CHAPTER 1

THE REAL NUMBER SYSTEM

1.0 Introduction:
The set of natural numbers (or the counting numbers) is the set
N = {1, 2, 3, …, }.
This set is closed under + and x , but not closed under – and ÷ .
The inclusion of 0 gives us the set
W = {0, 1, 2, 3, … },
commonly called the set of whole numbers. The set N may be extended to include all
the negative whole numbers to give the set
Z = {… – 3, –2 , –1, 0, 1, 2, 3, …}
which is called the set of integers. This set Z is closed under +, x and – , but not
closed under ÷ . A further extension of this set to include all fractions, both proper and
improper, gives the set
Q = { ba : a, b ∈ Z , b ≠ 0 }.

This is called the set of Rational Numbers. Q is closed under all the arithmetic
operations +, x, –, ÷ . In the case of closure under ÷ , division by 0 must be avoided, as
the result is either indeterminate (%) or infinity ( ∞).

Note that
(i) 0 ∈ Q, since o , b ≠ o is 0.
b
(ii) Z ⊂ Q, since a1 = a, for all a ∈ Z.

(iii) It is clear that

N⊂Z⊂Q.
Graphical Representation
The above number systems may be represented graphically as follows:

–4 –3 –2 –1 0 1 2 3 4 5
Z

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We may identify the subsets of Z as follows:

–
Z = {… –3, –2, – 1 }
called the negative integers; and
+
Z = {1, 2, 3, …}
called the positive integers. The set
+
{0} ∪ Z = {0, 1, 2, 3, …}
is called the set of non-negative integers.
Note that
– +
Z = Z ∪{0}∪ Z .
The rational numbers may be represented by the straight line

–3 –2 − 32 –1 − 12 0 1
2
1 3
2
2 5
2
3

Q
Every fraction whether proper or improper may be represented by a point on this line.

The Set of Irrational Numbers

There are numbers that do not belong to Q, that is, they cannot be expressed in the form
a , where a, b ∈ Z. There are points on the number line which correspond to these
b
numbers. The set of such numbers is called the set of Irrational Numbers. Examples of
Irrational Numbers are:
√2, √3, π, e, etc.
Example:
Prove that √2 is an irrational number.
Let us assume that √2 is rational. Then
√2 = a , a, b ∈ Z, b ≠ o, and such that a is in its least form.
b b
Then
2
2= a
b2
2 2
⇒ a = 2b

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2
⇒ a is an even number
∴ a is even
Let a = 2c, c ∈ Z.
2 2
Then (2c) = 2b
2 2
i.e. 4c = 2b
2 2
⇒ b = 2c
2
⇒ b is even ⇒ b is even.

Since a is even and b is even, it implies that a is not in its least form. This
b
contradiction is because of the false premise that √2 is rational. ∴√2 is irrational.

Exercise:
Prove that √3 is irrational.

Note
(i) Every rational number may be expressed either as a terminating decimal or as a
recurring decimal.

E.g. 1 = 0.5 ,
2
2 = 0.4
5
1 = 0.333 … or 0.3ɺ
3
1 = 0.0833 … or 0.083ɺ
12

(ii) Every irrational number can only be expressed as a non-terminating and non-
recurring decimal number.
E.g. √2 = 1.41423 …..
π = 3.14159 …..

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The Set of Real Numbers

The union of the set of Rational Numbers and the set of Irrational Numbers is called the
set of Real Numbers. Its graphical (or geometrical) representation is the straight line
from – ∞ to +∞ with an origin 0.

−∞ 0 +∞

Every real number corresponds to exactly one point on the line and every point on the
line corresponds to a real number. Thus this line is called the Real Number Line and
represents the Real Number System, denoted by R.

1.1 OPERATIONS WITH REAL NUMBERS

Let a, b, c ∈ R, then
(i) a + b ∈ R and ab ∈ R – closure law .
(ii) a+b = b+a – commutative law of addition +.
(iii) (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) – associative law of +.
(iv) ab = b a – commutative law of x .
(v) (ab)c = a (bc) – associative law of x.
(vi) a (b + c) = ab + ac – Distributive law of x over +.
(vii) a + o = o +a = a – existence of an identity under +.
(viii) a.1 = 1.a = 1 – existence of an identity under x .
(ix) a + x = x + a = o – existence of an inverse under +
x is denoted by ( –a).
–1 –1
(x) a.a = a a = 1 – existence of an inverse under x
–1
a is denoted by 1a .

Any set, such as R, which satisfies the above rules is called a field.

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1.2 INEQUALITIES
Let a, b ∈ R. If a – b is a positive number, we say that a is greater than b or b is
less than a. We write a > b or b < a.
If the possibility exists that a equals b, then we write a ≥ b or b ≤ a.

Theorems on Inequalities:
If a, b, c ∈ R, then
(i) Either a > b, a = b or a < b
This is called the law of trichotomy.
(ii) If a > b and b > c, then a > c
This is called the law of transitivity.
(iii) If a > b, then a + c > b + c.
(iv) If a > b and c > o , then ac > bc .
(v) If a > b and c < o, then ac < bc .

THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF REAL NUMBERS

Let x ∈ R. The absolute value of x, denoted by x, is defined as
 x, x ≥ 0
x =  . (1)
− x, x < 0
E.g.
2 = 2 ,
0 = 0
–3 = – ( – 3) = 3
The following theorem hold for inequalities.
For x, y ∈ R,
(i) x y = x y
(ii) x + y ≤ x + y, called the triangle inequality.

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(iii) x – y ≥ x − y

(iv) x = 0 ⇔ x = 0.

Note: The property

(i) may be extended to n real numbers, namely
x1 . x2 … xn = x1 x2 … xn ;
(ii) may be extended to n real numbers as
x1 + x2 + … + xn ≤ x1 + x2 + … + xn
(iii) For the case, x – y may be geometrically interpreted as the distance between
any two points x and y on the number line. It is clear then that
x – y = y – x .
Worked Examples
1. Prove that (i) x y = xy
(ii) x + y ≤ x + y
Solution:
(i) We consider the four cases:
x = 0, y = 0
x > 0, y > 0
x < 0, y > 0
x < 0, y < 0.
If x = 0 and y = 0 , xy = 0.0 = 0
∴ x y = 0 = 00 = x y.
If x > 0 and y > 0, xy > 0, x = x , y = y and xy = xy = x y.
If x < 0 and y > 0, then x  = −x and y = y and x y < 0
⇒xy  = − (xy) = (−x) (y) = x y.
If x < 0 and y < 0, then x = −x and y = −y and xy > 0 ⇒ xy = xy
But x  y= (−x) (−y) = xy
∴xy = x y .
This completes the proof.

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(ii) We again consider the cases

x=0, y=0
x > 0, y>0
x<0, y>0
x < 0, y<0
If x = 0 and y = 0, then  x + y  =  0 + 0  =  0  = 0.
Also  x  =  0 = 0 and  y  =  0 = 0
∴x + y = 0 + 0 = 0
∴x + y  =  x  +  y  .
If x > 0 and y > 0, then x + y > 0 ⇒ x + y = x + y .
Also x = x and  y = y, so x +  y = x + y .
∴x + y  =  x  +  y  .
If x < 0 and y > 0 ; and suppose that  x  >  y  ,
then x + y < 0 ⇒x + y = − (x + y) = − x + (− y) .
Also x = − x and y = y ⇒ x + y = − x + y
Clearly, x + y − (x + y ) = −2y < 0
∴x + y  <  x  +  y  .
On the other hand if  x  <  y  ., then
x + y > 0 ⇒x + y  = x + y
Also x = − x and y = y ⇒ x + y = − x + y .
∴x + y − (x + y ) = 2x < 0
⇒ x + y  <  x  +  y 
Finally, if  x  =  y , then x + y = 0.
So that x + y  = 0  = 0.
But
x + y = –x +y >0
∴x + y  <  x  +  y 
Now, if x < 0 and y < 0, then x + y < 0
⇒ x + y  = – (x + y) = ( – x) + ( – y ) =  x  +  y 
Thus for all x, y ∈ ℜ ,

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x + y  ≤  x  +  y  .
This completes the proof.

2. Find the values of x for which

2
x – 3x – 2 < 10 – 2x.
Solution:
2
x – 3x – 2 < 10 – 2x.
2
⇔ x – x – 12 < 0.
⇔ (x – 4) ( x + 3) < 0..
Method I (Geometrical)
The set x – 4 > 0 and x + 3 > 0 are represented graphically below:

x–4>0

x+3 >0

(x – 4 ) (x + 3) < 0

–3 4
The dotted portion indicate the regions where the expressions x – 4 and x + 3 are
negative.
For the product (x – 4) (x + 3) to be negative, the expressions should be opposite in sign.
Clearly, the solution is the set
[x : – 3 < x < 4} .

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Method II (Analytical)
Note that
(x – 4) (x + 3) < 0
⇒ x – 4 > 0 and (x + 3) < 0
or
x – 4 < 0 and (x + 3) > 0

⇒ x > 4 and x < – 3

or
x < 4 and x > –3
Clearly, the first option is impossible. The second option provides the solution, namely
x < 4 and x > – 3
or {x : – 3 < x < 4 } .

Exercises:
1. Using the triangle inequality (i.e. property ii), or otherwise, prove property (iii),
i.e. x − y ≥  x  −  y 
2. Prove that − x  < x <  x  .
Hence prove property (ii), i.e.
x+y≤x + y
3. Show that
x + y + z  ≤  x  +  y  + z 
and hence the fact that
 x1 + x2 + … + xn  ≤  x  +  x2  + … + xn  .

x x
4. Prove that for x, y ∈ ℜ , y ≠ 0 , = .
y y

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CHAPTER 2
POINT SETS
2.1 Definition:
Any set whose members are real numbers is called a one-dimensional point set. All the
elements of a point set can be located on the real number line.
E.g. The sets {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, {x: –1 < x < 0} are point sets.

2.2 Intervals
The set of values of x such that a ≤ x ≤ b, where a, b ∈ R, is called a closed interval; it is
denoted by [a, b]. The set {x: a < x < b, a, b ∈ R} is called an open interval and is
denoted by (a, b). The half-open or half closed intervals are {x: a < x ≤ b} ≡ (a, b].
{x: a ≤ x < b} ≡ [a, b).

The intervals indicated above are said to bounded intervals.

There are unbounded intervals such as
{x : −∞ < x < b} ≡ (−∞, b) or {x: x < b},
{x: a < x < ∞ } ≡ {x: x > a } ≡ (a, ∞)
{x: −∞ < x < ∞ } ≡ {x: x ∈ R } ≡ R, or (−∞, ∞ ).

2.3 Countable Sets

A set is called countable or denumerable if its elements can be placed in 1–1
correspondence with the set of natural numbers.
E.g.
The set P = {2, 4, 6, …} is a countable set because of the 1 – 1 correspondence
2 4 6 8 10 …
վ վ վ վ վ

1 2 3 4 5 …
A set is called infinite if it can be placed in 1 – 1 correspondence with a subset of itself.
An infinite set which is countable is said to be countably infinite.
E.g. Q is countably infinite.

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2.4 NEIGHBOURHOODS AND LIMIT POINTS

The set of all points x such that x – a < δ , where a ∈ R and δ > 0 is called a
δ−neighbourhood of the point a
x −a < δ ⇒ −δ < x – a < δ
⇒ a−δ <x < a+δ

The set of all points x such that

0 < x −a < δ
is called a deleted δ−neighbourhood of a .

Note
(i) the δ−neighbourhood of a is an interval with centre a and length 2δ .

o o
a −δ a a +δ
δ−Neighbourhood of a
(ii) the deleted δ−neighbourhood of a is an interval with centre a and length 2δ ,
with the point a excluded from the interval.

o o o
a −δ a a +δ
deleted δ−neighbourhood of a

Examples:
(a) The 1 – neighbourhood of 0 is the open interval ( –1, 1). It has length 2 and
centre 0.
(b) The deleted 2 – neighbourhood of 0 is the interval {x : –2 < x < 2, x ≠ 0}.

