Energy Management and Audit

Module 2
 INTRODUCTION
• Electrical energy is becoming increasingly important to industry due
to the more prevalent use of improved electric process systems and
the development of new electro technologies.
• As a result, the potential for reduced energy use through the
implementation of electrical-efficiency improvements is substantial.
• The world consumption of primary energy increased from 3.65 × 1011
GJ (3.46 × 1011 MBtu) in 1990 to 4.01 × 1011 GJ (3.80 × 1011 MBtu) in
1999.
• This equates to an average annual increase of ~1%.
• Industry continues to be the leading end-use sector for energy
consumption.
• Energy use has since increased and surpassed its mid-1970s high.
• However, productivity has also significantly increased.
• As a result, there has been an appreciable reduction in the energy
consumed per unit of output.
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Energy Management Opportunities in lighting system
• In today’s cost-competitive, market-driven economy,
everyone is seeking technologies or methods to reduce
energy expenses and environmental impact.
• Because nearly all buildings have lights, lighting retrofits are
very common and generally offer an attractive return on
investment.
• Electricity used to operate lighting systems represents a
significant portion of total electricity consumed mainly in
commercial buildings as shown in the figure 1.1.

3
Fig: 1.1: Overall Electrical energy consumption in
commercial buildings in 2012 4
• Electric lighting is a major energy consumer.
• Enormous energy savings are possible using energy efficient
equipment, effective controls, and careful design.
• Using less electric lighting reduces heat gain, thus saving air-
conditioning energy and improving thermal comfort.
• Electric lighting design also strongly affects visual
performance and visual comfort by aiming to maintain
adequate and appropriate illumination while controlling
reflection and glare.
• Lighting is not just a high priority when considering hotel
design; it is also a high return, low-risk investment.
• By installing new lighting technologies, hotels can reduce the
amount of electricity consumed and energy costs associated
with lighting.
• There are several types of energy efficient lighting and
affordable lighting technology. 5
The following are a few examples of energy-saving opportunities
with efficient lighting.
1. Installation of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) in place of
incandescent lamps.
2. Installation of energy-efficient fluorescent lamps in place of
“conventional” fluorescent lamps.
3. Installation of occupancy/motion sensors to turn lights on
and off where appropriate.
4. Use an automated device, such as a key tag system, to
regulate the electric power in a room.
5. Offer nightlights to prevent the bathroom lights from being
left on all night.
6. Replace all exit signs with light emitting diode (led) exit
signs.
7. Use high efficiency (hid) exterior lighting.
8. Add lighting controls such as photo sensors or time clocks 6
1. Installation of compact fluorescent lamps (CFLs) in
place of incandescent lamps.
• Compact Fluorescent Lamps use a different, more advanced
technology than incandescent light bulbs and come in a
range of styles and sizes based on brand and purpose.
• They can replace regular, incandescent bulbs in almost any
light fixture including globe lamps for the bathroom vanity,
lamps for recessed lighting, dimming, and 3-way
functionality lights.
• CFLs use about 2/3 less energy than standard incandescent
bulbs, give the same amount of light, and can last 6 to 10
times longer.
• CFL prices range from $4 to $15 depending on the bulb, but
you save about $25 to $30 per bulb on energy during the
lifetime of the bulb.

7
• When looking to purchase CFLs in place of incandescent bulbs,
compare the light output, or Lumens, and not the watts.
• Watts refers to the amount of energy used, not the amount of
light.
• In other words, if the incandescent bulb you wish to replace is 60
Watts, this is equal to 800 Lumens
• To get the same amount of light in a CFL, you should look to find a
CFL that provides 800 Lumens or more (equal to about a 13 watt
fluorescent bulb). 8
2. Installation of energy-efficient fluorescent lamps
in place of “Conventional” fluorescent lamps.
• Many lodging facilities may already use fluorescent lighting in
their high traffic areas such as the lobby or office area.
• However, not all fluorescent lamps are energy efficient and cost
effective.
• There are several types of fluorescent lamps that vary depending
on the duration of their lamp life, energy efficiency, regulated
power, and the quality of color it transmits.

