CHAPTER FOUR

Performance of The Transmission Line

outlines:
Performance parameters of the transmission lines
Classification of the transmission lines
Efficiency of the transmission lines
Voltage regulation of the transmission lines
 Introduction
• The important considerations in the design and operation of a transmission line are the
determination of voltage drop, line losses and efficiency of transmission. These values are
greatly influenced by the line constants R, L and C of the transmission line. For instance,
the voltage drop in the line depends upon the values of above three line constants.
Similarly, the resistance of transmission line conductors is the most important cause of
power loss in the line and determines the transmission efficiency.

• In this chapter, we shall develop formulas by which we can calculate voltage regulation,
line losses and efficiency of transmission lines. In the calculation we find sending and
receiving current, voltage and power factor, power losses etc.. These formulas are important
for two principal reasons:
To provide the effect of line parameters on the bus voltage and efficiency
To understand power flow and occurrence of power system
The end results of analysis of voltage drop, line losses and efficiency is determining the
loading capacity of the line.
 Classification of transmission lines
• As we discuses in the previous chapter; there are four parameters of the transmission lines.
i.e resistance, inductance , capacitance and conductance. Those transmission line constants
R, L and C distributed uniformly along the whole length of the line. The resistance and
inductance form the series impedance. The capacitance existing between conductors for 1-
phase line or from a conductor to neutral for a 3-phase line forms a shunt path throughout
the length of the line.
• The calculation to find the capacitance of the transmission line is no simple and due to
capacitance consideration on the modeling of the transmission line, it is classified as in to
three.
Short transmission line
Medium transmission line
Long transmission line
• Short transmission lines: When the length of an overhead transmission line is up to about
50 km and the line voltage is comparatively low (< 20 kV), it is usually considered as a
short transmission line. Due to smaller length and lower voltage, the capacitance effects
are small and hence can be neglected. Therefore, while studying the performance of a
short transmission line, only resistance and inductance of the line are taken into account.
• Medium transmission lines: When the length of an overhead transmission line is about
50- 150 km and the line voltage is moderately high (>20 kV < 100 kV), it is considered as
a medium transmission line. Due to sufficient length and voltage of the line, the
capacitance effects are taken into account. For purposes of calculations, the distributed
capacitance of the line is divided and lumped in the form of condensers shunted across the
line at one or more points.
• Long transmission lines: When the length of an overhead transmission line is more than
150 km and line voltage is very high (> 100 kV), it is considered as a long transmission
line. For the treatment of such a line, the line constants are considered uniformly
distributed over the whole length of the line and rigorous methods are employed for
solution.
 Basic terminology
While studying the performance of a transmission line, it is desirable to determine its voltage
regulation and transmission efficiency
• Voltage regulation. When a transmission line is carrying current, there is a voltage drop in
the line due to resistance and inductance of the line. The result is that receiving end voltage
(VR) of the line is generally less than the sending end voltage (VS). This voltage drop (VS −
VR) in the line is expressed as a percentage of receiving end voltage VR and is called
voltage regulation
The difference in voltage at the receiving end of a transmission line between conditions of no
load and full load at constant sending end voltage is called voltage regulation and is
expressed as a percentage of the receiving end voltage.
But at no load condition the receiving end voltage and sending end voltage are equal. Vs=VR
At full load: Vs-VR So, we can say,
𝑉 −𝑉
VS = NL receiving voltage VR(%)= 𝑅𝑁𝐿 𝑅𝐹𝐿 100
𝑉𝑅𝐹𝐿
VR = FL receiving voltage
 Performance of Single and Three Phase Short Transmission Lines
• As stated earlier, the effects of line capacitance are neglected for a short transmission line.
Therefore, while studying the performance of such a line, only resistance and inductance of
the line are taken into account. The equivalent circuit of a single phase short transmission
line is shown in Fig below (i). Here, the total line resistance and inductance are shown as
concentrated or lumped instead of being distributed. The circuit is a simple a.c. series
circuit.
Let
 I = load current
R = loop resistance i.e., resistance of both conductors
XL = loop reactance
VR = receiving end voltage
cos φR = receiving end power factor (lagging)
VS = sending end voltage
cos φS = sending end power factor
• from the above phasor diagram, we can derive the sending end voltage as follow:
• To find the value of sending end voltage using the above formula is complicate and bulky
so, we use approximate way to find it. An approximate expression for the sending end
voltage VS can be obtained as follows. Draw perpendicular from B and C on OA produced
as shown in Fig below. Then OC is nearly equal to OF.