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2.5 Definition
A limit point, point of accumulation, or cluster point of a set A of numbers is a number
l such that every deleted δ−neighbourhood of l contains elements of the set A. That is,
for every δ > 0, ∃ x ∈ A s.t. 0 < x − l  < δ. Since δ may be as small as we please, it
is clear that every δ−neighbourhood of 0 contains an infinity of elements of A.

Examples:
1) 0 is a limit point of the set
A = (0, 1),
Since every deleted δ−neighbourhood of l has elements of A.

0 δ 1
2
1

It is clear that {x : −δ < x < δ will always have elements of A.

, x ≠ 0 }

2) 1 is a limit point of the set

1 2 3 
B =  , , , … 
2 3 4 

• • •
0 1 2 3 ……… 1
2 3 4

Clearly, for every deleted δ−neighbourhood of 1, there will always be elements of the
set.

Notes
(i) No finite set has a limit point
E.g. the set {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
has no limit points since for any suggested number, a deleted δ−neighbourhood
can be constructed with no elements of the set present.

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(ii) An infinite set may or may not have a limit point. In particular, the natural
numbers N = {1, 2, 3, … } has no cluster points. The set of rational numbers has
infinitely many limit points.
(iii) If a set contains all its limit points, it is called a closed set.
E.g. the set [0, 1] is a closed set, while the set (0, 1) is not a closed set since 0
and 1 even though are limit points do not belong to the set.
Exercises:
(1) How many limit points does the set (–1, 1) have? Why is 0 a limit point?
(2) Does the set
1 1 1 
A=  , , , … 
2 3 4 
have any limit points? If yes, find them.
(3) Why does the set
{–10, – 9, – 8, …, 0, 1, 2, 3, …, 10}

not have a limit point. Show why the point x = 1 cannot be a limit point of the
2
set.
(4) An infinite set is defined by
1
A = { n : n = 0, 1, 2, 3, … } .
2
Does it have a limit point? If yes, determine it. Is the set A closed? Why?

2.6 BOUNDS
Let A be a set. If ∃ M(real) such that x ≤ M, ∀ x ∈ A, then A is said to be bounded
above. M is called an upper bound of the set A. If ∃ m(real) such that x ≥ m, ∀ x ∈
A, then A is said to be bounded below. m is called a lower bound of the set A.

Let M be an upper bound of A. Then if for any ∈ > 0 (however small), ∃ at least one
element x in A such that x > M – ∈ , the number M is called the least upper bound
(l.u.b.) of A.

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Let m be a lower bound of A. then if for any ∈ > 0 (however small), ∃ at least one
element x in A such that x < m + ∈, the number m is called the greatest lower
bound (g.l.b.).
If ∀ x ∈ A, ∃m , M (real) such that m ≤ x ≤ M, then the set A is said to be bounded.

Examples:
(1) The set [0, 1] is a bounded set since for example, –2 < x < 3, ∀ x ∈ [0, 1].
The least upper bound is 1
The greatest lower bound is 0.

(2) The set

 1 1 1 
A = 1, , , , … 
 2 3 4 
is a bounded set, since –1 < x < z , ∀ x ∈ A . The least upper bound is 1 and
the greatest lower bound is 0.

2.7 THE BOLZANO -WEIERSTRASS THEOREM

The Bolzano -Weierstrass theorem states that every bounded infinite set has at least one
limit point.

Examples:
(1) Show that the set

S = { 1n : n = 1, 2, 3, … }
satisfies the Weierstrass – Bolzano theorem. Determine the limit and prove it.

Solution:
 1 1 1 
S = 1, , , , … .
 2 3 4 
S is bounded above by 2 and bounded below by –1. ∴ S is bounded.
Also S is infinite set since it can be placed in 1 – 1 correspondence with a subset of
itself.

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(E.g. 1, 1 , 1 , 1 , …
2 3 4

վ վ վ վ

1 1 1 1, … )
2 4 6 8

∴ S has at least one limit point, by the Bolzano – Weierstrass Theorem.

The limit point is 0.
A deleted δ−neighbourhood of 0 is

0 <  1n − 0 < δ , n ∈ N.

⇒ 0 < 1n < δ ⇒ nδ>1

⇒ n> 1
δ
It is clear that for every δ , there will always be an integer N(δ)

 1n − 0 < δ , ∀ n > N(δ) .

(2) Does the set

1
T = { n : n = 1, 2, 3, …}
2
satisfy the Bolzano – Weierstrass theorem? Why? Does the set T have a limit
point? If yes, find it and prove it.

Solution:
1 1 1 
T =  , , , … 
2 4 8 
Clearly T is bounded. For example, –1 < x < 1, ∀ x ∈ T. T is also infinite and so
satisfies the Weierstrass-Bolzano theorem. Therefore, T has at least one limit point.
Infact, T has only one limit point 0.
To prove that 0 is a limit point of T, we show that every deleted δ-neighbourhood of 0
has elements of T.
1
0< − 0 < δ, n∈N
2n

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1
<δ
2n
1
2n >
δ
⇒ 1
n log 2 > log  
δ 
1
log  
n> δ 
log 2

It is clear that for every δ, there will always be an integer N (δ ) such that
1
−0 <δ .
2n

1
log  
The existence of an integer N(δ ) immediately greater than  δ  completes the
log 2
proof.

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SEQUENCES
DEFINITION
A set of numbers
U1 , U 2 , U 3 , …
in a definite order of arrangement and formed by a definite rule is called a sequence of
numbers .
Every number in the sequence is called a term of the sequence. If the sequence has a last
term, then it is called a finite sequence. If the number of terms is infinite, then the
sequence is called an infinite sequence. The nth term of the sequence will be denoted by
U n, while the sequence itself will be denoted by { U n}.

Example of sequences:
(a)
{1, 2, 3, …, 20}
is a finite sequence of the counting numbers up to 20.

1 1 1 
(b)  , , , … 
2 3 4 

This is an infinite sequence with the nth term U n = 1n .

3.2 TYPES OF SEQUENCES

(a) Arithmetic Sequence
A sequence { U n } of numbers is said to be an arithmetic sequence if
U n+1 – U n = d , ∀ n -------------- (1)
where d is a constant. The constant d is called the Common Difference.
The sum of the first n terms of an Arithmetic sequence is given by
Sn = n {2a + (n – 1) d} , --------------- (2)
2
where a is the first term of the sequence,
E.g.

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The sequence
2, 5, 8, 11, …
is an arithmetic sequence, since d = 3.
The sum of the first 10 terms is:
S10 = 10 (2 (2) + (10 – 1) (3) )
2
= 5 (4 + 27)
= 5 (31)
= 155

(b) Geometric Sequence

A sequence {U n} is said to be a geometric sequence if

U n+1 = r Un, ∀n, ------------------(3)

where r is a constant. The number r is called the Common Ratio.
The sum of the first n terms of a geometric sequence is given by

Sn =
( )
a 1 − rn
, --------------- (4)
1− r
where a is the first term.
E.g. The sequence
1 1 1
1, , , , …
2 4 8
1
is a geometric sequence with a = 1 and r = .
2

(c) Sequences which are neither arithmetic nor geometric.

There are sequences which are neither arithmetic nor geometric. In what follows
general properties of sequences will be discussed.

LIMIT OF A SEQUENCE
An infinite sequence {U n} ∞n =1 is said to have a limit l as n approaches ∞ if Un can
be made as close to l as we please by choosing n sufficiently large.

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We then write.
lim Un = l . ------------------ (5)
n→∞

The above definition may be more rigorously written as follows:

lim Un = l if for every ∈ > 0 (however small), ∃ a positive integer N (depending on
n→∞

∈) s.t. Un − l  < ∈ , ∀ n > N.

Examples:
∞
1 1
(1) The sequence   has limit 0. Thus Un = and l = 0.
 n n= 1 n

1 1
The difference between Un and l is  − 0 =   suppose we wish
n n

1 1 1 1
 < . Then < ⇒ n > 10.
n 10 n 10
Thus any choice of n greater than 10 would satisfy the required condition.
1
It is clear that no matter how small the difference  − 0 is made there will
n
always be the number N.

 n + 1
(2) The sequence   has limit 1.
 n 
 n 2 + 1
(3) The sequence   has no limit.
 n 

Note:
If a sequence has a limit then it is called a convergent sequence; otherwise it is called a
divergent sequence.

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THEOREMS ON SEQUENCES
Theorem 1:
If a sequence {Un} has a limit, then the limit is unique.
(In other words, a convergent sequence has only one limit).

Proof:
Suppose that {Un} has two limits l1 and l2. Then ∀∈ > 0, ∃ N ( a + ve integer) such that

 Un – l1  < ∈, ∀ n > N, and

 Un – l2  < ∈ , ∀ n > N.
Then
 l1 – l2 =  l1 – Un + Un – l2

≤  l1 – Un  +  Un – l2 
< ∈ + ∈
i.e.
 l1 – l2 < 2 ∈

Since ∈ > 0 (however small), it follows that  l1 – l2 is less than every positive
integer.
∴  l1 – l2 = 0 ⇒ l1 – l2 = 0 ⇒ l1 = l2 .
This completes the proof.

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Theorem 2:
Let {Un} and {Vn} be two sequences such that lim Un = A and lim Vn = B.
Then the following results hold
(1) lim (U n + Vn ) = lim U n + lim Vn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

= A + B.
(2) lim (U n − Vn ) = lim U n − lim Vn
n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

= A – B

(3) lim (U n ⋅ Vn ) = lim U n ⋅ lim Vn

n→∞ n→∞ n→∞

= A ⋅ B

U  lim U n
n→∞ A
(4) lim  n  = = provided that lim Vn = B ≠ 0.
n→∞ V n→∞
 n  nlim
→∞
Vn B

Un
(a) If B = 0 and A ≠ 0, then lim does not exist.
n→∞ Vn

Un
(b) If B = 0 and A = 0, then lim may or may not exist.
n→∞ Vn
p
=  lim U n 
p
(5) lim U np = A
n→∞ n→∞ 
lim u
n→∞ n A
(6) lim p un = p = p .
n→∞

p A
For the conditions (5) and (6), p must be real and A or p must exist.

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BOUNDED, MONOTONIC SEQUENCES

A sequence {Un} is said to be bounded above if ∃ M (a constant) such that Un ≤ M, ∀n .

M is called an upper bound. If ∃ m a constant such that Un ≥ m , ∀ n , then the

sequence {Un} is said to be bounded below and m is called a lower bound. If ∃ m, M

such that m ≤ Un ≤ M, ∀n, then the sequence {Un}is said to be a bounded sequence.

An upper bound M is called the least upper bound (l. u. b.) of the sequence if for every
∈ > 0, there will always exist at least one term of the sequence greater than M – ∈ .

A lower bound m is called the greatest lower bound (g. l. b.) of the sequence if for
every
∈ > 0, ∃ at least one term of the sequence is less than m + ∈ .

Example:
 2n + 1  1
The sequence   ≡ 2 +  is bounded below by 1 and bounded above by 4.
 n   n

 2n + 1
Thus   is a bounded sequence.
 n 
The least upper bound is 3 and the greatest lower bound is 2.

A sequence {Un} is said to be a monotonic increasing sequence or a non-decreasing

sequence if Un ≤ Un+1 , ∀ n . If Un+1 ≤ Un, ∀ n, then the sequence is called a monotonic

decreasing sequence or a non-increasing sequence.

If Un < Un+1, ∀ n, the sequence is said to be strictly increasing. If Un+1 < Un, ∀ n, the
sequence is strictly decreasing.

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If a sequence is either monotonic increasing or monotonic decreasing, it is said to be a

monotonic sequence.

Example:
 n + 1
Show that the sequence   is:
 n 
(i) a monotonic decreasing sequence
(ii) a bounded sequence.

