expansion
angle (α) is 5°.

Fig. 4. Shaded view of diffuser around domain

Fig. 5. Shows creation of volume

2.4 Meshing of Geometry

The last step in designing has been performed and now we will try to mesh our geometry. For that we
will go into meshing option and fac mesh option. We will quad+tri type mesh. After completing the
meshing we will apply boundary conditions to our geometry.

Fig. 6. Shows complete mesh

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For simulation purpose we shall use the computational Fluid dynamics program “FLUENT” which is
part of ANSYS 12.0 software program. We have used the 3D Simulations.

3. Results and Discussion

From our simulations we now summarize our findings. We determined that power output can be
increased to bare wind turbine by addition of diffuser. In this attempt the k-omega model was used and
simplec 2nd oder equations were applied. In solution control we reduced parameter of pressure from 0.3
to 0.2. The 500 iterations were given and solution was converged at 256 iterations.

Fig. 7. Shows Convergence of Solution using k-ω model

We have also defined the MRF and value was given 20mrf. The initial velocity was given as 6 m/s to
model. The velocity increased from 6 m/s to 13.54 m/s by means of 5 degree diffuser shroud with turbine
inside.

Fig. 8. Shows velocity vector on turbine

The Fig. 8 shows clearly that velocity has increased from 6 m/s to maximum 13.54 m/s around wind
turbine. With increase in mass flow rate and increase in velocity the power output will also increase. In
next attempt we changed some parameters such as we used k-epsilon model instead of k-omega model
and 3rd order equations were applied. The initial value of velocity was given as 6 m/s. The value of MRF
was 20 mrf and diffuser angle was 5°. The augmentation in wind was from 6 to maximum 9.96 m/s and
solution was converged at 801 iterations. In this case we created the plane near diffuser inlet and we
observed the augmentation in the wind velocity.

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Fig. 9. Show the convergence using k-ε model

Fig. 10. Shows the velocity contour on plane created near diffuser inlet

Using function calculator we found that default area of interior was 0.00566 m2 and volume was about
near to 0.0039 m3. The mesh report showed that number of nodes on MRF and static were 5780 and
162548 respectively. The number of elements on MRF and static were found tobe 28098 and 899927
respectively. The total number of node were 168328 and total number of elements were 928025. The
force on turbine was 0.188N and area of turbine was 0.0226 m2. Mass flow rate at Vin position was
23kg/s and volume at Vin position was 0.0059 m3. The maximum value of velocity on turbine was 13.54
m/s and maximum value of velocity near diffuser inlet was 11.54 m/s.

For comparison between two methods k-ω and k-ε we run the solution again and we find that k-ε with 2nd
order equations and with Vin 6m/s was converged at just 150 iterations. The maximum value of velocity
on turbine was found to be 9.95 which shows there was augmentation of almost 4 m/s in wind velocity.
However at the inlet of diffuser the maximum velocity was found to 9.0003 m/s. While k-ω with simplec
2nd order equations and with Vin 6 m/s was converged at 256 iterations. The maximum value of velocity
was 13.56 m/s which shows that there was augmentation of almost 7.56 m/s in wind velocity and inlet
velocity near diffuser was 11.54 m/s. Hence it was concluded that k-ω model was giving us more
promising results than k-ε model.

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Power curves between Diffuser augmented wind turbine and bare wind turbine clearly shows the power
output of diffuser augmented wind turbine is higher than bare wind turbine.
7 Comparision of power between Bare and Shrouded Wind turbine
x 10
4

Diffuser
3.5 No Diffuser

2.5
P ower K W

1.5

0.5

0
5 10 15 20 25 30
Wind Velocity m/s

Fig.11. Shows the power comparison between Bare and Diffuser augmented wind turbine

The values of power obtained using diffuser augmented wind turbine and bare wind turbine are given
below in the following table as a power10# .

Table 1.Comparison between the diffuser and bare wind turbine

No Diffuser 0.45 0.71 1.52 1.7 2.09 2.78 3.61 4.59 5.73
Diffuser 0.89 1.3 2.4 2.89 3.21 4.12 5.18 6.2 7.8

The above given table shows that power obtained through diffuser augmented wind turbine is much
higher than bare wind turbine. Hence, we can say that diffuser augmented wind turbine with flange can
produce more power than the base wind turbine and also diffuser augmented wind turbine is best to
install where wind speed is low. The power curve given above shows that power can be increased with
diffuser augmented wind turbine almost 1.6-1.7 times according to our study, which is close to the values
of Yuji Ohya results of experimental work. Hence this study confirms results of experimental work
performed by Yuji Ohya a Professor in a Kyushu University Japan.