9
• There are a few styles worth noting; these models are simply
labeled as “T-12”, “T- 8”, or “T-5”.
• The names come from the size of their diameter per eighth
inch.
• For example, a T-12 lamp is 12/8 inch in diameter (or 1 1/2
inch); a T-8 lamp is 8/8 inch in diameter (or 1 inch); a T-5 lamp
is 5/8 inch in diameter.
• This is a simple way to identify the type of fluorescent lamps
your facility is using.
• The recommended style of fluorescent lighting is a T-8. T-8
lights are the most cost-effective.
• They usually cost about $0.99 a bulb and are 30% to 40% more
efficient than standard T-12 fluorescent lamps, which have
poor color rendition and cause eye strain.
• T-8 lamps provide more illumination, better color, and don't
flicker (often exhibited by standard fluorescent fixtures). 10
• T-5 lamps are the most energy efficient and also tend to
transmit the best color; however, they usually cost about
$5.00 per bulb.
3. Installation of occupancy/motion sensors to turn
lights on and off where appropriate.
• Lighting can be controlled by occupancy sensors to allow
operation whenever someone is within the area being
scanned.
• When motion can no longer be detected, the lights shut off.
• Passive infrared sensors react to changes in motion.
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• The controller must have an unobstructed view of the building
area being scanned.
• Doors, partitions, stairways, etc. will block motion detection and
reduce its effectiveness.
• The best applications for passive infrared occupancy sensors are
open spaces with a clear view of the area being scanned.
• Ultrasonic sensors transmit sound above the range of human
hearing and monitor the time it takes for the sound waves to
return.
• A break in the pattern caused by any motion in the area triggers
the control.

Ultra-sonic sensor (celling mount) 12

• Ultrasonic sensors can see around obstructions and are best
for areas with cabinets and shelving, restrooms, and open
areas requiring 360-degree coverage.
• Some occupancy sensors utilize both passive infrared and
ultrasonic technology, but are usually more expensive.
• They can be used to control one lamp, one fixture or many
fixtures.
• It can work in 3 modes: Time out, sensor mode and motion
sensitivity settings.
• The table below provides typical savings achievable for specific
building areas, by the implementation of motion sensors.

13
4. Use an automated device, such as a key tag system, to
regulate the electric power in a room.
• The key tag system uses a master switch at the entrance of
each guest room, requiring the use of a room key-card to
activate them.
• Using this technique, only occupied rooms consume
energy because most electrical appliances are switched off
when the keycard is removed (when the guest leaves the 14
room).
• The key tag system uses a master switch at the entrance of
each guest room, requiring the use of a room key-card to
activate them.
• Using this technique, only occupied rooms consume energy
because most electrical appliances are switched off when the
keycard is removed (when the guest leaves the room).
• Along with lighting, the heating, air conditioning, radio and
television may also be connected to the master switch.
• This innovation has a potential savings of about $105.00 per
room per year.

15
5. Offer nightlights to prevent the bathroom lights from
being left on all night
• Many guests opt to have a light on while they sleep.
• By turning the bathroom light on and leaving the bathroom door
cracked open, guests are able to find their way through an
unknown room in the middle of the night.
• Those who are accompanied by children may often do the same to
comfort their child.
• By offering a nightlight, the energy used to power a bathroom
light during the nighttime can be avoided and guests will still be
able to feel comfortable in unfamiliar territory.
• One particular model uses six Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) in the
panel of a light switch to provide light for guests.
• LEDs are just tiny light bulbs that fit easily into an electrical circuit.
• They are different from ordinary incandescent bulbs because they
don’t burn out or get really hot.
• They are often used in digital clocks or remote controls.
16
6. Replace all exit signs with light emitting diode (LED)
exit signs.
• The development of light emitting diodes (LEDs) has allowed the
replacement of exit sign lighting with a more energy efficient
alternative.
• Multiple LEDs, properly configured, produce equivalent lighting
and consume 95% less electricity than incandescent bulbs and
compact fluorescent lamps is 75% less energy-efficient than LED.
17
• A major benefit is the 20-year life cycle rating of LEDs; they virtually
eliminate maintenance.
• Of the three different styles of exit signs, incandescent signs are the
least expensive, but are inefficient and use energy releasing heat
instead of light.
• Fluorescent signs are also inexpensive and have an expected life of
about 10,000 hours.
• LED exit signs are the most expensive, but are also the most efficient
exit signs available.
• Their payback time is usually about four years.
• The table on the following page offers an easy comparison of the
three models of exit signs.