Solution:
n +1
(i) Un =
n
n +2 n +1
Un+1 – Un = −
n +1 n

n ( n + 2 ) − ( n + 1) ( n + 1)
=
n ( n + 1)

n 2 + 2n − n 2 − 2n − 1
=
n ( n + 1)

−1
= ≤ 0
n (n + 1)

⇒ Un+1 – Un ≤ 0

⇒ Un+1 ≤ Un , ∀n.

∴ {Un} is a monotonic decreasing sequence.

 n + 1 2 3 4 5 
(ii)   ≡  , , , ,… 
 n  1 2 3 4 

The sequence is bounded above by 3 (say) and bounded below by 0(say).

∴ The sequence is bounded.

Theorem: Every bounded monotonic sequence has a limit.

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Example:
∞
 n 
Use the above theorem to establish that the sequence   has a limit.
 n + 1 n = 1

 n 
Prove that lim   = 1.
n → ∞ n + 1
 

Solution:
 n  1 2 3 
The sequence   ≡  , , , …  is bounded above by 2(say) and bounded
 n + 1 2 3 4 
below by 0(say). ∴the sequence is bounded. The sequence is monotonic increasing
since
n +1 n
U n +1 − U n = −
n+2 n +1

( n + 1) − n ( n + 2 )
2
=
( n + 1) ( n + 2 )
1
= ≥ 0, ∀ n
(n + 1) (n + 2)
⇒ Un+1 – Un ≥ 0

⇒ Un+1 ≥ Un , ∀ n.
Since the sequence is bounded and monotonic, it has a limit.
 n 
To prove that lim   = 1, we wish to show that for every δ > 0, ∃ a positive
n → ∞ n + 1
 

n
integer N, such that − 1 < δ ∀ n > N.
n +1

n n − (n + 1) −1 1
Now − 1 = = = .
n +1 n +1 n +1 n +1

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For any δ > 0

1
< δ
n +1
⇒ (n + 1) δ > 1
1
⇒ n> −1.
δ

1
Thus choosing N a positive integer immediately larger than ( − 1 ) , the result follows.
δ

Example:

Prove that:
n
 4 − 2n  2 3
(a) lim   = − (b) lim   = 0.
n → ∞ 3n + 2 n→∞  4 
  3

Solution:
(a) For every δ > 0
4 − 2n − 2
−   < δ
3n + 2  3 
4 − 2n 2
⇔ + < δ
3n + 2 3

3 (4 − 2n ) + 2 (3n + 2)
⇔ < δ
3 (3n + 2)
16 16
⇔ < δ ⇔ < δ
3 (3n + 2 ) 3 (3n + 2)

16 16
⇔ (3n + 2) δ > ⇔ 3n + 2 >
3 3δ

1  16 
∴ n>  − 2 .
3  3δ 
1  16 
Hence choosing N immediately larger than  − 2  , the result follows.
3  3δ 

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(b) For every δ > 0 ,

n
3
  − 0 < δ
4

n
3
⇒   < δ
4
3
⇒ n loge   < loge δ
4

log e δ 3
⇒ n> (since loge <0).
log e 3 4
4
log e δ
Hence choosing N, a positive integer immediately larger than , the result follows.
log e 3
4

3.6 EVALUATING LIMITS OF SEQUENCES

The limit l of a sequence {Un}, if it exists, may be evaluated using the theorems on
limits.
Consider the following examples.

Examples:
Evaluate the limits of the following sequences:

 4 − 2n − 3n 2   n 2 (n − 1 ) 

(a)   (b)  
 4 n + 5n  1 + 1 n3 
2
 2 

(c) { n + n −n
2
} (d)
 n 2n+1
2

.
 

Solutions:

(a) Using the theorems on limits we have

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4 − 2 − 3
4 − 2n − 3n 2 n 2 n
lim = lim
n→∞ 4 n + 5n
2 n→∞ 4 + 5n

lim
n→∞
(n4 −
n −3
2
2 3
)
=
=
n→∞
5
lim 4 + n ( 4
.
)

n 2 (n − 1 )  n 2 (n − 1 ) 
(b) lim = lim  
1 + 1 n3 n→∞  1 + 1 n 
3
n→∞
2  2 

 
 1 − 1n  1
= lim   =
n→∞  1 + 1  1
 n3 2  2

= 2

(c) lim {n 2
+n − n } = lim
( n2 + n − n )( n2 + n + n )
n→∞ n→∞ n2 + n + n

(
 n2 + n − n2 
= lim   )
n→∞ 
 n + n + n 
2

n
= lim
n→∞
n +n +n
2

1 1
= lim =
n→∞
1 + 1n + 1 2

 
 n 
 2n   2 
 n +1  lim
n→∞  n +1
 
(d) lim 2 = 2
n→∞  
 
 
= 2° = 1.

3.7 EXERCISES:

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n+3
(1) Let Un =
2n + 1
(a) Prove that the sequence { Un } is (i) bounded (ii) monotonic decreasing
(b) Guess the limit of { Un } and prove it.

n +1 1
(2) Prove that lim = , using the definition of a limit.
n→∞ 3n − 2 3

1
(3) Prove that lim 2 n = 1 , using he definition of a limit.
n→∞

(4) Evaluate lim U n , where Un is given by each of the following:

n→∞

5n 2 + 3n + 3  1  n2 − 1 
(a) (b)  2   
2 − n + 7n2 n 2 
  n  

 
+ 1
3n 2 − 4n + 5 1

 n2 


(c) (d) 5
n +1

(5) Show that

lim
n→∞
( n +1 − n ) = 0.

(6) If Un+1 = U n + 1 , U1 = 1, prove that lim Un =

n→∞
1
2
1+ ( 5 ).
(7) A sequence { Un } is defined inductively by U1 = 1 , Un+1 = 2 Un .

(a) Prove that lim Un exists.

n→∞

(b) Determine lim Un .

n→∞

n
 1
(8) Prove that lim  1 +  = e.
n→∞  n
n
 1
( Hint : Expand 1+  binomially ).
 n

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CHAPTER FOUR

FUNCTIONS

4.1 Definition:
A real function f is a relation which takes elements from a point set D (called the
domain) to elements of another point set (called the co-domain) such that each element in
the domain has exactly one image in the co-domain.

Any number x ∈D is called an independent variable. The function may be represented in

the form
f : x → f(x) or f : x → y

The domain of the function is also defined as the set of all real number for which the
function f is defined. When we write y = f(x) to represent a function, then y is called the
dependent variable.

4.2 The Graph of a function:

The graph of the function y = f(x) is a pictorial representation of the function. This
representation may be on a rectangular co-ordinate system, the points being defined by
the pairs (x, y) or (x, f(x)).

4.3 BOUNDED FUNCTIONS:

Let x ∈ [a, b]. If ∃ M (real) such that f(x) ≤ M, ∀ x ∈ [a, b], then f(x) is said to be
bounded above in [a, b]. M is called an upper bound of f.

If ∃ m (real) such that f(x) ≥ m , ∀ x ∈ [a, b] we say that f(x) is bounded below in
(a, b) and m is called a lower bound of f.

If ∃ m, M such that m ≤ f(x) ≤ M, ∀ x ∈ [a, b) then the function f is said to be

bounded.

If f(x) has an upper bound, it has a least upper bound; if it has a lower bound it has a
greatest lower bound.

Examples:
Consider the interval [ –1, 1].
1. The function f(x) = 4 – x is bounded above by 5 (or any number greater than 5)
and bounded below by 3 (or any number less than 3).

4.4 MOTONONIC FUNCTIONS

A function f(x) is called a monotonic increasing function in an interval [a, b] if for ∀ x1
, x2 ∈ [a, b] such that x1, < x2, f(x1) ≤ f(x2).

f(x) is called monotonic decreasing if for x1 < x2 , f(x1) ≥ f(x2).

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If x1 < x2 and f(x1) < f(x2), then f(x) is strictly increasing; if f(x1) > f(x2), then f(x) is
strictly decreasing.

Examples:
(1) The function f(x) = 2x + 1 is monotonic increasing in the interval [0, 1].
1
(2) The function f(x) = is monotonic decreasing in the interval [1, 3].
x
(3) The function
x + 1
f(x) =
x
is monotonic decreasing in the interval [1, 5].

Exercises:
(1) Consider the function
x
f(x) =
x +1
in the interval [0, 1]. Investigate the following properties of the function f.
(a) Boundedness.
(b) Monotonicity.

(2) Define a function by

1
f(x) = x +
x
in the interval [1, 3]. Describe the following properties of the function:
(a) Boundedness
(b) Monotonicity

(3) Repeat (2) for the interval (0, 1].

MAXIMA AND MINIMA:

Let x0 ∈ [a, b]. If a function f(x) is such that f(x) ≤ f(x0), ∀ x ∈ [a, b], then f(x) is said
to have an absolute maximum in the interval [a, b] at x = x0. The maximum value is
f(x0). If f(x) ≥ f(x0), ∀ x ∈ [a, b], then f(x) is said to have an absolute minimum in the
interval [a, b] at x = x0. The minimum value is f(x0).

If the above statements are true only for values of x in some deleted δ - neighbourhood
of x0 then f(x) is said to have a relative maximum or a relative minimum at x0.

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4.6 TYPES OF FUNCTIONS

There are three major types of functions: Polynomial functions, algebraic functions and
transcendental functions.

1. Polynomial Functions
These are functions of the form

Pn(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x2 + … + an xn , an ≠ 0. ------------------ (1)

This is called a polynomial in x of degree n. The numbers a0, a1, …, an are constants and
n is a positive integer.

Theorem
Every polynomial equation
f(x) = 0
has at least one root.
If the degree of the polynomial is n, then the equation Pn(x) = 0 has exactly n roots.

2. Algebraic Function
Any function y = f(x) satisfying an equation of the form

P0 (x) yn + P1 (x) yn−1 + … + Pn-1 (x)y + Pn (x) = 0 , ---------------- (2)

where P0 (x), … , Pn (x) are polynomials in x , is called an algebraic function.

If an algebraic function may be expressed as the quotient of two polynomials,
i.e. P(x)/Q(x), where P(x) and Q(x) are polynomials, then the function is called a rational
algebraic function. Otherwise it is an irrational algebraic function.

3. Transcendental Functions
Any function which is not algebraic is called a Transcendental Function. A transcendental function is

expressible as an infinite sum of polynomials.

Examples:
(a) 2x4 + x3 – 2x2 + x + 9 – a polynomial of degree 4.
1
(b) y = 3 is an algebraic function since
x
1
x3 . 3 – 1 = 0 (x3, – 1 are polynomials )
x

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x
(c) y = is algebraic, since
x +1
x x
x. + – x = 0
x +1 x +1
x
⇒ (x + 1) – x = 0
x +1

4.7 ELEMENTARY TRANSCENDENTAL FUNCTIONS

1. Exponential Functions.
These are functions of the form
f(x) = ax , a ≠ 0, 1

2. Logarithmic Functions
These have the form
f(x) = loga x, a ≠ 0, 1
If a = 2.71828 … = e , we write
f(x) = logex ≡ lnx
usually called logarithm to the natural base.