• Alternative method to find sending end is as shown below:

• complex notation method. It is often convenient and profitable to make the line
calculations in complex notation.
• Taking 𝑉𝑅 as the reference phasor, draw the phasor diagram as shown in Fig below It is clear
that VS is the phasor sum of VR and I Z

Note: approximate expression

for VS should be used for
The second term under the root is quite small and can be lagging p.f. only!!!
neglected with reasonable accuracy. Therefore, approximate
expression for VS becomes :
 Effect of Load p.f. on Regulation and Efficiency
The regulation and efficiency of a transmission line depend to a considerable extent upon the power
factor of the load.
• Effect on regulation. The expression for voltage regulation of a short transmission line is given by :

The following conclusions can be drawn from the above expressions :

1. When the load p.f. is lagging or unity or such leading that I R cos θR > I XL sin θR, then voltage
regulation is positive i.e., receiving end voltage VR will be less than the sending end voltage VS.
2. For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line increases with the decrease in p.f. for
lagging loads.
3. When the load p.f. is leading to this extent that I XL sin θR > I R cos θR, then voltage regulation
is negative i.e. the receiving end voltage VR is more than the sending end voltage VS.
4. For a given VR and I, the voltage regulation of the line decreases with the decrease in p.f. for
leading loads
• Transmission efficiency. The power obtained at the receiving end of a transmission line is
generally less than the sending end power due to losses in the line resistance.
• The ratio of receiving end power to the sending end power of a transmission line is known
as the transmission efficiency of the line i.e.

• where VR, IR and cos θR are the receiving end voltage, current and power factor while VS, IS
and cos θS are the corresponding values at the sending end.
• Example: single phase overhead transmission line delivers 1100 kW at 33 kV at 0·8 p.f.
lagging. The total resistance and inductive reactance of the line are 10 Ω and 15 Ω
respectively. Determine : (i) sending end voltage (ii) sending end power factor and (iii)
transmission efficiency.
Solution:
• Load power factor, cos θR = 0·8 lagging
• Total line impedance, 𝑍Ԧ = R + jXL = 10 + j 15 IR = I S = I
Note: The approximate
solution and the
original solution are
approximately the
same as stated earlier
so, we can use approx.
• Example: A 3-phase, 50 Hz, 16 km long overhead line supplies 1000 kW at 11kV, 0·8 p.f.
lagging. The line resistance is 0·03 Ω per phase per km and line inductance is 0·7 mH per
phase per km. Calculate the sending end voltage, voltage regulation and efficiency of
transmission.
Solution:
• Resistance of each conductor, R = 0·03 × 16 = 0·48 Ω
• Reactance of each conductor, XL = 2π f L × 16 = 2π × 50 × 0·7 × 10−3 × 16 = 3·52 Ω
Receiving end voltage/phase, =
Load power factor, cos θR = 0·8 lagging
 Medium Transmission Lines
• In short transmission line calculations, the effects of the line capacitance are neglected
because such lines have smaller lengths and transmit power at relatively low voltages (< 20
kV). However, as the length and voltage of the line increase, the capacitance gradually
becomes of greater importance. Since medium transmission lines have sufficient length (50-
150 km) and usually operate at voltages greater than 20 kV, the effects of capacitance cannot
be neglected.
• The capacitance is uniformly distributed over the entire length of the line. However, in order
to make the calculations simple, the line capacitance is assumed to be lumped or
concentrated in the form of capacitors shunted across the line at one or more points. Such a
treatment of localising the line capacitance gives reasonably accurate results. The most
commonly used methods (known as localised capacitance methods) for the solution of
medium transmissions lines are :
(i) End condenser method
(ii) Nominal T method
(iii) Nominal π method
 Nominal –T- Method
• In this method, the whole line capacitance is assumed to be concentrated at the middle point
of the line and half the line resistance and reactance are lumped on its either side as shown
in Fig. below. Therefore, in this arrangement, full charging current flows over half the line.
Let IR = load current per phase ;
XL = inductive reactance per phase ;
cos φR = receiving end power factor (lagging) ;
V1 = voltage across capacitor C
R = resistance per phase
C= capacitance per phase
VS = sending end voltage/phase
• To find the value of sending end voltage and current take the phasor forms of receiving and
receiving end voltage, current and impendence.
 power deliver to the load
% age Txn eff = 100
power deliver to the load+power loss