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7. Use high efficiency (hid) exterior lighting
• High intensity discharge (HID) lighting is much more efficient
and preferable to incandescent, quartz-halogen and most
fluorescent light fixtures.
• HID types (from least to most efficient) include mercury
vapor, metal halide and high pressure sodium.
• Mercury vapor is seldom used anymore.

19
• Both metal halide and high pressure sodium are excellent
outdoor lighting systems.
• High pressure sodium has a pink-orange glow and is used when
good color rendition isn’t critical.
• Metal halide, though less efficient, provides clean white light and
good color rendition.
• HID lighting is mostly utilized in floodlight, wall pack, canopy and
area fixtures outdoors.
• The best type for any application depends on the area being lit
and mounting options.

20
8. Add lighting controls such as photo sensors or time
clocks
• Photo sensor controls monitor daylight conditions and allow fixtures
to operate only when needed.
• Photo sensors detect the quantity of light and send a signal to a main
controller to adjust the lighting.
• Photo sensors are commonly used with outdoor lighting to
automatically turn lights on at dusk and off at dawn, a very cost-
effective control device.
• This helps to lower energy costs by ensuring that unnecessary
lighting is not left on during daytime hours.
• Photo sensors can be used indoors, as well.
• Building areas with lots of windows may not require lights to be on
all of the time.
• Photocells can be used to ensure fixtures operate only when the
natural light is inadequate by either controlling one light fixture, or a
group of lights. 21
• The table below demonstrates the cost savings from day light
controls.
22
• Time controls save energy by reducing lighting time of use
through preprogrammed scheduling.
• Time clock equipment ranges from simple devices designed
to control a single electrical load to sophisticated systems
that control several lighting zones.
• They are one of the simplest, least expensive, and most
efficient energy management devices available.
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• Time controls could include:
Simple time switches: automatically turn lights, fans or
other electronic devices off after a pre-set time.
Multi-channel time controls: have the ability to control
from 4 to 16 duties.
Special-purpose time controls: include cycle timers for
repetitive short duration cycling of equipment or outdoor
lighting time controls that combine time clock and photo
sensor technologies.

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 Energy Management Opportunities in electric motors
• Motors convert electrical energy into mechanical energy by the
interaction between the magnetic fields set up in the stator and
rotor windings.
• Industrial electric motors can be broadly classified as induction
motors, direct current motors or synchronous motors.
• All motor types have the same four operating components:
stator (stationary windings), rotor (rotating windings), bearings,
and frame (enclosure).

• Two important attributes relating to efficiency of electricity use

by A.C. Induction motors are efficiency (η), defined as the ratio
of the mechanical energy delivered at the rotating shaft to the
electrical energy input at its terminals, and power factor (PF).

25
• Motors, like other inductive loads, are characterized by power
factors less than one.
• As a result, the total current draw needed to deliver the same real
power is higher than for a load characterized by a higher PF.
• An important effect of operating with a PF less than one is that
resistance losses in wiring upstream of the motor will be higher,
since these are proportional to the square of the current.
• Thus, both a high value for η and a PF close to unity are desired
for efficient overall operation in a plant.

• Squirrel cage motors are normally more efficient than slip-ring

motors, and higher-speed motors are normally more efficient
than lower-speed motors.
• Efficiency is also a function of motor temperature.
• Totally-enclosed, fan-cooled (TEFC) motors are more efficient
than screen protected, drip-proof (SPDP) motors. 26
• Also, as with most equipment, motor efficiency increases with
the rated capacity.
• The efficiency of a motor is determined by intrinsic losses that
can be reduced only by changes in motor design.
• Intrinsic losses are of two types:
fixed losses - independent of motor load
variable losses - dependent on load.

Energy-Efficient Motors
• Energy-efficient motors (EEM) are the ones in which, design
improvements are incorporated specifically to increase operating
efficiency over motors of standard design (see Figure 2.3).
• Design improvements focus on reducing intrinsic motor losses.