3. Trigonometric Functions
These are the circular functions
Sinx, Cos x and tanx.
There are also their reciprocals
1 1 1
sec x = , cosec x = and cot x = .
cos x sin x tan x
sin x cos x
Furthermore, tan x = and so cot x = .
cos x sin x

The following results hold:

(a) sin2x + cos2x = 1 – Pythagoras’ theorem
(b) 1 + tan2x = sec2x
(c) 1 + cot2x = cosec2 x
(d) sin (x + y) = sin x cos y + cos x sin y
(e) cos (x + y) = cos x cos y – sin x sin y
tan x + tan y
(f) tan (x + y) =
1 − tan x tan y

4. Inverse Trigonometric Functions

These are the functions
f(x) = sin–1 x (also called arc sine)
f(x) = cos–1 x (arc cosine).
f(x) = tan–1 x (arc tangent)

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f(x) = cosec–1 x (arc cosech nt)

f(x) = sec–1 x (arc secc nt )
f(x) = cot–1 x (arc cotan gent)

5. Hyperbolic Functions
These are functions defined in terms of the exponential functions as follows:
1 x –x
(a) Sinh (x) or sinh x = (e – e ).
2
1 x
(b) Coshx = (e + e–x ).
2
sinh x e x − e− x
(c) tanh x = = x
cosh x e + e− x
1 2
(d) cosech x = = x
sinh x e − e− x
1 2
(e) sech x = = x
cosh x e + e− x
1 e x + e− x
(f) coth x = = x
tanh x e − e− x

(See special notes on Hyperbolic functions and their graphs and properties on page ?)

6. Inverse Hyperbolic Functions

These include the following:

(a) Sinh–1 x (b) Cosh–1 x (c) tanh–1 x

(d) Cosech–1 x (e) Sech–1 x (f) coth–1 x .

(See notes on hyperbolic functions ).

GRAPHS OF FUNCTIONS
Let us now consider the graphs of certain special functions.

(1) Exponential Functions:

f(x) = ax, a ≠ 0, 1 , x ∈ R .

For a > 1 ,
When x = 0, a0 = 1

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As x → − ∞, ax → 0+
As x → + ∞ , ax → ∞
f(x) = a–x , a > 1 , x ∈ R.
When x = 0, a0 = 1
As x → − ∞, ax → + ∞
As x → + ∞ , ax → 0+

The two graphs are as shown below on the same axes.

y = ax
y = a−x
(0,1)

x
0

Figure 4.7.1

The exponential function defined by f(x) = ex, where e ≅ 2.72 is a special exponential
function. The number e is called the natural base. How the number e was arrived at
will be discussed later.

(2) Logarithmic Functions

f(x) = loga x , a > 1 , x ∈ R ,

When x = a, f(a) = 1
When x = 1, f(1) = 0.

As x → 0+, f(x) → − ∞ .
x cannot assume – ve real numbers.

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Loga x is also the inverse function of the exponential function y = ax.

The graph is shown below

a >1 y = loga x
a

x
(1,0) a >1

a <1

Figure 4.7.2

When a = 10, then log10 x is called the common logarithm.

Relationship with the exponential function y = ax , a > 1.

The functions y = ax and y = loga x are mutually inverse functions. The two graphs are
represented on the same graph.

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y
y = ax y=x

y = log a x
( 0,1)

(1,0)

Figure 4.7.3

4.8 EVEN, ODD AND PERIODIC FUNCTIONS

A function f(x) is said to be an even function if

f( – x) = f(x) , x ∈ ℜ ------------------- (1)

A function is called odd if

f(– x) = – f(x) , x ∈ ℜ ------------------- (2)

A function f(x) is said to be a periodic function if ∃ a real number T such that

f(x + T) = f(x) , x ∈ ℜ ------------------- (3)

Symmetry
An even function is symmetrical about the y-axis.
An odd function has a rotational symmetry of order 2 about the origin.
A periodic function repeats its value after every value x = T.

Examples:
(1) f(x) = x2 is an even function
f(– x) = (–x )2 = x2 = f(x)

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y
y = x2

x
0

(2) f(x) = x3 is an odd function:

f(– x) = (–x) 3 = (–1) 3 x3 = –x 3 = –f(x)

y = x3

(3) (a) f(x) = sin x is periodic with period 2π

f(x + 2π) = sin (x + 2π) = sin x = f(x)

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(b) f(x) = tan x is periodic with period π

f(x + π) = tan (x + π) = tan x = f(x) .

y = sin x

x
π 2π 3π 4π

-1

(b)

x
π 3π 5π
2 2 2
3π

Remarks:
1) There are functions which are neither even nor odd, and many are not periodic.
E.g. f(x) = x2 + x3

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2) Every function f(x) may be expressed as the sum of an even and an odd function, since

f(x) = 1 {f(x) + f(– x) } + 1 {f(x) – f(– x) }.

2 2
even odd.

E.g. For f(x) = (x + 1)2 .

f(– x ) = (– x + 1)2
∴ f(x) + f(– x) = (x + 1)2 + (1 – x )2 is an even function;
while
f(x) – f(– x) = (x + 1)2 – (1 – x )2 is an odd function.

3) Special Even and odd functions.

(a) f(x) = sin x is an odd function since sin (– x) = – sin x.

(b) f(x) = cos x is an even function since, cos (– x) = cos x .

Exercises:
1. Show that
(a) f(x) = x sin x is an even function
(b) f(x) = x cos x is an odd function.

2. From the function

f(x) = (x – 1)2,
construct
(a) an even function
(b) an odd function
Prove each of the cases (a) and (b).

3. Write down any function which is neither even nor odd. Construct an even and an
odd function from it.

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CHAPTER FIVE

CO-ORDINATE GEOMETRY

5.0 Introduction: Students are already familiar with topics in co-ordinate geometry
such as Equations of straight lines and circles.

In this chapter we shall concentrate on loci which define plane shapes we generally call
CONIC SECTIONS. Treatment will be carried out in the Cartesian rectangular co-
ordinates. The last section of this chapter will deal with polar curves – curves whose
equations are presented in the polar co-ordinate system.

5.1 CONIC SECTIONS

There are three basic conic sections – the Parabola, the Ellipse and the Hyperbola.

A. THE PARABOLA

Let P(x, y) be a variable point in the x – y plane. If the locus of the point P(x, y) is such that it is the same

distance from a fixed point (called the Focus) and from a fixed line (called the Directrix), then the locus of

the point P defines a curve called a PARABOLA.

Consider a point A (a, o) on the x-axis and a line D with equation x = – a (parallel to
the y-axis). A (a, 0) is the focus while D(x = – a ) is the directrix.

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y
D

x
−a O A ( a,0)

Let M be a point on D such that PM is parallel to the x-axis. Then by the definition of a
parabola
PM = PA .
That is,
x + a = (x − a ) 2 + ( y − o)
2
,
⇒
y2 + (x – a) 2 = (x + a) 2
⇒ y2 + x2 – 2ax + a 2 = x2 + 2ax + a 2

⇒ y2 = 4ax.

Thus the general equation of a parabola is

y2 = 4ax ------------------(1)

This general equation is in its simplest form.

The Graph:

When x = 0, y2 = 0 ⇒ y = 0 (repeated) thus the curve touches the y-axis at 0; when

y = 0 , x = 0. Curve meets the axes only at the origin 0.

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y L

x
A ( a,0)
0

L'

The curve is symmetrical about the x-axis. The line L L′ is called the Latus Rectum of
the parabola.

Parametric Equations
The equations
x = at2, y = 2at, --------------------------- (2)
where t is a parameter, are called the parametric equations of the parabola. They satisfy
the equation of the curve since
y2 = (2at)2 = 4a2t2 = 4a(at2) = 4ax . ------------------------------ (3)
Any point (at2, 2at) lies on the curve.

Equations of Tangents and Normals

y2 = 4ax
⇒
dy dy 2a
2y = 4a ⇒ = --------- (4)
dx dx y

Thus at any point (at2, 2at), on the curve the tangent has gradient
dy 2a 1
= = . -------- (5)
dx 2at t

The equation of the tangent at any point ‘t’ is then

1
y – 2at = (x – at2)
t

x
⇒ y − 2at = − at
t

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⇒ ty – x – at2 = 0 --------- (6)

The gradient of the normal at (at2, 2at) is – t ; the equation is then

y – 2at = – t (x – at2).

⇒ y + tx – 2at – at3 = 0 . ----------- (7)

Length of the Latus Rectum

When x = a
y2 = 4a(a) = 4a2
∴ y = ± 2a.
Hence the Latus Rectum has length
L L′ = 4a. --------- (8)

Exercise:

(1) A straight line passing through the focus of the parabola y2 = 4ax has gradient 1.
Determine the points of intersection of the line with the parabola.

(2) The normal to the parabola y2 = 4ax at the point t (t ≠ 0) meets the curve again at
the point t′ . Find t′ in terms of t. Determine a point on the x-axis where the
tangent at t′ meets the x-axis.

B. THE ELLIPSE
The locus of points P(x, y) in a plane such that its distance from a fixed point (the focus)
is always less than its distance from a fixed line (the directrix).

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a
D=− ∈

a
x + ∈ P(x, y)
M

A
 • • • x
–a (–a∈, 0) (–a∈, 0) a

From the figure above, with 0 < ∈ < 1, and a constant a, the directrix has equation
a
x= − . ------------- (9)
∈
Then
PA
= ∈ ------------ (10)
PM
2
 a
⇒ (x + a ∈) 2 + y 2 = ∈ x +  .
 ∈

2
 a
⇒ (x + a ∈) 2
+y
2
= ∈ x + 
2
.
 ∈

 a a2 
⇒ x2 + 2a∈x + a2 ∈2 + y2 = ∈2  x 2 + 2 x + 2 
 ∈ ∈ 
⇒ x (1 − ∈ ) + y = a (1 − ∈ ).
2 2 2 2 2

Dividing through by a2 (1 − ∈2), we have

x2 y2
+ = 1.
a2 (
a 2 1 − ∈2 ) --------------- (11)

Setting b2 = a2 (1 − ∈2), we have the equation

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x2 y2
+ = 1 --------------- (12)
a2 b2

This is the equation of the ellipse.

Notes:
1) Since 0 < ∈ < 1, a > b.

The constant a is called the semi-major axis of the ellipse, while b is called its semi-
minor axis. The ellipse has the shape

b L

A A′
–a a x
(−a∈, 0) 0 (a∈, 0)

–b L′

2) The number ∈ is called the Eccentricity of the ellipse.

If ∈ = 0, the ellipse reduces to a circle of radius a.
If ∈ = 1, the locus is a parabola.

3) The ellipse is symmetrical in both the x and the y-axis; these are called the axes
of the ellipse.

4). When x = a ∈, we have

a 2 ∈2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2
y2
⇒ = 1 − ∈2
b2
⇒ y2 = b2 (1 − ∈2).

⇒ y = ± b 1 − ∈2 . --------------------- (13)

Thus the Latus Rectum of the ellipse has length

LL′ = 2b (1 − ∈2) ½ .

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Equations of Tangents and Normals

x2 y2
+ =1
a2 b2

2x 2 y dy
⇒ 2
+ 2 = 0
a b dx

dy b2 x
⇒ = − 2 --------------------- (14)
dx a y

At any point (x1, y1) on the ellipse, the tangent there has gradient
dy b2  x 
= − 2  1  .
dx a  y1 
∴ The equation of the tangent is
b2  x 
y – y1 = − 2  1  ( x − x1 ) .
a  y1 
⇒ a y1 (y – y1) = – b2 x1 (x – x1) .
2

⇒ a2y1 y – a2 y 12 = – b2 x1 x + b2x 12 .

Dividing through by a2 b2 and re-arranging, we have

y1 y x1 x x12 y12
+ = + ---------------------- (15)
b2 a2 a2 b2

The rhs equals 1, since (x1, y1) lies on the ellipse.

Thus the tangent has equation

x1 x y1 y ------------------------ (16)
+ = 1.
a2 b2

a 2 y1
The gradient of the normal at (x1, y1) is .
b2 x 1
∴ The normal at (x1, y1) has equation
a2 y 1
y – y1 = 2 (x – x1) .
b x1
⇒ b2 x1 (y – y1) = a2 y1 (x – x1) .

⇒ b2 x1 y – b2 x1 y1 = a2 y1 x – a2 y1 x1

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x1 y y x x y x y
2
− 12 = 1 2 1 − 1 2 1
a b a b
x1 y y1 x  1 1 
⇒ − =  2 − 2  x1 y1 --------------------- (17)
a2 b2 a b 

Parametric Equations of the Ellipse.