Example: A 3-phase, 50 Hz transmission line 100 km long delivers 20 MW at 0·9 p.f.

lagging and at 110 kV. The resistance and reactance of the line per phase per km are 0·2 Ω
and 0·4Ω respectively, while capacitance admittance is 2·5 ×10−6siemen/km/phase. Calculate
: (i) the current and voltage at the sending end (ii) efficiency of transmission. Use nominal T
method.
Solution:
Lets see the figure shown below the T model of the transmission line:
Total resistance/phase, R = 0·2 × 100 = 20 Ω
Total reactance/phase, XL = 0·4 × 100 = 40 Ω
Total capacitance admittance/phase,
Y = 2·5 × 10− 6 × 100 = 2·5 × 10− 4 S
Phase impedance, Z= 20 + j40

Then we have to take the receiving end voltage as a reference as a phasor form and we gate as
VR= VR + j0 = 63508V
Load current, IR = IR (cos θR − j sin θR) = 116·6 (0·9 − j 0·435) = 105 − j50·7
Voltage across C, V1 = VR+IR Z /2 = 63508 + (105 − j 50·7) (10 + j 20)
= 63508 + (2064 + j1593) = 65572 + j1593

We use the magnitude, Then: Sending end current = 110 A

𝑉𝑆−𝑉𝑅
%VR= 100
𝑉𝑅
67387− 63508
=
63508
= 0.061
=6.1%
• Line value of sending end voltage = 67387 × 3 = 116717 V = 116·717 Kv