27
• Improvements include the use of lower-loss silicon steel, a
longer core (to increase active material), thicker wires (to
reduce resistance), thinner laminations, smaller air gap
between stator and rotor, copper instead of aluminum bars in
the rotor, superior bearings and a smaller fan, etc.
28
• Energy-efficient motors now available in India operate with
efficiencies that are typically 3 to 4 percentage points higher
than standard motors.
• In keeping with the stipulations of the BIS, energy-efficient
motors are designed to operate without loss in efficiency at loads
between 75 % and 100 % of rated capacity.
• This may result in major benefits in varying load applications. The
power factor is about the same or may be higher than for
standard motors.
• Furthermore, energy efficient motors have lower operating
temperatures and noise levels, greater ability to accelerate
higher-inertia loads, and are less affected by supply voltage
fluctuations.
• Measures adopted for energy efficiency to address each loss
specifically as under:
Stator and Rotor I 2 R Losses
Core Losses
Friction and Windage Losses
Stray Load-Losses 29
1) Stator and Rotor I 2R Losses
• These losses are major losses and typically account for 55% to 60% of the
total losses.
• I2R losses are heating losses resulting from current passing through stator
and rotor conductors.
• I2R losses are the function of a conductor resistance, the square of current.
• Resistance of conductor is a function of conductor material, length and
cross sectional area.
• The suitable selection of copper conductor size will reduce the resistance.
• Reducing the motor current is most readily accomplished by decreasing
the magnetizing component of current.
• This involves lowering the operating flux density and possible shortening
of air gap.
• Rotor I2R losses are a function of the rotor conductors (usually aluminum)
and the rotor slip.
• Utilization of copper conductors will reduce the winding resistance.
• Motor operation closer to synchronous speed will also reduce rotor I2R
losses. 30
2) Core Losses
• Core losses are those found in the stator-rotor magnetic steel
and are due to hysteresis effect and eddy current effect during 50
Hz magnetization of the core material.
• These losses are independent of load and account for 20 – 25 %
of the total losses.
• The hysteresis losses which are a function of flux density, are be
reduced by utilizing low loss grade of silicon steel laminations.
• The reduction of flux density is achieved by suitable increase in
the core length of stator and rotor.
• Eddy current losses are generated by circulating current within
the core steel laminations.
• These are reduced by using thinner laminations.

31
3) Friction and Windage Losses
• Friction and windage losses results from bearing friction,
windage and circulating air through the motor and account for 8
– 12 % of total losses.
• These losses are independent of load.
• The reduction in heat generated by stator and rotor losses permit
the use of smaller fan.
• The windage losses also reduce with the diameter of fan leading
to reduction in windage losses.
4) Stray Load-Losses
• These losses vary according to square of the load current and are
caused by leakage flux induced by load currents in the
laminations and account for 4 to 5 % of total losses.
• These losses are reduced by careful selection of slot numbers,
tooth/slot geometry and air gap.
32
• Energy efficient motors cover a wide range of ratings and the
full load efficiencies are higher by 3 to 7 %.
• The mounting dimensions are also maintained as per IS1231 to
enable easy replacement.
• As a result of the modifications to improve performance, the
costs of energy-efficient motors are higher than those of
standard motors.
• The higher cost will often be paid back rapidly in saved
operating costs, particularly in new applications or end-of-life
motor replacements.
• In cases where existing motors have not reached the end of
their useful life, the economics will be less clearly positive.
• Because the favorable economics of energy-efficient motors
are based on savings in operating costs, there may be certain
cases which are generally economically ill-suited to energy
efficient motors.
• These include highly intermittent duty or special torque
applications such as hoists and cranes, traction drives, punch
presses, machine tools, and centrifuges.
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• In addition, energy, efficient designs of multi-speed motors
are generally not available.
• Furthermore, energy- efficient motors are not yet available
for many special applications, e.g. for flame-proof operation
in oil-field or fire pumps or for very low speed applications
(below 750 rpm).
• Also, most energy-efficient motors produced today are
designed only for continuous duty cycle operation.
• Given the tendency of over sizing on the one hand and
ground realities like ; voltage, frequency variations, efficiancy
of rewinding in case of a burnout, on the other hand,
benefits of EEM's can be achieved only by careful selection,
implementation, operation and maintenance efforts of
energy managers.
• A summary of energy efficiency improvements in EEMs is
given in the Table 2.2
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35
 Factors Affecting Energy Efficiency & Minimizing Motor
Losses in Operation
• Factors affecting are:
1. Power Supply Quality
2. Power Factor Correction
3. Maintenance
4. Age
1) Power Supply Quality
• Motor performance is affected considerably by the quality of
input power, that is the actual volts and frequency available at
motor terminals and rated values as well as voltage and
frequency variations and voltage unbalance across the three
phases.
• Motors in India must comply with standards set by the Bureau of
Indian Standards (BIS) for tolerance to variations in input power
quality.
36
• The BIS standards specify that a motor should be capable of
delivering its rated output with a voltage variation of +/- 6 % and
frequency variation of +/- 3 %.
• Fluctuations much larger than these are quite common in utility-
supplied electricity in India.
• Voltage fluctuations can have detrimental impacts on motor
performance.
• Voltage unbalance, the condition where the voltages in the three
phases are not equal, can be still more detrimental to motor
performance and motor life.
• Unbalance typically occurs as a result of supplying single-phase loads
disproportionately from one of the phases.
• It can also result from the use of different sizes of cables in the
distribution system.
• The options that can be exercised to minimize voltage unbalance
include:
– Balancing any single phase loads equally among all the three phases
– Segregating any single phase loads which disturb the load balance and feed
them from a separate line / transformer 37
2) Power Factor Correction
• As noted earlier, induction motors are characterized by power
factors less than unity, leading to lower overall efficiency (and
higher overall operating cost) associated with a plant's electrical
system.
• Capacitors connected in parallel (shunted) with the motor are
typically used to improve the power factor.
• The impacts of PF correction include reduced kVA demand (and
hence reduced utility demand charges), reduced I2R losses in
cables upstream of the capacitor (and hence reduced energy
charges), reduced voltage drop in the cables (leading to
improved voltage regulation), and an increase in the overall
efficiency of the plant electrical system.
• It should be noted that PF capacitor improves power factor from
the point of installation back to the generating side.