4. Conclusions

We simulated the wind accelerating device (diffuser with no turbine inside) that makes it possible to
concentrate the wind energy. It was confirmed that hollow structure such as flange type diffuser is an
effective for accelerating the wind. Based on iterations performed on ANSYS Fluent 12.0 at various
conditions following conclusions are obtained:

• A properly designed diffuser with optimized dimension can be used to increase mass
flow of wind.
• A diffuser having diameter of 0.4m, diffuser angle 50, and flange height of 0.2m is
most effective design at reduced flow separation and improving wind speed from 6m/s
to 13.5m/s.
• If we reduce the diameter further upto 3m or 2m that causes the turbulence and flow
separation inside the diffuser.
• Flange type diffuser was more effective than without flange.
• K-ω model was giving better results than K-ε, because model constants of k-ω are less
than the k-ε.

5. Future Work

Further research could lead to integrated diffuser and rotor design. A way to do this could be equating the
thrust of diffuser to the rotor of blades. So if first the velocity distribution for an existing design is
calculated and based on that an improved rotor design can be made. These calculations should be iterated
till the convergence is obtained.

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• Re-optimize the diffuser design and location of wind turbine inside the diffuser.
• Re-optimize the diameter, flange angle and flange height of diffuser to make the effective
use of low density wind.
• To validate the present model an experimental setup of model dimension can be built and
analyzed for different flow conditions.

Acknowledgement:

Thanks to almighty Allah for giving us strength and ability to understand, learn and complete this
research. We express our gratitude to Prof. Dr. Ahmad hussain whose profound concern and guidance
made us able to complete this work. I am also thankful to Mr. Atteque Ahmed who helped me.

References:
[1] Wang, W.X. Matsubara, T. Hu, J. Odahara, S. Nagai, T. Karasutani, T. Ohya, Y. (2015), “Experimental investigation
into the influence of the flanged diffuser on the dynamic behavior of CFRP blade of a shrouded wind turbine”,
Renewable energy, 78, pp. 386-397.
[2] Ohyaa, Y. Karasudania, T. Sakuraib, A.Abeb, K.I. Inonuec, M. (2008), “Development of a shrouded wind turbinewith a
flanged diffuser”, Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics, 96, pp. 524-539.
[3] Kosasih, P.B. Bryce, N. Tondelli, A. Beazley, A. (2012), “Experimental Study of the Performance of Bare and Nozzle –
Diffuser Shrouded Micro Wind Turbine under axial and non-axial Inflow Condition”, 18th Australasian Fluid
Mechanics Conference Launceston, Australia 3-7 December 2012.
[4] Kannan, T. S. Mutasher, S.A. Kenny, Y.H. (2013), ‘‘Design and flow velocity simulation of diffuser augmented wind
turbine using CFD’’, Journal of Science and Technology, vol.8, No.4, pp.372-384.
[5] Moomaw, W., F. Yamba, M. Kamimoto, L. Maurice, J. Nyboer, K. Urama, T. Weir., ‘Introduction. In IPCC Special
Report on Renewable Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation’ Cambridge University Press, USA, 2011.
[6] WWF International, Ecofys, & Office for Metropolitan Architecture (2011).The Energy Report: 100% Renewable
Energy by 2050.
[7] REN21’s (2014), The Renewable Energy Policy Network for the 21st Century, 2004.
[8] Technology green energy. [online] [cited: January 16, 2014]
http://technologygreenenergy-e-online.blogspot.com/2014/01/vertical-wind-generator-plans.html.
[9] Why Alternatives are important. [online] [cited: May 12, 2015]
https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/why-alternatives-important-solkar-solar-industry-limited.
[10] Green living tips. [online] [cited: July 2, 2008]
http://www.greenlivingtips.com/articles/how-wind-turbines-work.html.

