Electric Circuit Manual
Electric Circuit Manual
Electric Circuit Manual
2016
Facility of Engineering
BME (311)
Electric Circuits lab
Pre-Report#3 43
Post-Report#3 46
5 Exp#5: DC Circuit Analysis 50
Pre-Report#4 59
Post-Report#4 65
6 Exp#6: laboratory Instrument Loading Effect Part-B 74
Pre-Report#5 77
Post-Report#5 80
7 Exp#7: Inductance, Capacitance I-V Relations and
84
Circuits Transients in RL and RC
Pre-Report#6 92
Post-Report#6 96
8 Exp#8: Transients in RLC Circuits 105
Pre-Report#7 111
Post-Report#7 116
9 Exp#9: Sinusoidal AC Circuit Measurements 122
Pre-Report#8 128
Post-Report#8 133
10 References 139
1
Exp#1 : Introduction to Basic Laboratory Test and
Measurement Equipment
This experiment is intended to give the student a quick exposure to the laboratory equipment which
will be used in this course.
Generally, this is a dual power supply with (+) and (-) voltage terminals,
and a ground (common) terminal. a dual-output laboratory power supplies
voltage and current are indicated on three-digit display, can be operated in
parallel or in series, and can be operated as constant voltage source or as
constant current source.
The main attributes of this device is:
2
1.2.2 The Digital Multimeter:
Most digital multimeters are designed to measure DC resistance, direct current and voltage, and
the RMS value of sinusoidal current and voltage. Some meters measure the true RMS (TRMS)
value of any waveform.
Note: At this laboratory we will use two different type of DMM (see Figure1-2.), because one of
the DMM tolerate higher current than the other DMM as listed below:
1. GWINSTEK (GDM-8034) DMM : tolerate 2A maximum current at the lower range, and 20A
maximum current at the higher range.
2. MASTECH (M9803R) DMM: : tolerate 400mA maximum current at the lower range, and 10A
maximum current at the higher range.
3
1.2.4 The Oscilloscope:
This is one of the most important pieces of laboratory test equipment. It is basically a voltage
sensing and display device; it cannot measure current directly. However, it can be used to measure a
voltage proportional to a desired current, e.g., across a small sampling resistance.
Most modern Scopes have two input channels with adjustable, calibrated, gain. Two signals can
thus be viewed separately, or simultaneously if they are synchronized. Calibrated gain settings
enable the measurement of voltage amplitude.
An important Scope function is the Trigger. Circuits in this subsection enable the selection of
the amplitude of the input signal at t = 0 relative to its peaks. This corresponds to having a
selectable phase angle. Another important Scope function is applying a mathematical operation on
the signal, such as inverting, add the two signals, and subtract them.
(see Figure1-4)
Figure(1-5) represents the front panel of the function generator, each part of the panel listed at
the below table.
4
1.2.5 Project Board:
A breadboard (protoboard) is a construction base for prototyping of electronics, because the
solderless breadboard does not require soldering, it is reusable. This makes it easy to use for
creating temporary prototypes and experimenting with circuit design. (See Figure1-6)
5
1.2.6.2 Banana connectors. (See Figure1-8)
6
1.3.1 The DC Power Supply:
1- Apply input power.
2- Turn the Voltage limit control from the Minimum to Maximum, and then record both values of
the Minimum to Maximum voltage.
Vminimum= ………………
Vmaximum=………………………
3- Turn the Current limit control from the Minimum to Maximum, and observe the effect on the
Voltage value.
Q1: Does the Voltage value change when the Current controls are turned up or down?
………………………………………………………………………………
4- Turn the Voltage limit control to set the voltage value to 5V.
5- Place short circuit (S.C) between (+) & (-) output terminals.
6- Turn the Current control from the Minimum to Maximum, and then record both values of the
Minimum to Maximum current.
Iminimum= ………………
Imaximum=………………………
7- Turn the Voltage limit control from the Minimum to Maximum and observe the effect on the
Current value.
Q2: Does the Current value change when the Current controls are turned up or down?
………………………………………………………………………………
8- Disconnect the S.C
7
1.3.2.2 Direct Current Measurements.
1.3.4 Oscilloscope:
1-Turn the function generator and the Oscilloscope power on.
Vo= …………………..
Figure 1-10
8
Exp#2 : Resistors, Potentiometers, and Rheostats
2.2.1 Resistors:
As discrete components, resistors come in various sizes and shapes depending on their power
rating and use. The resistive element material may also vary, e.g., metallic wire, carbon, etc.
the resistor most commonly used in the laboratory is made of carbon encased in a tubular form with
axial leads as shown in Figure2-1.
Some resistors may have their nominal ohmic value stamped on the body of the resistor, e.g.,
1100 or 2.2M. More often, however, color code is used to indicate the nominal value. Three color
bands are used for this purpose, each having a numerical value between 0 and 9, as shown in
Table1.
Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Gray White
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
Starting with the band closest to one end of the resistor, as shown in Figure2-1, the three
represented numbers, n1 , n2, and n3 mean: R= ( 10*n1 +n2 )*10^n3 ohms. For example, Orange-
Blue-Black means 36*10^0 =36 ohms, and Gray-Red-Yellow means 82*10^4 = 820 Kohm.
The percent tolerance around the nominal value is indicated by a fourth band according to Table#2.
±5 ± 10 ± 20
9
The physical size of a resistor depends on its power rating, and vice versa . To keep its temperature
at a safe level, a resistor must be large enough to dissipate its rated power into the surrounding
design environment.