38
• It means that, if a PF capacitor is installed at the starter
terminals of the motor, it won't improve the operating PF
of the motor, but the PF from starter terminals to the
power generating side will improve, i.e., the benefits of PF
would be only on upstream side.
• The size of capacitor required for a particular motor
depends upon the no-load reactive kVA (kVAR) drawn by
the motor, which can be determined only from no-load
testing of the motor.
• In general, the capacitor is then selected to not exceed 90
% of the no-load kVAR of the motor. (Higher capacitors
could result in over-voltages and motor burn-outs).
• Alternatively, typical power factors of standard motors can
provide the basis for conservative estimates of capacitor
ratings to use for different size motors.
• The capacitor rating for power connection by direct
connection to induction motors is shown in Table 2.5.

39
40
• From the above table, it may be noted that required
capacitive kVAr increases with decrease in speed of the
motor, as the magnetizing current requirement of a low
speed motor is more in comparison to the high speed motor
for the same HP of the motor.
3) Maintenance
• Inadequate maintenance of motors can significantly increase
losses and lead to unreliable operation.
• For example, improper lubrication can cause increased
friction in both the motor and associated drive transmission
equipment.
• Resistance losses in the motor, which rise with temperature,
would increase.
• Providing adequate ventilation and keeping motor cooling
ducts clean can help dissipate heat to reduce excessive losses.
41
• The life of the insulation in the motor would also be longer: for
every 10°C increase in motor operating temperature over the
recommended peak, the time before rewinding would be
needed is estimated to be halved

• A checklist of good maintenance practices to help insure proper

motor operation would include:
– Inspecting motors regularly for wear in bearings and
housings (to reduce frictional losses) and for dirt/dust in
motor ventilating ducts (to ensure proper heat dissipation).
Checking load conditions to ensure that the motor is not over
or under loaded.
– A change in motor load from the last test indicates a change
in the driven load, the cause of which should be understood.

42
– Lubricating appropriately. Manufacturers generally give
recommendations for how and when to lubricate their
motors. Inadequate lubrication can cause problems, as
noted above. Over lubrication can also create problems, e.g.
excess oil or grease from the motor bearings can enter the
motor and saturate the motor insulation, causing
premature failure or creating a fire risk.
– Checking periodically for proper alignment of the motor
and the driven equipment. Improper alignment can cause
shafts and bearings to wear quickly, resulting in damage to
both the motor and the driven equipment.
– Ensuring that supply wiring and terminal box are properly
sized and installed. Inspect regularly the connections at the
motor and starter to be sure that they are clean and tight.