• =96·29%
•
H.S : A 3-phase, 50-Hz overhead transmission line 100 km long has the following constants :
Resistance/km/phase = 0.1 Ω
Inductive reactance/km/phase = 0·2 Ω
Capacitive susceptance/km/phase = 0·04 × 10− 4 Siemen
• Determine (i) the sending end current (ii) sending end voltage (iii) sending end power factor
and (iv) transmission efficiency (v) voltage regulation when supplying a balanced load of
10,000 kW at 66 kV, p.f. 0·8 lagging. Use nominal T method.
Answer
i: Sending end current =IS= 100 A
ii: Sending end voltage per phase =Vs = 40145KV but line voltage Vs(L)= 69·533 Kv
iii Sending end power factor, cos ϕS = cos 31º27′ = 0·853 lag
iv Transmission efficiency= 97·34%
 Nominal π Method
• In this method, capacitance of each conductor (i.e., line to neutral) is divided into two
halves; one half being lumped at the sending end and the other half at the receiving end as
shown in Fig. below. It is obvious that capacitance at the sending end has no effect on the
line drop. However, its charging current must be added to line current in order to obtain the
total sending end current.
Let
IR = load current per phase
R = resistance per phase
XL = inductive reactance per phase
C = capacitance per phase Take the phasor forms of each component
cos ϕR = receiving end power factor (lagging)
Receiving end voltage,
VS = sending end voltage per phase
Note: the formulas for to find voltage regulation and efficiency are the same as before. But the
difference from nominal T is the way of finding sending end current and voltage.
Example: A 100-km long, 3-phase, 50-Hz transmission line has following line constants:
Resistance/phase/km = 0·1 Ω
Reactance/phase/km = 0·5 Ω
Susceptance/phase/km =10 × 10− 6 S
If the line supplies load of 20 MW at 0·9 p.f. lagging at 66 kV at the receiving end, calculate by
nominal π method :
(i) sending end power factor
(ii)regulation
(iii) transmission efficiency
Solution
The Fig. below shows the circuit diagram for the line.
Total resistance/phase, R = 0·1 × 100 = 10 Ω
Total reactance/phase, XL = 0·5 × 100 = 50 Ω
Susceptance/phase, Y = 10 × 10−6 × 100 = 10 × 10−4 S
Receiving end voltage/phase, VR = 66 × 103/√3 = 38105 V
Solution ……
• A 3-phase, 50Hz, 150 km line has a resistance, inductive reactance and capacitive shunt
admittance of 0·1 Ω, 0·5 Ω and 3 × 10−6 S per km per phase. If the line delivers 50 MW at
110 kV and 0·8 p.f. lagging, determine the sending end voltage and current. Assume a
nominal π circuit for the line.
Solution:
Long Transmission Lines
• It is well known that line constants of the transmission line are uniformly distributed over
the entire length of the line. However, reasonable accuracy can be obtained in line
calculations for short and medium lines by considering these constants as lumped. If such an
assumption of lumped constants is applied to long transmission lines (having length excess
of about 150 km), it is found that serious errors are introduced in the performance
calculations. The current and voltage are vary from point to point over the length of the line.
In this section, expression of voltage and current at any point are derive.
shunt parameters: conductance(B)
susceptance (G)
series parameters(Z): R and X

I has whole sections n of line modeling of resistance, inductance and admittance so, the
individual section is divided by the whole section. Means, the whole line length is divided in
1
to n sections, each sections having a line constant th of those of the whole lines.
n
The following points may by noted
(i) The line constants are uniformly distributed over the entire length of line as is actually the
case.
(ii) The resistance and inductive reactance are the series elements.
(iii) The leakage susceptance (B) and leakage conductance (G) are shunt elements. The leakage
susceptance is due to the fact that capacitance exists between line and neutral. The leakage
conductance takes into account the energy losses occurring through leakage over the insulators
or due to corona effect between conductors. Admittance = G 2 + B2
(iv) The leakage current through shunt admittance is maximum at the sending end of the line
and decreases continuously as the receiving end of the circuit is approached at which point its
value is zero.
Schematic diagram of long
transmission line with
distributed parameters
From the above schematic diagram:

…………........i

……………….ii
There are two variables such as I(x) and V(x). Then to eliminate one of the variables we use
second order differential equations. Thus differentiate equation (2) with respect to x and
𝑑 2 𝑉(𝑥) 𝑑 𝐼(𝑥)
substitute equation (4) : Thus = z. = z. y V 𝑥 ………..iii
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑(𝑥)
 𝑑 2 𝑉(𝑥) 𝑑 𝐼(𝑥)
• Then, the equation =z. = z. y V 𝑥 is second order differential equations. That
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑(𝑥)
𝑑 2 𝑉(𝑥) 𝑑 2 𝑉(𝑥)
means: =𝑧. 𝑦 V 𝑥 then, - 𝑧. 𝑦 V 𝑥 =0
𝑑2 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
• Recalling that from mathematics knowledge: if the roots are r1 and r2 of the auxiliary
equation a𝑟 2 + br + c =0 are real and unequal, then the general solution of the second order
𝑑 2 𝑦(𝑥) 𝑑 𝑦(𝑥)
equation: a 2 + b +cy=0 is:
𝑑 𝑥 𝑑(𝑥)
y= 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑟1𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 𝑟2𝑥 (refer calculus text book ) then, now solve our equation using this general
solution.
𝑑 2 𝑉(𝑥)
- 𝑧. 𝑦 V 𝑥 =0 let d = z.y then 𝑟 2 + 0.r - d=0, using quadratic equation:
𝑑2 𝑥
−𝑏± 𝑏2 −4𝑎𝑐
after computing this: r=± 𝑑 = 𝑧. 𝑦 : r1= 𝑧. 𝑦 and r2= − 𝑧. 𝑦
2𝑎
V(x)= 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑧.𝑦 𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 − 𝑧.𝑦 𝑥
Then to express this using hyperbolic function we have to follow the following steps.
Let 𝑎= 𝑧. 𝑦
Recalling that, from hyperbolic function:
𝑒 𝑎𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑎𝑥
cosℎ 𝑎𝑥 = and sinℎ 𝑎𝑥= then:
2 2
𝑒 𝑎𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 −𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
cosℎ 𝑎𝑥 + sinℎ 𝑎𝑥= + = + + - =2 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cosℎ 𝑎𝑥 + sinℎ 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑎𝑥
𝑉(𝑥) =𝐶1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 then: 𝐶1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶1 (cosℎ 𝑎𝑥 + sinℎ 𝑎𝑥) and 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶2 (cosℎ 𝑎𝑥+sinℎ 𝑎𝑥)
𝑉(𝑥) =𝐶1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 = 𝐶1 (cosℎ 𝑎𝑥 + sinℎ 𝑎𝑥) + 𝐶2 (cosℎ 𝑎𝑥+sinℎ 𝑎𝑥) // distribute and collect
like terms // = (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 ) cosℎ 𝑎𝑥 + (𝐶1 - 𝐶2 ) sinℎ 𝑎𝑥
Let (𝐶1 + 𝐶2 ) =𝑘1 and (𝐶1 - 𝐶2 ) = 𝑘2
= 𝑘1 cosℎ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑘2 sinℎ 𝑎𝑥
𝑉(𝑥) =𝐶1 𝑒 𝑎𝑥 + 𝐶2 𝑒 −𝑎𝑥 = 𝑘1 cosℎ 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑘2 sinℎ 𝑎𝑥 but from the above 𝑎= 𝑧. 𝑦
𝑉(𝑥) =𝑘1 cosℎ( 𝑧. 𝑦)𝑥 +𝑘2 sinℎ( 𝑧. 𝑦)𝑥
V(𝑋) ………iv

(𝑋)

(𝑋)
 (𝑋) (𝑋)

(x)

(𝑋)
 (x)

(x)

As x =l: the V(x) and I(x) are changed in to

V(s) and I(s) refer Schematic diagram of long
transmission line

It is helpful to expand hyperbolic sine and

cosine in terms of their power series.
 Z
cosh YZ sinh YZ
VS Y VR Z 1 Y
= ; where: ZC = and =
IS Y IR Y ZC Z
sinh YZ cosh YZ
Z
Then: The general constant of A, B, C and D are
Y
A= cosh YZ C= sinh YZ The general constant A=D and A-D=0
Z

𝑌
B= sinh YZ D= cosh YZ note: the receiving end power factor is the angle
𝑍

VS 𝐴 𝐵 VR Between
= sending end voltage to sending end current
IS 𝐶 𝐷 IR

power deliver to the load

% age Txn eff = 100
𝑠𝑒𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝑝𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟
A 3-φ transmission line 200 km long has the following constants :
Resistance/phase/km = 0·16 Ω
Reactance/phase/km = 0·25 Ω
Shunt admittance/phase/km = 1·5 × 10–6 S
Calculate by rigorous method the sending end voltage and current when the line is delivering a
load of 20 MW at 0·8 p.f. lagging. The receiving end voltage is kept constant at 110 kV.
Example: a long transmission line delivers a load of 60MVA at 124,50, 0.8 lagging power factor.
Resistance of the line is 25.3Ω, reactance of the line, 66.5Ω and admittance due to charging
capacitance is 0.442×10−3 mΩ.
A. Determine line constants A,B,C and D
B. Sending end voltage, current and power factor
C. Voltage regulation and efficiency
Solution:
Now