The equations are
x = a cost , y = b sint , ------------------- (18)

where t is a parameter. The point (a cost, b sint ) lies on the ellipse, since

(a cos t ) 2 +
(b sin t ) 2 = cos 2 t + sin 2 t = 1.
2 2
a b
The equation of the tangent to the ellipse at any point ‘t’ (ie. (a cost, b sint) ) will be
a cos t b sin t
2
x + y = 1,
a b2
i.e. using equation (5.1.16)
 cos t   sin t 
 x +   y = 1. --------------------- (19)
 a   b 

By a similar procedure, the equation of the normal at any point ‘t’ on the curve can be
obtained.

Exercises:
x2 y2
(1) The normal at the point ‘t’ on the ellipse + = 1 meets the ellipse
a2 b2
again at t1.

Find t1 in terms of t .

x2 y2
(2) Find the equations of the tangents to the ellipse + = 1 where the
a2 b2
Latus rectum meets the curve. Show that the two tangents meet on the x-axis.

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C THE HYPERBOLA
y
a
ε

m
P ( x, y )

A A'
x
−a
( −aε , o ) a
( aε ,0)

x = − εa

In the case of the hyperbola, the eccentricity ∈> 1. Thus by definition

PA
> 1 ----------------------- (20)
PM
i.e.
PA
= ∈ , where ∈> 1.
PM

2
 a
⇒ (x + a ∈) 2 + y 2 = ∈2  x +  .
 ∈
2 2 2 2 2  a a2 
⇒ x + 2a∈x + a ∈ + y = ∈  x 2 + 2 x + 2  .
 ∈ ∈ 
2 2 2
= ∈ x + 2a∈x + a .

Hence
2 2 2 2 2
x (1 − ∈ ) + y = a (1 − ∈ ).
⇒
2 2 2 2 2
x (∈ − 1) − y = a (∈ − 1) ------------------- (21)

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which leads to the equation

x2 y2
− =1 -------------------- (22)
a2 b2

2 2 2
where b = a (∈ − 1) .

Parametric Equations
These are
x = a sec t , y = b tan t ---------------- (23)
or
x = a cosh t , y = b sin h t. --------------- (24)

Asymptotes

A y B′

B A′

The tangents to the hyperbola at x = ± ∞ are called the asymptotes of the hyperbola.
They have equations
b
y = ± x ----------------------- (25)
a
In the figure, they are shown by the lines AA′ and BB′ .

When AA′ and BB′ are perpendicular, then the hyperbola is called a rectangular
hyperbola. In this case it may be shown that the equation of the hyuperbola reduces to
2
xy = c , ---------------------- (26)

where c is a real constant.

Parametric Equations of the Rectangular Hyperbola.

These are
c
x = ct, y = ----------------------- (27)
t
c
Thus, the point ‘t’ has co-ordinates (ct, ).
t

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Exercises:
(1) Show that the equation of the tangent to the hyperbola at any point (x1, y1) is
xx1 yy
2
− 21 = 1.
a b
(2) Find the equations of the tangents and normals to the rectangular hyperbola at any
point ‘t’ on it.
c
(3) The normal to the rectangular hyperbola at the point (ct, ) meets the hyperbola
t
again at the point ‘t1’. Find t1 in terms of t.

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CHAPTER SIX

DIFFERENTIATION

In this chapter topics to be treated will enable the student gain a more complete
understanding of the process of differentiation.

6.1 LIMITS OF FUNCTIONS

6.1.1 Definition:
Let f(x) be a function defined in a deleted δ - neighbourhood of the point x = x0. The
function f(x) is said to have the limit l as x approaches x0 if f(x) can be made as
close to l as we please by choosing x sufficiently close to x0.

We write
lim f(x) = l . ------------------- (1)
x → x0
In a rigorous language we say that lim f(x) = l if for every ∈ > 0 (however small,
x → x0

∃ δ > 0 ( δ = δ (∈) ) such that f(x) − l  < ∈, whenever o < x − x0  < δ .

Right Hand /Left Hand Limits

The lim f(x) as x → x0 usually depends on how x approaches x0. Since x0 is a real
number, x can approach x0 in only two possible directions. (See the figure).

x → x 0− x → x 0+

x0

Different results could be obtained for each of the cases. Let us consider the following
examples:

1) lim (2x + 1) = 1
x → 0−

lim (2x + 1) = 1
x → 0+

1
2) lim−   = −∞
x→0  x 

1
lim+   = +∞
x→0  x 

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1 π
3) lim− tan −1   = −
x→0  x 2

1 π
lim tan −1   =
x → 0+  x 2

4) Let f(x) be defined by

 1, x > 0
f (x) = 
 − 1, x < 0

(See graph)
+1

−1

Fig. 1

lim f (x) = −1
x → 0−

lim f (x) = +1
x → 0+

The above examples illustrate the fact that lim f (x) ≠ lim+ f(x) (in general).
x → x0 x → x0

Let lim f (x) = l1 , and

x → x0−

lim f (x) = l2 .
x → x0+

Then l1 is called the left hand limit, while l2 is called the right hand limit of f(x) as x
approaches x0.

In general l1 ≠ l2 . However, if l1 = l2 = l then

lim f(x) = l . ------------------- (2)

x → x0

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Remarks:
1) The ∈ − δ definition for limit of f(x) is used only to prove that f(x) has a limit
at x = x0.
2) A simple way of showing that a function f(x) has no limit at x = x0 is by
determining l1 and l2 .
3) It is important to note that lim f(x) is not the same as f(x0) since it is only the
x → x0

deleted δ − neighbourhood of x0 that is being considered when finding lim f(x).

x → x0

Worked Examples:
(1) Prove that lim (2x + 1) = 1.
x →0
We wish to show that given any ∈ > 0, ∃ δ > 0 (δ (∈) ) such that (2x+1) −1< ∈
whenever 0 < x − 0 < δ .

Now (2x + 1) − 1 = 2x  = 2x.

Since x< δ (x ≠ 0), it follows that (2x + 1) − 1 < 2δ .

∈
∴ Choosing δ = , we obtain the result that
2
(2x + 1) − 1 < ∈ whenever 0 < x < δ. This completes the proof.

2
(2) Prove that lim x = 1.
x →1

2
We show that given ∈ > 0, ∃ δ > 0 (δ (∈) ) s.t. x − 1 < ∈ whenever 0 <x −1 < δ .
2
Now, x − 1 = (x + 1) (x − 1) = x + 1 x − 1
2
Since 0 < x − 1 < δ , it follows that x − 1 < x + 1 δ

Suppose that δ = 1, then x − 1<1 ⇒ –< x − 1< ⇔ 0 < x < 2 , x ≠ 1

⇒
2
x − 1 < 3δ
∈ 2
Setting δ = or 1, whichever is smaller, will give us the result that x − 1 < ∈
3
whenever x − 1 < δ .

This completes the proof.

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(3) Define
 x −1
 , x ≠1
f(x) =  x − 1

 0 , x =1

(i) Draw the graph , and (ii) show that lim f(x) does not exist.
x →1
(i) Graph : for x < 1 , x − 1 = – (x − 1)
⇒ f(x) = −
(x − 1) = – 1
x −1
for x > 1, x − 1 = x − 1

x −1
⇒ f(x) = = 1
x −1
f(1) = 0.
y

f(x) = 1

• • x
1

f(x) = – 1

Fig. 2
(ii) lim f (x) = lim −
(x − 1) = lim (– 1) = – 1
x →1− x → 1− x −1 x →1−

x −1
lim+ f (x) = lim+ = lim (+ 1) = 1
x →1 x →1 x −1 x →1+

∴ lim f (x) ≠ lim+ f (x)

x →1− x →1

∴ lim f (x) does not exist.

x →1

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6.2 THEOREMS ON LIMITS

Let
lim f(x) = A, lim g(x) = B , where A and B are finite constants.
x → x0 x → x0

Then
(a) lim (f (x) + g(x) ) = lim f(x) + lim g(x)
x → x0 x → x0 x → x0

= A + B

(b) lim (f (x) − g(x) ) = lim f(x) − lim g(x)

x → x0 x → x0 x → x0

= A − B

(c) lim (f (x) . g(x) ) = lim f(x) . lim g(x)

x → x0 x → x0 x → x0

= A . B

lim f (x )
 f (x )  x → x0 A
(d) lim   = = .
x → x0 g(x)  lim g(x )
  x → x0
B
provided that B ≠ o.
 f (x ) 
(i) If A ≠ o and B = o, lim   does not exist.
x → x0 g(x) 
 
(ii) If A = o and B = o, the form 0 is indeterminate and the limit
0
may or may not exist.

6.3 Evaluation of Limits

The following rules will assist us when evaluating limits of functions
(1) If f(x) = Pn(x), a polynomial in x, then
lim f (x) = Pn(x0) = f(x0).
x → x0
2 2
E.g. lim (x + 2x – 5) = 1 + 2 (1) – 5 = – 2.
x →1

(2) If f(x) is an elementary function, then

lim f (x) = f(x0).
x → x0
E.g. lim sin x = sin o = 0.
x →0

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(3) If f(x) =
(x − x0 ) α g(x ) , x ≠ x0 and α is real, then
(x − x0 ) α h (x )
g(x)
lim f(x) = lim .
x → x0 x → x0 h(x)

x3 − 8
E.g. For f(x) = , x ≠ 2
x −2

lim f(x) = lim

x3 − 8
= lim
(
(x - 2 ) x 2 + 2 x + 4 )
x →2 x →2 x − 2 x →2 x - 2

2
= lim (x + 2x + 4)
x →2

2
= 2 + 2(2) + 4 = 12 .

6.3 Special Limits

sin x
(1) lim = 1 ------------------- (3)
x →0 x

The proof is shown below:

Consider the arc AB of the circle centre 0 and radius r.
A

r tan θ
r

π
O r B
Fig. 3
Clearly,
Area of ∆ AOB < Area of Sector < Area of ∆ AOT
AOB
1 2 1 2 1 2
⇒ r sin θ < r θ < r tan θ
2 2 2
⇒
sin θ < θ < tan θ
θ 1
⇒ 1 < <
sinθ cosθ

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1
As θ → 0, ∼ 1
cosθ
θ
⇒ ∼ 1 for small θ
sinθ

θ sinθ
∴ lim = 1 or lim = 1.
θ →0 sinθ θ →0 θ

x
 1
(2) lim 1 +  = e
x →∞  x

(1 + x )x
1
(3) lim = e
x →0 +

Exercises:

(1) Prove, using the ∈ − δ definition that

(a) lim (1 – x ) = 1 (b) lim (3x + 1) = 7

x →0 x →2

(2) A function f(x) is defined as

x3 + 1
f(x) = , x ≠ − 1.
x +1

Evaluate lim f(x).

x → −1

(3) Draw the graph of the function

f(x) = x − 2
By determining lim− f(x) and lim f(x) show that lim f(x) exists.
x→2 x → 2+ x→2

(4) Evaluate the following limits of functions:

(a)
(x + 2) (x 2 + 3)
lim
x → −2 x2 − 4

x
(b) lim e sin 2x
x→0

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1  1 2 
(c) lim  − 
x →1 x −1 x +3 3x + 5 

(5) Prove, using the ∈ − δ definition that

1
lim x sin = 0.
x →0 x

(6) Prove that if lim f (x) exists, then it must be unique.

x → x0

(7) A function f(x) is defined by

− 1, x < −1

f(x) =  x −1 < x < 1
 1, x >1


(i) Draw the graph of f(x).

(ii) Show that lim f(x) and lim f(x) both exist.
x → −1 x →1

6.4 CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION

Definition: A function f(x) is said to be continuous at a point x = x0 if the following

conditions hold:

1) lim f (x) exists,

x → x0

2) f(x0) is defined,

3) lim f (x) = f(x0).

x → x0

Equivalently we could say that f(x) is continuous at the point x = x0 if f(x0) is defined
and lim f (x) = f(x0).
x → x0

Using the ∈ − δ definition we say that f(x) is continuous at x = x0 if given ∈ > o

(however small) ∃ δ > o such that f(x) − f(x0)  < ∈ , whenever x − x0  < δ .