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178. Computational Analysis and Protein Structure Modeling of Zinc

& Iron dependent Alcohol Dehydrogenases for maximum Bioethanol
yield in Thermophiles
Zunaira Jabeen*, Mariam Zameer , Sajid Rashid Ahmad, Anam Khalid, Abdul Qdir, Nadia Jamil
College of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of the Punjab, Lahore.
University of Punjab,Quaid e Azam Campus, Lahore 54000, Pakistan
E-mail address: mariyambukhari@gmail.com

Abstract

Climate change, dramatic fluctuations in the cost of oil and price increases for basic food items, Pakistan is
undergoing serious energy crisis. Fortunately this degrading situation is countered with the help of biomass energy
(bio ethanol) invention. However the selection of best strains with efficient enzymes for the production of bio ethanol
is in continuous process of improvement. The objective of this work is to compare and analyze the structure of
extremophilic strains with currently used organisms. Major goal behind targeting thermophiles is to isolate the cost
effective and environment friendly strain. Gene and protein sequences of thirteen different strains both zinc and iron
dependent alcohol dehydrogenases were retrieved from National Centre of Biotechnology and Information. Sequence
analysis using gene sequence was conducted separately for both Zn and Fe strains with S. Cervisae and Z. Mobilis
respectively with the help of CLUSTAL W software. Protein Data Bank assisted in retrieving structure based
information & metal binding interactions with their residues for organisms. Upon acquiring complete genetic and
structural information of target strains, mutations were carried out in one Fe and two Zn based organism to check best
conformation of the enzyme for maximum bioethanol yield. The study demonstrated that having the ability to
withstand high temperature ADH of thermophilic bacteria is considered key enzyme for bioethanol production. Metal
binding residue site GHE in Zn strains and co-factor binding site GGGSXXD in Fe strains was conserved. Ligand
interaction with residues in Fe strains was found similar in all target strains. In all three mutations conducted,
disturbance in catalytic pocket and bonds was observed hence subordinating the overall enzyme-substrate complex
and decreased efficiency in binding lignocellulosic biomass as a substrate.

© 2016 “Zunaira Jabeen, Mariam Zameer” Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of Energy and Environmental Engineering Research
Group (EEERG), Mehran University of Engineering and Technology, Jamshoro, Pakistan.

Keywords: “thermophiles ; ADH ; metal binding site ; co-factor binding site ; mutations ; enzyme-substrate complex”

1. INTRODUCTION

The world has an energy disaster due to growing concern related to “fossil fuel sources”, such as environmental
impact, climate change, finite availability and security of supply Atomi et al., (2011). Renewable energy can be an
attractive option at this point as they offer number of advantages over non-renewable fossil fuels. One of the best
examples that we have for it is bio ethanol. It presents an attractive option for fulfilling energy demands (Demirbas,
2016). “The most commonly used ethanologic organisms being intensively studied or already in use for industrial-
scale production are “Zymomonas mobilis”, “Saccharomyces cervisiae”,” Escherichia coli and Klebsiella
oxytoca”. However, lack of appropriate microorganisms that can efficiently alter the raw biomaterials to bio-
ethanol has been one of the main obstacles to widespread use of bio-fuels”. Production of bio-ethanol using
“thermophilic” and “hyperthermophilic” organisms is the focus of many research groups. Several distinct
advantages are associated with using thermophiles over “mesophiles”, including high temperatures and the mostly
anaerobic nature of “thermophilic organisms”, the high temperature of the process leads to lowering the viscosity of
reaction mixtures, causing improved production yields. One of the key enzymes in both ethanol production pathways

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is “alcohol dehydrogenase”.
“ADHs isolated and characterized from thermophilic and hyperthermophilic archaea and bacteria, with the
physiological roles of several proposed to be in the reduction of aldehydes to alcohols, other enzymes involved in the
ethanol production pathways are not well characterized, especially the enzyme(s) that catalyse the production of
acetaldehyde from pyruvate”.

(1) “A two-step pathway that is used by yeast and a few bacteria like Zymomonas mobilis and Sarcina ventriculi. In
this pathway pyruvate is non-oxidatively decarboxylated to acetaldehyde and carbon dioxide, which is catalyzed by
pyruvate decarboxylase (PDC). Acetaldehyde is then converted to ethanol that is catalyzed by ADH”;

(2) “A three-step pathway that is more widespread in bacteria. Pyruvate is oxidatively decarboxylated to acetyl-
coenzyme A (acetyl-CoA) by the metalloenzyme pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductase (POR) and/or pyruvate
formatelyase (PFL). Acetyl-CoA is then converted to acetaldehyde by a CoA-dependent-acetylating acetaldehyde
dehydrogenase (AcDH). Finally,
acetaldehyde is reduced to ethanol
by ADH. Erum et al., (2013)”

Fig. 1. “Two pathways of ethanol production from pyruvate. POR; Pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductase; PFL; Pyruvate formate lyase,
AcDH; Acetaldehyde dehydrogenase, ADH; Alcohol dehydrogenase, PDC; pyruvate decarboxylase; CoASH; coenzyme A, Fdox; oxidized
ferredoxin, Fdred; reduced ferredoxin”