43
4) Age
• Most motor cores in India are manufactured from
silicon steel or de-carbonized cold-rolled steel, the
electrical properties of which do not change
measurably with age.
• However, poor maintenance (inadequate lubrication of
bearings, insufficient cleaning of air cooling passages,
etc.) can cause a deterioration in motor efficiency over
time.
• Ambient conditions can also have a detrimental effect
on motor performance.
• For example, excessively high temperatures, high dust
loading, corrosive atmosphere, and humidity can
impair insulation properties; mechanical stresses due
to load cycling can lead to misalignment.
• However, with adequate care, motor performance can
be maintained.
44
45
46
 Energy Management Opportunities in Electrolytic
process
• An electrolytic process is the use of electrolysis industrially to
refine metals or compounds at a high purity and low cost.
• Some examples are the Hall- Héroult process used for
aluminum, the production of hydrogen from water,
production of chlorine and caustic soda etc.
• Electrolysis is usually done in bulk using hundreds of sheets
of metal connected to an electric power source.
• Electrolysis process uses an electric current to drive a
chemical reaction which otherwise would not occur
spontaneously.
• Electrolytic hydrogen production has been scientifically
studied for more than a century.
• According to the literature, hydrogen has been used by for
military, industrial and commercial purposes since late 19th
century.
47
• Nowadays, electrolytic hydrogen has a share of only 4% in the
global production of the most abundant element of the
universe.
• Electricity expense constitutes the largest fraction of
hydrogen production costs.
• High hydrogen production expenses count as the main
deficiency of commercial and industrial electrolyzers.
• Hence electrolytic methods are usually outperformed by
other approaches such as steam methane reformation.
• An electrolyzer is usually subjected to massive current values
in order to break the water molecules into oxygen and
hydrogen.

48
• Factors to improve electrical efficiency in electrolytic
hydrogen production process
1. Electrolyte quality.
2. Temperature.
3. Pressure.
4. Electrical resistance of the electrolyte . - Space between
electrodes and Size and alignment of the electrodes
5. Electrode material.
6. Separator material.
7. Applied voltage waveform

49
• Electrolytic systems
• Electrolysis involves movement of positively- or negatively-
charged ions within an electrolyte between an anode
(positively-charged electrode) and a cathode (negatively-
charged electrode).
• These familiar processes involve electrolysis:
– Storage batteries.
– Welding.
– Corrosion.
– Electrowinning (refining of metals such as aluminum).
– Plating and anodizing.
– Electroforming, electrochemical machining, and etching.
– Fuel cells.

50
Corrosion
• Corrosion occurs as a result of oxidation-reduction reactions
between a metal or alloy and a corroding agent.
• Corrosion can occur as a result of chemical reactions, which
usually require high temperatures and a corrosive environment,
or due to electrochemical reactions, which are more common.
• Note that corrosion is an important indirect use of energy.
• The electrochemical reactions resemble the processes that
take place in a battery.
• They can arise when dissimilar metals occur in the presence of
an electrolyte or in the presence of external electric currents.
• A common electrolyte is water with trace amounts of dissolved
salts, acids, or alkalis.
• The rates of corrosion reactions are dependent on the
concentration of salts, acids, or alkalis in the electrolyte, and
on the surface, temperature, and chemical constituents of the
corroding metal.

51
Welding
• Where possible, AC welders are preferred as they offer a better
power factor and more economical operation.
• Automated systems reduce standby power losses compared to
manual welding because they place the weld bead more
consistently (less start/stop).
Electrowinning
• An important use of electrolysis is the refining of metals such as
aluminum.
• Basically the original process involved the electrolysis of a solution
of aluminum oxide in molten cryolite, using carbon anodes and
electrodes.
• In the electrolyte solution, aluminum oxide disassociates into
aluminum and oxygen ions.
• As currents on the order of 105 amperes pass through the cells (at
potentials of 5.0_5.4 V), the aluminum ions migrate to the cell
lining (cathode) where they are reduced to metallic aluminum.
• This process required 15_20 kWh per kg of electricity. New
processes have been developed that reduce the amount of
electricity required. 52
Plating and Anodizing
• An electric current flows in a tank where the object to be plated
or anodized serves as one of the electrodes.
• In plating, the plated object serves as the cathode and the
anode has the material to be electrodeposited.
• Alternatively, the anode may be non consumable carbon and
the plating material may be drawn from the bath.
• In anodizing (typical for aluminum), the object to be anodized is
the anode and a direct current produces a buildup of aluminum
oxide on the surface.
• By use of various organic acids, colored finishes can be
produced.