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Right Hand/Left Hand Continuity

If only lim f(x) = f(x0), where f(x0) is defined, then f(x) is continuous on the left; if
x → x0−

only lim+ f(x) = f(x), then f(x) is continuous on the right.

x → x0

Continuity in an Interval
A function f(x) is said to be continuous in an interval (a, b) if f(x) is defined for every
x0 ∈ (a, b) and lim f (x) = f(x0).
x → x0

For the closed interval [a, b], f(x) is continuous in [a, b] if f(x) is continuous in (a, b) and
in addition
lim+ f (x) = f(a) and lim− f (x) = f(b) ,
x→a x →b

where f(a) and f(b) are defined.

THEOREMS ON CONTINUITY
1. If f(x) and g(x) are both continuous at a point x = x0, then f(x) ± g(x),
f (x )
f(x) . g(x) and are all continuous at x = x0 (provided that g(x0) ≠ 0 in
g (x )
the last case).

2. Every polynomial in x, Pn(x) is continuous for all real x.

Proof: (of 2)
2 n
Pn(x) = a0 + a1 x + a2 x + … + an x .
m
Consider f(x) = x , m < n.

m
lim f (x) = lim x for some x0 real.
x → x0 x → x0

= x om = f(x0).
m
∴ f(x) = x is continuous at x = x0.
Since Pn(x) is a sum of such functions it is continuous at x0 (using 1). Since x0
is arbitrary it follows that Pn(x) is continuous for all x real.

3. If y = f(x) is continuous at x = x0 and z = g(y) is continuous at y = y0 and if

y0 = f(x0), then the function z = g{f(x) }, called the composite or function of a
function, is continuous at x = x0. That is, a continuous function of a continuous
function is continuous.

4. If f(x) is continuous in a closed interval, then it is bounded in the interval.

5. For further theorems on continuity, see M. Spiegel (Adv. Calculus) pp. 25 – 26.

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6.5 SECTIONAL CONTINUITY

A function f(x) is said to be sectionally continuous or piecewise continuous in an

interval [a, b] if the interval can be subdivided into a finite number of subintervals in
each of which f(x) is continuous and has finite right and left hand limits. Such a
function has only a finite number of discontinuities. (See figure).
y

x
a x1 x2 x3 b

Fig. 6.5

The discontinuities are x1, x2 and x3.

Exercise:
Draw the graph of the function

 x, − 3 ≤ x ≤ −1
 x 2 − 1, −1 < x ≤ 1

f(x) = 
 2, 1< x ≤ 3
 1 − x , 3< x ≤ 5

This is an example of a sectionally continuous or a piecewise continuous function in the

interval [–3, 5]. It is continuous in each of the subintervals [ – 3, – 1 ], ( – 1, 1], (1, 3],
(3, 5] with finite discontinuities at x = – 1, 1 and 3. (Show that f(x) is not continuous
at these points! ).

6.6 UNIFORM CONTINUITY

Definite:
Let f(x) be continuous in [a, b]. Then at each point x0, and for every ∈>o,∃δ>o (δ =
δ(∈, x0) ) s.t. f(x) − f(x0)  < ∈ , whenever x − x0 < δ.

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Now if δ depends only on ∈ and not and x0, then f(x) is said to be uniformly
continuous in [a, b].

Example:
2
Prove that f(x) = x is uniformly continuous in the interval [0, 2] .

We show that for each x0 in [0, 2] and for every ∈ > o, ∃ δ = δ(∈) (depending on ∈
only), s.t. f(x) − f(x0) < ∈, whenever x − x0 < δ.

Now, for any x0 ∈ [0, 2]

2
x − x 02  = x + x0 x − x0.

Since x − x0 < δ. , we have

2
x − x 02  < x + x0 δ < 4 δ, since 0 ≤ x ≤ 2.
∈
Hence choosing δ = , the result follows. It is clear that δ does not depend on x0.
4

6.7 DIFFERENTIABILITY

Let f(x) be defined at some point x0 in the interval (a, b). Then, the derivative of f(x)
at x0 denoted by f ′(x0) is defined as
f (x ) − f (x 0 )
f ′(x0) = lim , if the rhs limit exists.
x → x0 x − x0

Setting h = x – x0, the above definition becomes

f (x 0 + h ) − f (x 0 )
f ′(x0) = lim ------------------- (4)
h→o h

A function f(x) is said to be differentiable at a point x0 if f ′(x0) exists.

Right Hand/Left Hand Differentiability

A function f(x) is said to be left hand differentiable at x = x0 if

f (x 0 + h ) − f (x 0 )
f '− (x0) = lim ------------------- (5)
h → o− h
exists.

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It is right hand differentiable at x = x0 if

f (x 0 + h ) − f (x 0 )
f '+ (x0) = lim+ ------------------- (6)
h→o h
exists.

The function f(x) is said to be differentiable at x = x0 if and only if f '− (x0) = f '+ (x0).

Differentiability in an Interval
A function f(x) is differentiable in an interval (a, b) if f ′(x0) exists ∀ x0 in (a, b). In
particular, for the closed interval [a, b] f ′(x0) must exist ∀ x0 ∈ (a, b) and f '+ (a) and
f '− (b) must exist.

Examples:
2
(1) Show that the function f(x) = x is differentiable at x = 2.

Solution:

f (2 + h ) − f (2)
f ′ (2) = lim
h→2 h
i.e.

f ′ (2) = lim
(2 + h ) 2 − 2
2

h→0 h

4 + 4h + h 2 − 4 4h + h
2
= lim = lim
h→0 h h → 0 h

= lim (4 + h)
h→0

= 4.

∴ f ′ (2) exists and so f(x) is differentiable at x = 2.

(2) Let
x2 , x >1

f(x) =  1 , x =1
x, x <1


Find (a) f '− (1)

(b) f '+ (1)

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Is f(x) differentiable at x = 1?

Solution:

f (1 + h ) − f (1) (1 + h ) − 1
f '− (1) = lim− = lim−
h→o h h→o h

h
= lim = lim 1 = 1
h → o− h h → o−

f '+ (1) = lim+

f (1 + h ) − f (1)
= lim+
(1 + h ) 2 −1
h→o h h→o h

2h + h 2
= lim+
h→o h
= lim (2 + h) = 2
h → o+

Clearly then, f '− (1) ≠ f '+ (1) ∴ f ′ (1) does not exist, and so f(x) is not differentiable at
x = 1.

THEOREM:
If a function f(x) is differentiable at a point x = x0, then it is continuous there. The
converse, however, is not true.

Proof:
f ( x0 + h) − f (x0 )
f(x0 + h) – f(x0) = . h
h
⇒
f ( x0 + h) − f (x0 )
lim { f ( x0 + h ) − f ( x0 ) } = lim . lim h
h→0 h→0 h h→0

= f ′ (x0) . lim h
h→0

= 0 , since f ′ (x0) exists.

∴ lim f(x0 + h) = f(x0)
h→0

Setting h = x – x0 , we have

lim f(x) = f(x0)

x → x0
which completes the proof.

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The converse of this theorem is false. Consider the counter example

x2 , x>0

f(x) =  x , x<0 y
0 , x=0

2
y=x
lim f(x) = lim x = 0
x → 0− x → 0−

lim f(x) = lim x2 = 0 o x

x → 0+ x → 0+

f(o) = 0 y=x

∴ f(x) is continuous at x = 0.
Graph of y = f(x).
Now
f (o + h) − f (o ) f (h ) − f (o )
f ′− (o) = lim− = lim
h→0 h h→0 − h

h − o
= lim
h→0 − h

= 1

f ( h) − f (o )
f ′+ (o) = lim+
h→0 h

h2 − o
= lim = lim+ h = 0
h → 0+ h n→0

∴ f ′− (o) ≠ f ′+ (o)

∴ f(x) is not differentiable at x = 0.

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Exercises:
(1) Define
 x3 − 8
 , x≠2
x−2
f(x) = 

 0 , x=2

Is f(x) continuous at x = 2? If not, how can f(x) be redefined so that it is

continuous at x = 2?

1
(2) (a) Prove that lim x sin = 0.
x→0 x
(b) Using the result of (a) show that the function

 x 2 sin 1x , x ≠ 0

f(x) = 
 0 , x=0

is continuous at x = 0.

(3) Show that the function

f(x) = x
is continuous at x = 0. Demonstrate analytically, however, that f(x) is not
differentiable at x = 0.
3
(4) Prove that the function f(x) =x is uniformly continuous in the interval (0, 2).

(5) Construct a function f(x) which is

(a) Continuous at x = 0,
(b) Sectionally continuous in [ – 2, 2]
(c) Differentiable at x = 1,
(d) Continuous at x = 1 but not differentiable there.

(Prove each of the cases (a) to (d) ).

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6.8 DIFFERENTIATION
The derivative of a function f(x) at any point x is defined by

f (x + h ) − f (x )
f ′(x) = lim .
h→0 h

The function f ′(x) is also called the Derived Function of f(x).

The process of finding the derivative is called differentiation. The derived
function f ′(x) enables one to obtain the derivative of f(x) at any point x = x0.
The following cases will be considered.
n
1. f(x) = x , n rational.

(i) for f(x) = x

f (x + h ) − f (x )
f ′(x) = lim .
h→0 h

( x + h) − x h
= lim = lim = 1 ------------- (7)
h→0 h h→0 h

2
(ii) f(x) = x

f ′(x) = lim
(x + h ) 2 − x2
= lim
2hx + h 2
.
h→0 h h→0 h

= lim
h→0
(2 x + h) = 2x ----- (8)

3
(iii) f(x) = x

f ′(x) = lim
(x + h ) 3 − x3
h→0 h

3 x 2 h + 3 xh 2 + h3
= lim
h→0 h
2 2 2
= lim (3x + 3xh + h ) = 3x --------------- (9)
h→0

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n
(iv) f(x) = x , n integer.

f ′(x) = lim
(x + h ) n − x
n

h→0 h
n n  n  n −1
x n +   x n −1 h +   x n − 2 h 2 + … +   xh + hn − xn
= lim 1  2  n − 1
h→0 h

 n n  n  n−2 

= lim    x n −1 +   x n − 2 h + … +   xh + h n −1 
h→0
 1  2  n − 1 

 n  n −1 n!
=   x = x n −1 = n x n −1 ------------- (10)
 
1 (n − 1) ! 1!

−1 1
(v) f(x) = x =
x

1 1
−
x+h x
f ′(x) = lim
h→0 h

x − (x + h ) −h
= lim
= lim
h→0 h x (x + h ) h → 0 h x + xh
2
( )
1 1
= lim − = − 2 . ----- (11)
h→0 x + xh
2
x

The same result as for (iv) holds for – ve integers.