The current research is aimed at investigating zinc and iron dependent alcohol dehydrogenises of extremophiles
(thermophiles & halophiles). Major motives set through the processing of computational study were comparisons of
zinc based alcohol dehydrogenases with reference to S.cervisiae strain and iron based alcohol dehydrogenase with
reference to zymomonas mobilis. Moreover, certain comparisons were also conducted to analyse the capability of these
strains to produce bio ethanol. In later stages, to authenticate there functional properties, mutations in various strains
were carried out.

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2. METHODOLOGY

2.1. Key enzyme in bio ethanol production

In bacteria ADH is vital for fermentation; an anaerobic cellular process in which organic food is converted into
simpler compounds accompanied by the production of ATP. The reaction shown below is catalysed by ADH.
Glucose + 2Pi + 2ADP + 2H+ --> 2 ethanol + 2CO2 + 2 ATP + 2H20
They can be divided into three major groups based on their molecular size and metal contents:

1) “Zinc-dependent long chain alcohol dehydrogenase; sizes of 300–900 amino acids”.

2) “The short chain alcohol dehydrogenase: which contain no metal ions and have approximate lengths of 250
amino acids”.
3) “The long-chain iron dependent ADHs; with a length of 385–900 residues”.

2.2. Insilico study of zinc dependent ADH

Nine basic strains containing zinc metal were selected for the analysis. The gene sequences, protein sequences,
secondary protein structures were extracted from NCBI and PDB for each one of them. For those strains whose
secondary structures were not available on PDB, they were first modeled through SWISS MODEL and then predicted.
The sequences were then aligned with most widely and commercially in use reference sequence of S.cervisiae through
CLUSTAL W software for comparison.

Table 1. Zinc dependent ADH strain sequences

Strain Gene sequence Protein sequence Secondary structure

Aeropyrum pernix gi l 118430835 NC_148480.2 1H2B

Agrobacterium Fabrum gi l 159184118 NP_355113.2 1F8F (modeled)
Burkholderia Pseudomallei gi l 53717639 YP_106820.1 1UUF (modeled)
Geobacillus Kaustophilus gi l 56418535 WP_011232248.1 4CPD
Haloferax Mediterranei gi l 389848445 YP_006350704.1 1RJW (modeled)
Streptomyces Coelicolor gi l 32141095 NP_625979.1 3COS (modeled)
Sulfolobus Acidocaldarius gi l 70605853 NP_255245.1 1H2B (modeled)
Sulfolobus Solfataricus gi l 15896971 NP_343875.1 1JVB
Thermotoga Maritima gi l 15643202 NP_228246.1 1VJ0

2.3. Insilico study of iron dependent ADH

Four basic strains containing iron metal were selected for the analysis using the same method previously illustrated for
iron based strains. The sequences were aligned with another widely in use reference sequence of Z.mobilis through
CLUSTAL W software for comparison.

Table 2. Iron dependent ADH strain sequences

Strain Gene sequence Protein sequence Secondary structure

Archaeoglobus Fulgidus gi l 11497621 NP_070843.1 Modeled

Thermococcus Gammatolerans gi l 240102057 YP_002959938.1 1O2D (modeled)
Thermococcus Onnurineus gi l 212223144 YP_002307321.1 Modeled
Thermoplasma Volcanium gi l 13540831 NP_110915.1 Modeled

3. RESULTS

3.1. Zinc based strain analysis

Sequence alignment of target strains with reference Saccharomyces Cervisiae indicated that amino acids GHE were
conserved in all the strains and appears to be in similar pattern. This depiction was confirmed further when multiple
alignment of all strains is done with yeast.

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Fig. 2. CLUSTAL W Multiple sequence alignment

Secondary structure analysis indicated that the site which appeared conserved (GHE) in these strains is responsible for
binding zinc residues. Although the amino acid out of GHE on which these residues bind is not constant and varied
considerably according to strains but one or two of the residues do bind on any three of them for sure.

3.2. Iron based strain analysis

3.2.1.Structural representation of residue interaction with iron ion:

Since four out of five strains have to be modelled in order to identify their structures, on the basis of their similarities
the closest structures identified were of Z.mobilis and T.maritima.