53
Electroforming, Electrochemical Machining
• Electroforming is a process whereby a thin layer of metal is
deposited on an object to be coated or on a mold that is
later removed.
• The classic example is copper plated baby shoes!
Electrochemical machining is the reverse of plating; a high
current is passed between an electrolyte and the part,
removing metal.
• This process is used for fine, intricate parts or hard, difficult-
to-machine metals.

• EMOs in Electrolytic Processes

• Table 2.6 in next slide summarizes typical energy
management possibilities for electrolytic processes.
• The greatest users of energy in this field (aside from the
large indirect use caused by corrosion) are in primary
metals production, particularly aluminum and magnesium.

54
Corrosion protection
• Use protective films, paints, epoxy
• Provide cathodic protection (sacrificial anodes)
• Cathodic protection with an applied voltage
• Electroplating and anodizing
• Use chemical water treatment (corrosion inhibitors)
• Avoid contact of dissimilar materials (dielectric unions)

Storage batteries
• Provide adequate maintenance (replace electrolytes, clean terminals, etc.)
• Use efficient charging techniques, charge at proper rates
• Avoid overheating, provide adequate ventilation

Electrolytic processes
• Insulate plating tanks
• Provide proper maintenance of electrodes and rectifiers
• Recover waste heat
• Use more efficient rectifiers (semiconductor vs. mercury arc)
• Use more efficient controls
• Develop improved electrode design and materials to increase efficiency
55
Energy Management Opportunities in Electric heating
• Electric Heat Applications
• Due to its relatively higher cost, electricity is not used
extensively for process heat.
• However, there are some types of applications where
electricity offers advantages for heating.
• Electric heat can take several forms:
– Resistance heating.
– Induction heating.
– Dielectric heating.
– Electric arc heating.
– Microwave heating.
– Infrared heating.
– Heat pumps.
56
Resistance heating:
• Resistance heating makes use of the i2R law; i.e., power
dissipated is proportional to the square of the current times
resistance.
• An example of this is a conventional residential electric water
heater, which has two resistance heating elements, nominally
rated at 3800 W and 240 V, single phase.
• This form of resistance heating has a high first law efficiency
because all the heat is transferred to the material being
heated; i.e., the water.
• Losses result from conduction through the tank walls and
distribution piping.
Induction heating:
• Induction heating is similar to resistance heating in that the
actual heating is caused by current flowing through
resistance.

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• However, in the induction heater, the heating current is
induced in the work piece.
• An example is the heating of transformers, cores, and
motor windings.
• Even though they are laminated to produce high resistance
to the flow of such currents, transformers are in effect
inductance heaters.
• In an induction furnace, a coil surrounds the work piece,
which must be a conductor.
• A variable frequency power source (oscillator) is connected
to this coil, inducing eddy currents that in turn heat the
work piece.
• The eddy currents exhibit a “screening” effect; i.e., the
current density at the surface of the work piece is
maximum and decreases exponentially with depth.
• A “penetration” depth can be defined, wherein the current
has decreased to about 37% of the surface value.

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• Approximately 90% of the heating occurs within the
penetration depth.
• Since the penetration depth is inversely proportional to
frequency, a low frequency would be used for heating a large
piece and a high frequency for a smaller size.
• Example. A forge heater. Billets of steel are brought by a
conveying system into a water-cooled copper coil. The
frequency is in the range of 1_10 kHz; specific power is about
300 kWh/ton. Advantages of induction heating include
excellent temperature control and no surface decarburization.
The disadvantage is a low power factor (typically 0.1_0.5),
which can be corrected with capacitors.