In fact for all rational numbers n
n
f(x) = x
n–1
⇒ f ′(x) = n x

2. Trigonometric Functions.
(i) f(x) = sin x.
sin ( x + h ) − sin x
f ′(x) = lim
h→0 h

A +B A −B
Using the fact that sin A – Sin B = 2 Cos . Sin we have
2 2

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2 cos
(x + h + x ) sin
(x + h − x )
f ′(x) = lim 2 2 .
h→0 h

2 cos
(2 x + h ) sin
h
= lim 2 2
h→0 h
h
sin
 h 2
= lim cos  x +  ⋅ lim = cos x. 1
h→0
 2  h→0 h
2
= cos x. ------------- (12)

(ii) f(x) = cos x

f (x + h ) − f (x )
f ′(x) = lim
h→0 h

cos ( x + h ) − cos x
= lim
h→0 h

− 2 sin
(x + h + x ) sin
(x + h − x )
= lim 2 2
h→0 h

 h h
− 2 sin  x +  sin
= lim  2 2
h→0 h
h
sin
 h 2
= lim − sin  x +  ⋅ lim
h→0
 2  h→0 h
2

= – sin x . 1 = – sin x . ------------------ (13)

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3. Exponential Function
x
Differentiation of y = a , a > 1

dy a x+h − a x
f ′(x) = = lim
dx h→0 h

 ah − 1  x
=  lim  a = k.ax , -------------- (14)
h→0 h 
 
where
 ah − 1 
k = lim  
 ---------------- (15)
h→0 h
 
dy
Note that when x = 0, for a ≠ 0 , = k. This is the gradient of the tangent
dx
x
to the curve y = a at x = 0. In order to determine the value of k, let us
dy
attempt to find by an alternative approach:
dx
x
If y = a
Taking log of both sides we have
loge y = x loge a
1 dy
⇒ = loge a
y dx
dy x
⇒ = y loge a = a . loge a ---------------- (16)
dx
ah − 1
Comparing this result with 14 above, we have lim = loge a .
h→0 h
x
Thus y = a

⇒
dy x
= a loge a ----------------- (17)
dx

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x x x
Graphs of 2 , e , 3

y = 3x y = ex
y = 2x

x
0

dy
For a > 1, at x = o increases. The evidence from the graph shows that
dx
x x
T2 < T3, where T2 , T3 are the tangents of the curves for 2 and 3 respectively.
Gradient of T2 < 1 while grad of T3 > 1 .
x
Let y = e , 2 < e < 3 s.t. gradient of Te = 1.
Hence for a = e, k = 1 ,
x
y = e ,

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dy x
and =e .
dx
We have obtained an important result that

x dy x
y =e ⇒ =e ------------ (18)
dx

4. Logarithmic Function
Let y = loge x . Then
y
x = e
y dy
∴ 1 =e
dx
dy 1 1
∴ = =
dx ey x

i.e. dy 1 ----------- (19)

y = loge x ⇒ =
dx x

The Value of e :
This can never be done exactly but only as a limiting process.
Consider the interval (o, x). Subdivide it into a large number n of equal intervals. Then
x
the width of each subinterval is .
n
Let
x
δx = ---------------- (20)
n

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ex

1
yr yr +1

x
0 x x x
n n

dy
Since = y
dx
δy ∼ y δx ----------------- (21)

Let yr , yr+1 be two successive ordinates. Then

yr+1 = yr + δy
= yr + yr δx = yr (1 + δx)
x
= yr (1 + ) .
n

The sequence {yr } nr=1 forms a G.P with common ratio (1 +

x
).
n
x n
Hence yn = y ~ (1 + ) , so that
n
x n
y = lim (1 + )
n→∞ n
x x n
∴ e = lim (1 + ) . -------------- (22)
n→∞ n

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1 n
Setting x = 1, we have e = lim (1 + ) ------------- (23)
n→∞ n
6.9 RULES FOR DIFFERENTIATION
The following rules are valid and can be proved from the definition of the derivative.
Let f(x) and g(x) be functions. Then the following rules hold:

(i) h(x) = f(x) ± g(x)

⇒ h ′(x) = f ′(x) ± g ′(x) – Sum and Difference
(ii) h(x) = f(x) . g(x)
⇒ h ′(x) = f ′(x) . g (x) + f(x) g ′(x) . – Product Rule
f(x)
(iii) h(x) = ⇒
g(x)
g(x) f ′ (x) − f(x) g′(x)
h ′(x) = . – Quotient Rule
[ g(x) ] 2

The Chain Rule:

Let
h(x) = f [u (x) ],
then
df du
h ′(x) = ⋅
du dx

Examples:
Differentiate the following functions:
2 3
(a) f(x) = (x + 1)
(b) f(x) = tan x
2
(c) f(x) = x sin x
2
(d) f(x) = cos (2x + 1)
2 +x
(e) f(x) = ex .

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CHAPTER SEVEN

ROLLE’S THEOREM AND THE MEAN-VALUE THEOREMS

In this chapter, Rolle’s theorem will be studied, proved and used to discuss what is
commonly known as the mean-value theorems.

7.1 ROLLE’S THEOREM

If a function f(x) is continuous in a closed interval [a, b] and differentiable in an open
interval (a, b), and if f(a) = f(b) = o, then ∃ at least one value of x = ξ ∈ (a, b) such
that f ′(ξ) = o.

Geometrical Interpretation
If the curve y = f(x) is continuous in [a, b] and has a unique tangent at every point in
[a, b] except possibly at x = a and x = b, then there will always be at least one tangent
to the curve whose gradient is zero (i.e. parallel to the x-axis).
(see the figure). Y

f ′(ξ1) = o

f ′(ξ3) = o

f ′(ξ2) = o

a ξ1 ξ2 ξ3 b x

Proof:

If f(x) = 0, ∀ x ∈ [a, b], then f ′(x) = o ∀ x in (a, b) and the theorem is trivially true.
Suppose now that f(x) ≠ o for some x in [a, b].
Since f(x) is continuous in [a, b], ∃ m, M s.t.
M = minimum f(x), and M = maximum f(x).
Since f(x) ≠ o, M and m are not simultaneously zero. Suppose M ≠ 0 and that
f(ξ ) = M for some ξ ∈ (a, b).
Then for any h,

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f(ξ + h) ≤ f(ξ ).
If h > 0, then y
f (ξ + h ) − f (ξ )
≤ 0
h
f (ξ + h ) − f (ξ )
⇒ lim ≤ 0
h → 0+ h

If h < 0, then a ξ b x
f (ξ + h ) − f (ξ )
≥ 0
h
f (ξ + h ) − f (ξ )
⇒ lim ≥ 0
h → 0− h

Since f ′(x) exists ∀ x ∈ (a, b), in particular f ′(ξ) exists

∴ f '− (ξ) = f '+ (ξ)

f (ξ + h ) − f (ξ ) f (ξ + h ) − f (ξ )
⇒ lim = lim = 0.
h → 0− h h → 0+ h
⇒ f ′(ξ ) = 0.

On the other hand if m ≠ o, and that f(ξ ) = m for some ξ ∈ (a, b).
Then for any h,
f (ξ + h) ≥ f (ξ) .
If h > o, then a ξ b

f (ξ + h ) − f (ξ )
≥ 0
h
f (ξ + h ) − f (ξ )
⇒ lim ≥ 0
h → 0+ h

f (ξ + h ) − f (ξ )
If h < 0, ≤ 0
h

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f (ξ + h ) − f (ξ )
⇒ lim ≤ 0
h → 0− h
Since f ′(ξ) exists, we have f '− (ξ) = f '+ (ξ) = 0
∴ f ′(ξ) = 0.

This completes the proof of Rolles Theorem.

Example:
Verify Rolle’s Theorem for the case where
f(x) = x(2x – 1), [0, 1 ].
2
Solution:
f(x) is continuous ∀ x real and so for [0, 12 ].

f ′(x) = 4x – 1; and so f ′(x) exists in (0, 1 ).

2

f(0) = f( 1 ) = 0.
2

∴ All the conditions of Rolle’s Theorem are satisfied

∴ ∃ x = ξ ∈ (0, 1 ) s.t. f ′(ξ) = 4 ξ − 1 = 0
2

⇒ ξ = 1 ∈ (0, 1 ).
4 2

Remarks:
The condition f(a) = f(b) = 0 in Rolle’s Theorem may be replaced with the condition
f(a) = f(b).

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7.2 THE FIRST MEAN-VALUE THEOREM

It states that if f(x) is continuous in the interval [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b) then ∃
at least one value of x = ξ ∈ (a, b) s.t.

f (b ) − f (a )
f ′(ξ) = .
b − a

Geometrical Interpretation
There is a tangent parallel to the chord AB. (See figure)
B
y
f ′(ξ)
f(b) – f(a)

A (b – a)
x
a ξ b

Proof
Construct the function
G(x) = f(x) – y
where y is the equation of the chord AB joining two points A and B on the curve y =
f(x) from x = a to x = b.
Equation of chord AB is
f (b ) − f (a )
y – f(a) = (x – a )
b − a

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f (b ) − f (a )
⇒ y = (x – a ) + f(a) .
b − a
f (b ) − f (a )
∴ G(x) = f(x) – (x – a ) – f(a) .
b − a
It is clear that G(x) is continuous and differentiable in [a, b], since f(x) is.
Furthermore,
G(a) = f(a) – 0 – f(a) = 0,
f (b ) − f (a )
G(b) = f(b) – (b – a ) – f(a) , b ≠ a
b − a
= f(b) – f(b) + f(a) – f(a) = 0.
Thus G(x) satisfies all the conditions of Rolle’s theorem. Therefore ∃ x = ξ ∈ (a, b) s.t.
G ′(ξ) = 0.

f (b ) − f (a )
Now G ′(x) = f ′(x) –
b − a
f (b ) − f (a )
∴ G ′(ξ) = 0 ⇒ f ′(ξ) − = 0
b − a
f (b ) − f (a )
⇒ f ′(ξ) = .
b − a

Example:
Verify the first mean-value theorem for the function
2
f(x) = (x – 3x + 1) , [0, 1].

Solution:
f(x) is both continuous and differentiable in [0, 1], since f(x) is a polynomial.
f ′(ξ) = 2x – 3.
f (1) − f (0 ) 12 − 3(1) + 1 − 1
= = –2
1− 0 1
∴ f ′(ξ) = 2ξ – 3 = – 2
⇒ 2ξ = 1
⇒ ξ = 1 ∈ (0, 1).
2
which verifies the theorem.

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Remarks
If f(b) = f(a), the theorem reduces to Rolle’s theorem. Thus Rolles theorem is a
special case of the first mean-value theorem.

7.3 THE SECOND MEAN-VALUE THEOREM

(OR CAUCHY’S GENERALIZED MEAN-VALUE THEOREM)

This theorem states that if f(x) and g(x) are continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in
(a, b), then there exists at least one value of x = ξ ∈ (a, b) such that
f ' (ξ ) f (b ) − f (a )
= , g(a) ≠ g (b) and where f ′(x) and g ′(x) are
g ' (ξ ) g (b ) − g (a )
not simultaneously zero.

Proof:

Construct the function

H(x) = f(x) – f(a) – α {g (x) – g(a) }, where α is a constant.
H(x) is continuous in [a, b], since f(x) and g(x) are also continuous in [a, b].
H(x) is differentiable in (a, b) since f(x) and g(x) are also differentiable in (a, b).
Now,
H(a) = f(a) – f(a) – α {g(a) – g(a) } = 0
H(b) = f(b) – f(a) – α (g(b) – g(a) }
f (b ) − f (a )
= 0, provided that α = .
g (b ) − g (a )
If we suppose that α takes on this value, then there exists at least one value of
ξ ∈ (a, b) s.t. H ′(ξ) = 0.
H ′(x) = f ′(x) – α g ′(x)
H ′(ξ) = o ⇒ f ′(ξ) − α g ′(ξ) = 0
⇒ α = f ′(ξ) / g ′(ξ)

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f ' (ξ ) f (b ) − f (a )
∴ = .
g ' (ξ ) g (b ) − g (a )
This completes the proof.

Remarks:

Note that the 2nd Mean-Value theorem reduces to the 1st Mean-Value theorem if g(x) =x.

7.4 TAYLOR’S THEOREM OF THE MEAN

th (n)
If the n derivative f (x) of f(x) is continuous in [a, b] and differentiable in (a, b)
then there exists at least one value of x = ξ ∈ (a, b) such that
f ' (a ) f " (a ) 2
f(b) = f(a) + (b – a) + (b – a) + …
1! 2!

+
f (n )
(a ) (b – a)n + Rn ,
n!
where Rn, called the remainder, may be written in one of the forms
f (n +1)(ξ ) n+1
Rn = (b – a) ………. Lagrange’s form
(n + 1) !
f (n +1)(ξ ) (b − ξ ) (b − a )
n
Rn = ……….. Cauchy’s form.
n!
Remarks:

1) Lagrange’s form of the remainder will be generally used.