Fig. 3.a: Metal interaction with residues in Z. Mobilis Fig. 3b: Metal interaction with residues in T. Maritima

Sequence alignment of target strains with reference to Zymomnas Mobilis indicated that amino acids GGGS were
conserved in all the strains and appears to be in similar pattern.

Fig 3.1 CLUSTAL W sequence alignment

Analysis of secondary structure indicated that the site which appeared conserved (GGGS) in these strains is
responsible for binding NAD co-factor residues. Although the amino acid out of GGGS on which these residues bind
is not constant and varied considerably Whereas the structural bonding of residues with metal indicated the same
alignment and amino acids (three histidine and one aspartic acid) interacting with the metal.

3.3. Mutations

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3.3.1. Themotoga Maritima (1O2D)

Fig 3.2a : Dimer Structure Fig 3.2b: Close veiw of Iron interaction

Muatated Structure:

Fig 3.2c: Chain A with His 193 mutated to Arg Fig 3.2d: Chain A with His 256 mutated to Arg

Fig 3.2e: Chain A with His 256 and 270 mutated to Arg Fig 3.2f: Chain A with His 193, 256 and 270 mutated to Arg

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 4th International Conference on
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3.3.2. Saccharomyces Cervisae

Fig 3.3a: Close veiw of Zn interaction

Fig 3.3b: Change of residues abolishes the site

3.3.3.Thermoanaerobacter Brockii

Fig 3.4a: Close veiw of Zn interaction Fig 3.4b: Disturbance of catalytic pocket

4. Discussion

The course of this research imperatively included the identification of conserved GHE region in all zinc containing
alcohol dehydrogenases which happens to be the zinc binding residue site as well. While in iron dependent alcohol
dehydrogenases region GGGSXXD was concluded conserved with declared status of co-factor binding site. The
preserved region indicated the same symmetry of zinc binding and co-factor binding site making these enzymes’s
catalytic region similar to that of reference. Elleuche et al., (2013), Xiangxian et al., (2008) authenticates the presence
of this result by confirming the site GGGSXXD site as co-factor binding site. The typical coenzyme binding site,
GGGSXXD, of iron-containing ADHs is located in the amino-terminal region
Furthermore the structural modelling done with certain mutations indicated the most stabilized form of mutations as
when the changes were computed the results were not positive. First mutation that constitutes an iron based ADH of
Thermotoga Maritime also showed a negative change. Three histidine residues interacting with metal at catalytic site
were at first replaced with arginine (arg) individually followed by dual replacement and lastly all three together
changed with arginine. The results for mutations were the disruption of the interactions residing in between the metal
and residues. The changes completely disturbed the pocket rendering failure of enzyme-substrate complex
formation.Steven et al., (2011) already conducted this study suggesting His-Arg mutation was conversely , close to the

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 4th International Conference on
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active site iron and co-factor binding sites .It likely involves the net charge that might alter the relative co-factor
binding capacity. Mutation in Saccharomyces Cervisiae too resulted in a negative change. The change was targeted at
the zinc binding residue glutamic acid (glu-67) that was substituted with glutamine (gln). Although both are acidic in
nature but due to variable properties of glutamine the conformation of the active site changed, bonds in between metal
and residue were disturbed to an extent, decreasing the overall efficiency of ethanol production the structural
interpretation confirmed the results that were previously being studied literature. Savarimuthu et al., (2015)
demonstrated same results indicating that substitution of Glu-67 with Gln-67 decreases the catalytic efficiency by 100-
fold.Third zinc based ADH Thermoanaerobacter Brockii mutation in which zinc binding residue site histidine 59 was
replaced with alanine. The change not only disrupts the catalytic site but also broke all the potential bonds responsible
for holding the active site functional. As the result the mutation brought about negative change.Oren et al., (1996)
stated this mutation, which illustrated Site directed mutagenesis to replace any one of the three putative zinc ligands of
ADH, Cys 37, His 59, or Asp 150, with the non-chelating residue, alanine, abolished not only the metal-binding
capacity of the enzyme but also its catalytic activity, without affecting the overall secondary structure of the enzyme.

5. Conclusion

Hence in nutshell, the homology in between the strains shows that there is a great potential for the production of bio
fuels within them. In addition with the kind of hostile and resilient environment that they can bear makes them
favourable for practical experiments. Theoretical work conducted on their mutations makes a viable collection for
precise practical demonstration as well.

Acknowledgements

Mr Ishtiaq Ahmad (GC University, Lahore. Pakistan)

Mr Mujtaba Baqir (GC Uniersity, Lahore. Pakistan)

References

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