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Dielectric heating:
• Dielectric heating refers to the heating of non-conducting
materials by an electric field.
• Basically, this is similar to the heating that occurs in the
dielectric of a capacitor on which a high-frequency voltage is
impressed.
• The electromagnetic fields excite the molecular makeup of
material, thereby generating heat within the material.
• As a result, the heat is distributed uniformly throughout the
work piece.
• Dielectric heating can be applied to wood, paper, food,
ceramics, rubber, glues, and resins.
• The heating effect is proportional to the dielectric loss factor,
the applied frequency, and the electric field strength.
• Dielectric systems can be divided into two types: RF
(radio frequency) and microwave.
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• RF systems operate in the 1_100 MHz range, and microwave
systems operate in the 100_10,000 MHz range.
• RF systems are less expensive and are capable of larger
penetration depths because of their lower frequencies and
longer wavelengths than microwave systems, but they are
not as well suited for materials or products with irregular
shapes.
Electric arc furnace:
• The electric arc furnace has three electrodes connected to
the secondary windings of a three-phase transformer.
• The principle is the same as in electric arc welding. When an
arc is struck, the nearby gas is raised to such a high
temperature (in excess of 5000°C) that it becomes highly
ionized.
• In this state, it is a sufficiently good conductor to be
maintained at high temperature by the resistive heating
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produced by the current.
• The high temperature of the plasma permits very efficient
heat transfer.
• Arc furnaces with capacities in the range of a few tons to
hundreds of tons are in use.
• The primary application of electric arc furnaces is for melting
and processing recycled steel.
Microwave heating:
• Microwave heating (a form of dielectric heating) is a highly
efficient technique for heating by high-frequency
electromagnetic radiation.
• Typically, frequency bands are 896 or 915 MHz and 2450 MHz,
corresponding to wavelengths of about 0.33 and 0.12 m.
• Energy is deposited in the work piece according to the same
principles as the dielectric heater described above.
• Furnaces can be designed to be resonant or nonresonant.
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• The microwave oven found in many homes is an example of a
resonant cavity device.
• Resonant systems have efficiencies generally in excess of 50%.
Again, because the heat is deposited in the work piece, losses
are minimized.
Infrared heating:
• Infrared heating is generated by I2R losses in heating lamps or
devices, and this is a special case of resistance heating.
• The difference, however, is that infrared energy can be
generated in a narrow bandwidth.
• This can be applied more efficiently in some cases than
combustion energy that spans a broader bandwidth.
• To be most efficient, infrared heaters should concentrate
their output at the peak of the absorption spectrum for the
material being heated.

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• For water, this corresponds to a wavelength of about
2.8X1026 m.
• There are applications in papermaking, drying paints and
enamels, and production of chemicals and drugs.
Heat pump:
• The heat pump is basically a refrigerator operating in
reverse. An evaporator receives heat from a low
temperature heat source (the air, waste heat, ground,
water, etc.).
• This causes evaporation of the working fluid; the vapor is
then compressed by the compressor.
• In the condenser, it gives up the heat collected at the
evaporator as well as the heat of compression.
• As this heat is delivered, the vapor condenses, and the hot
condensate passes through the expansion valve.
• Heat pumps fall into the several categories, depending on
the type of heating and the purpose.

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• Those used for residential HVAC and water heating are
primarily air-source or ground-source heat pumps, meaning
they extract heat either from the air or from underground
pipes.
• Therefore they use air-to-air or liquid-to-air heat transfer.
Larger units for commercial and industrial applications
employ liquid-to-liquid heat transfer.
• Energy Management Opportunities in Electric heating can be
divided into three categories
1. Reduce heat losses
2. Use more efficient processes or equipment
3. Recover heat

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Reduce heat losses
• Insulate furnace walls, ducts, piping
• Put covers over open tanks or vats
• Reduce time doors are open
• Avoid cooling time for heated products
• Shutdown heating systems on tanks and ovens when not in use, or at least lower
temperatures (reduce standby losses)

More efficient equipment or processes

• Use alternative processes (microwave, dielectric rather than fuel-fired)
• Employ recuperators, regenerators, or preheaters
• Use direct-fired rather than indirect-fired systems
• Use less energy-intensive materials and processes
• Use heat pumps for low temperature process heat
• Reduce moisture content mechanically in materials used in drying processes
• Use lower temperature processes (cold rinses, etc.)

Recover heat
• There are multiple sources: stacks, processes, building exhaust streams, cooling
towers, compressors, etc.
• Recovered heat can be used for space heating, water heating, process preheating,
cogeneration, etc.
• Many types of heat recovery systems are commercially available (heat wheels, run- 66
around systems, heat pipes, heat exchangers, heat pumps, etc.)