2) Consider the sub-interval [x0, x] in (a, b), then Taylor’s theorem may be written
as
f ' (x0 ) f " ( x0 ) 2
f(x) = f(x0) + ( x – x 0) + ( x – x0 ) + …
1! 2!

(x0 ) f (n +1)(ξ )
n
f n n+1
+ ( x – x0 ) + ( x – x 0) .
n! (n + 1) !
This last form of Taylor’s theorem is also known as Taylor’s series for f(x) with a
remainder.

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3) Taylor’s theorem is used to approximate f(x) by a polynomial, and Rn is called

the error term.
4) If lim Rn = 0, the infinite series
n→∞

f ' (x0 ) f " ( x0 ) 2

f(x) = f(x0) + ( x – x 0) + ( x – x0) + …
1! 2!
is called a Taylor’s series for f(x) about x = x0. In the case x0 = 0, the Taylor
series obtained is called a Maclaurin Series.

CHAPTER EIGHT

th
LEIBNITZ RULE FOR FINDING THE n DERIVATIVE
OF THE PRODUCT OF TWO FUNCTIONS
8.1 Introduction
Transcendental functions can be differentiated any number of times, without the result
n
becoming zero. This is unlike polynomials in the form y = x , which yield the result
zero when differentiated ( n + 1) times.
The following examples will clarify what has been said.

Example 1:

Let y = sin x.
dy π
Then = Cos x = Sin (x + )
dx 2
d2y
= – Sin x = Sin (x + π )
dx 2
d3y 3π
3
= – Cos x = Sin (x + ).
dx 2
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -- - - - - -
dny nπ
n
= Sin (x + )
dx 2

dn nπ
i.e. n
(Sin x) = Sin (x + )
dx 2

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This provides a formula for finding the nth derivative of sin x.

d5 5π
E.g. 5
(Sin x) = Sin (x + )
dx 2

d5 5π
i.e. 5
(Sin x) = Sin (x + )
dx 2
π
= Sin (x + 2π + )
2
π
= Sin (x + )
2
= Cos x
Example 2:

Let y = ln x
dy 1
Then = ,
dx x
d2y 1
= –
dx 2 x2
d3y 2
=
dx3 x3
d4y
= −
(2) (3) = −
6
dx 4 x 4
x4
d 5
=
(− 6) (− 4) =
24
dx5 x 5
x5
- - - - - - - - - - - - - ---
dny
=
(− 1) n −1 (n − 1) !
dx n xn

Thus dn
(ln x) =
(− 1) n −1 (n − 1) !
dx n xn

This provides a formula for finding the nth derivative of y = ln x.

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Example 3:

ax
Let y = e , where a is real and non-zero.
dy ax
Then = ae
dx
d2y 2 ax
=a e
dx 2
- - - - - - - - - - - - - ---
n
d y n ax
= a e
dx n

Thus dn ax n ax ,
n
(e ) = a e
dx
ax
which also provides a formula for finding the nth derivative of y = e .

8.2 The Product of Two functions

Let y = uv , where u = u(x) and v = v(x).
d
Denote by D ≡ . This means that
dx
d d  d2 3 d3
2
  = D(D) = D = and D = , and so on.
dx  dx  dx 2 dx3
d du dv
Now (uv) ≡ D(uv) = v + u
dx dx dx
= v Du + u Dv .
Further ,
2
D(D uv) = D (uv)
= D(v Du + u Dv)
2 2
= vD u + DvDu + DuDv + u D v
2 2
= vD u + 2 DvDu + uD v
Also
3 3 2 2 2 2 3
D (uv) = vD u + DvD u + 2D v Du + 2 DvD u + DuD v + uD v
3
= vD u + 3DvD2u + 3DuD2v + uD3v.

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It is easily shown that,

4 4 3 2 2 3 4
D (uv) = vD u + 4DvD u + 6D vD u + 4D vDu + uD v
- - - - - - - - - - -
n n n n–1  n  r n–r n
D (uv) = vD u +   DvD u + … +   D vD u + … + uD v
1 r

8.3 LEIBNITZ THEOREM

For a function y = u v, where u = u(x) and v = v(x) each of which can be differentiated
n times with respect to x, the nth derivative of y is given by
n
 n  r n–r
∑
n n
D y ≡ D (uv) =   D u D v,
r=0 r
n n! 0
where   = , and D = 1.
r (n − r ) ! r !

Proof:

Let n = 1. Then
Dy = D(uv) = u Dv + v Du
1 0 1 1 1–1
=   D u Dv +   D u D v
0 1
Hence the result holds for n = 1.
Suppose that the result holds for n = k (some positive integer). Then
k
 k  r k–r
∑
k k
D y = D (uv) =   D u D v .
r =0 r
Consider n = k + 1; then
k
 k  r k–r
(uv) = D ∑   D u D v .
k+1 k+1
D y = D
r =0  r 

k
 k  r k–r
= ∑ D   D u D v
r =0 r
k
k
∑
r+1 k–r r k+1–r
=   [ D u D v + D u D v]
r =0  
r
i.e.

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k
 k  r+1 k
 k  r k+1–r
∑ ∑
k+1 k–r
D (uv) =   D u D v +   D u D v
r =0  
r r =0 r
Setting r + 1 = r’ in the first summation, we have
r = r’ – 1 .
k +1
 k  r′ k
 k  r k+1–r
∑ ∑
k+1 k+1–r′
D (uv) =   D u D +   D u D v
r′ =1  r′ -1 r =0 r
 k  k+1 k
 k  r
∑
o k+1–r
=   D u D v +   D u D
k r =1  r -1
k
 k  r k+1–r k
∑
k+1
+   D u D v +   u D v
r =1 r o
k   k   k   r k+1–r
∑
k+1 k+1
= vD u +    +    D u D v + uD v
 r -1 
r =1   r

Now,
 k  k k! k !
  +   = +
 r - 1 r (k − r + 1) ! (r − 1) ! (k − r ) ! r !
k ! r + k ! (k + 1 − r )
=
(k + 1 − r ) ! r !
k ! (r + k + 1 − r )
=
(k + 1 − r ) ! r !
k ! (k + 1) (k + 1) !  k + 1
= = =  
(k + 1 − r ) ! r ! (k + 1 − r ) ! r !  r 
k
 k + 1 r
∑
k+1 k+1 k+1–r k+1
∴ D uv = v D u +   D u D v + uD v
r =1  r 
 k +1  o k
 k + 1 r
∑
k+1 k+1–r
=   D v D u +   D u D v
 k + 1 r =1  r 
 k + 1 o k+1
+   D u D v
 o 
k +1
 k + 1 r
∑
k+1–r
=   D u D v.
r =0  r 

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Thus the result holds for n = k + 1. Since it holds for n = 1, it holds for
n = 2, 3, … and for all positive integers by induction.

Worked Examples
2 d 10 2
(i) Find the nth derivative of y = x Sin x. Hence obtain 10
(x Sin x).
dx
Solution:

From Leibnitz rule

2
Let u = x and v = Sin x.
Then
dn 2 n n n–1 n n–2
n
(x2 Sin x) = x D Sin x +   . 2x D Sin x +   . 2 D Sin x + 0
dx  
1  
2

2 
= x Sin  x +
nπ   (n − 1)π 
 + n.2x Sin  x + 
 2   2 

n (n − 1) 
. 2 Sin  x +
(n − 2)π 
+ 
2!  2 
2  nπ   nπ 
= x Sin  x +  + 2nx ( –1) Cos  x + 
 2   2 
 nπ 
+ n (n – 1) ( –1) Sin  x +  .
 2 
dn 2 2  nπ   nπ 
n
(x2 Sin x) = (x – n + n) Sin  x +  –2nx Cos  x + .
dx  2   2 
Hence, for n = 10, we have
d 10 2 2
10
(x Sin x) = (x – 100 + 10) Sin (x + 5π ) –20x Cos (x + 5π).
dx
2
= (x – 90 ) Sin (x + π) –20x Cos (x + π)
2
= (90 – x ) Sin x + 20x Cos x .

Exercise:

3 d5 3
Find the nth derivative of y = x ln x, and hence obtain (x ln x) .
dx5

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8.4 INDETERMINATE FORMS AND L’HOSPITAL’S RULES

In finding he limit of the quotient of two functions f(x) and g(x) at some point x = x0, it
f (x )
is required that lim should exist. If lim g(x) = 0, and lim f(x) ≠ 0, then
X → X0 g (x ) X → X0 X → X0

f (x )
lim does not exist. If, however, lim f(x) = 0 and lim g(x) = 0, then
X → X0 g (x ) X → X0 X → X0

f (x ) 0
lim = , and an indeterminate situation arises.
X → X 0 g (x ) 0
0 ∞
The form or is called an indeterminate form. Other indeterminate forms include
0 ∞
0 ∞
0.∞ , ∞ , 1 .

THEOREM (L’HOSPITAL’S RULE)

Let f(x) and g(x) be continuous for all x ∈ [a, b] except possibly at x = x0 and
f (x ) 0 ∞
differentiable in (a, b) except possibly at x = x0. If lim = or , then
X → X0 g (x ) 0 ∞
f (x ) f ′(x )
lim = lim , provided the right hand side limit exists.
X → X 0 g (x ) X → X 0 g′ (x )

Remarks: We shall not prove the above theorem but will consider some worked
examples to demonstrate the use of the theorem. However, a proof of the theorem may
be found in ‘Calculus’ by D.D. Berkey, 2nd Edition, Saunden College Publishing, New
York p. 488 – or in Advanced Calculus, Schaum Outline Series by M. Spiegel.

Examples:

1. Using L’Hôspital’s rules, determine the following limits:

(a) lim
(x − 1) 2 (b) lim
Sin x
x →1 x −1
2 x→0 1 − Cos x

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Solutions:

(a) lim
(x − 1) 2 =
0
x →1 x −1 2
0

∴ lim
(x − 1) 2 = lim
2 ( x − 1)
=
0
= 0.
x →1 x −1
2 x →1 2x 2
Sin x 0
(b) lim =
x→0 1 − Cos x 0
Sin x Cos x 1
∴ lim = lim = = ∞
x→0 1 − Cos x x→0 Sin x 0
Sin x
∴ lim does not exist.
x→0 1 − Cos x

2. Find the following limits:

x e3 x Sin x − x Cos x
(a) lim (b) lim
x→0 Sin x x→0 tan x
Solution:

x e3 x 0
(a) lim =
x→0 Sin x 0
x e3 x 3 x e3 x + e3 x 0 + e0 1
∴ lim = lim = = = 1
x→0 Sin x x →0 Cos x Cos o 1
Sin x − x Cos x 0
(b) lim =
x→0 tan x 0
Sin x − x Cos x Cos x − Cos x + x Sin x
∴ lim = lim
x→0 tan x x→0 Sec 2 x
0
= = 0.
1

3. Determine the following limits

x3 + x 2 + x + 1
(a) lim (b) lim x e−2 x
x→∞ ( x + 3) 3 x→∞

Solution:

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x3 + x 2 + x + 1 ∞
(a) lim =
2 ( x + 3) ∞
x→∞ 3

x3 + x 2 + x + 1 3x 2 + 2 x + 1 ∞
∴ lim = lim =
2 ( x + 3) 6 ( x + 3) ∞
x→∞ 3 x→∞ 2

6x + 2 ∞
= lim =
x→∞ 12 (x + 3) ∞
6 1
= lim = .
x→∞ 12 2

0 ∞
Note: When the indeterminate or re-occurs after application of L’Hospital’s
0 ∞
rules, there should be a repeated application of the rule.

–2x
(b) lim xe = ∞ . 0 an indeterminate form.
x→∞

–2x x ∞
However lim xe = lim =
x→∞ x→∞ e 2x
∞
1
= lim = 0.
x→∞ 2e 2 x

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