2.2.2 Potentiometer:
Potentiometers provide an adjustable resistance between two points as shown in Figure2-2. The
arrowhead represents a movable contact point. Thus the resistance between the terminals a and b (or
c and b) can be varied from 0 to 100 percent of the total resistance between a and c. If this variation
is proportional to the physical length of the resistive element, the potentiometer is said to be linear.
Otherwise, it is nonlinear, e.g., logarithmic.
Two popular shapes of potentiometers are: circular and straight- line, as shown in Figure2-3.
A potentiometer is used as a voltage control device to obtain a variable fraction of the potential
between two points as shown in Figure2-4. Here Vo can be varied between zero and Vs.
*
http://fddrsn.net/pcomp/examples/potentiometers.html
11
2.2.3 Rheostat:
A rheostat is similar to a potentiometer in structure. However, it differs in its intended use. It is
used as a series element to control current as shown in Figure2-7. Thus, it is usually a higher-power
device.
(Calculated) rating
(R1)
Brown-black-brown -Gold
(R2)
Red-red-red-Gold
R1 (measured)……………………………………………..
R2 (measured) …………………………………………….
2-As an aside, measure and record your body resistance by holding the probes firmly One
with each hand …………………………………..
2.3.1.2 Voltage and Current Measurements:
Construct a measurement circuit as shown in Figure2-5, where Rx is the
resistance to be determined by Ohm’s law:
Rx=Vx/Ix.
Note: 1. While using the DMM as a voltmeter, you must connect it in parallel with the
component you need to measure the voltage across it.
2. While using the DMM as an ammeter, you must connect it in series with the
component you need to measure the current passing through it. Figure2-5
11
1- Increase Vs from 0 to near the highest responsible value.(Within limits that are safe for the
resistor Rx )
Vs (V) 3 5 10
Ix
Vx
Rx=Vx/Ix
Figure 2-6
Rx=R2*R3/R1
1-Select reasonable values for R1and R2, and measure them with the DMM before placing them in
the Circuit.
2- Use decade box for the adjustable resistor R3.Use approximately 10 V for Vs.
3- Set the DMM initially to the highest Current range. and adjust R3 to make Ib approach 0, Stop
adjusting when a minimum value of Ib is obtained on the lowest possible range. Record this value
for reference only.
4- Disconnect R3 and measure it directly with the DMM………………………..
5-Calculate the value of unknown Rx using above formula.
6- Compare with the nominal values.
12
2.3.2 Potentiometers and Rheostat Measurements:
1. To demonstrate the rheostat principle, one of the Potentiometer you tested may be used in the
following measurements.
Figure2-7
2. For the circuit shown in Figure2-7. Obtain a Potentiometer, Select Ro such that the maximum
variation in the Current Io is 5 to 1.Measure and record the value of Ro.
3. Construct the circuit using 10 v for vs. Measure Io on the lowest possible range using the 4 marked
sections of the potentiometer for Rs, i.e, 0,25,50,75.and 100 percent.
Ro=……………………….
Rs (K ) Io
5
4
3
2
1
13
Biomedical Engineering Department
Pre-lab Report #1
Experiment# 2
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
14
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
Q#1: For the resistor shown in figure2-8 answer the below questions:
Figure 2-8
B) Which color is indicating the tolerance, and what is the tolerance value?
15
Q#2: For the Wheatstone bridge circuit shown in figure2-9 derive this formula:
Rx=R2*R3/R1
Figure2-9
16
Q#3: For the circuit shown in figure2-10 Select Ro such that the maximum variation in the Current Io
is 5 to 1.
Note: 1. Rs is a rheostat.
Figure2-10
17
Biomedical Engineering Department
Post lab #1
Experiment# 2
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
18
1. Resistance measurements:
Brown-black-brown –Gold
Red-red-red-Gold
Rx=Vx/Ix.
Vs (V) 3 5 10
Ix
Vx
Rx=Vx/Ix
19
*Plot Ix vs Vx
( C ) Bridge Measurements:
For the bridge circuit shown below the following formula should be satisfied.
R 2 * R3
Rx= only when Ib=0
R1
1. R3= ………..
21
2. Rheostat Measurements:
Rs (K ) Io
5
4
3
2
1
Plot Io Vs Rs.
21
Conclusion and discussion:
List your Conclusion about all parts of this experiment, and discuss the results as
points:
22
Exp#3 : DC Circuit Measurements
At this experement the objective is to verify Kirchhof’s voltage and current laws and some of
their consequences by measurements on dc circuits.
Kirchhof’s Voltage Law (KVL) states that the sum of voltages around a closed path is zero. This
can be verified by measurements on simple series circuits as circuit shown at Figure3-1.
Kirchhof’s Current Law (KCL) states that the sum of all currents at any node in a circuit is zero.
This ca n be verified by measurements on a simple parallel circuit as shown at Figure3-2.
Both KVL and KCL are now verified by measurements in a rather arbitrary circuit containing
series and parallel combinations of resistors as shown at Figure3-3.
Figure 3-1
23
1. Measure the value of Is by using the DMM as an ammeter.
Is=……………………………………….
2. Move the connection of the voltmeter around the circuit to measure the voltages:
Vs=15V
3. Disconnect the power supply from the circuit, and use the DMM as an ohmmeter to measure the
resistances values; (you need to use the measured values of resistances and Vs to calculate
the different voltages, and compare the results with the measured values of these voltages.)
R1
R2
R3
Figure3-2
Measure the value of Is by using the DMM as an ammeter,
Is=………………………………………………..
1. Now place the ammeter in series with R1, R2, and R3 to measure the values of the different
currents:
Vs/Parameter Name I1 I2 I3
Vs=15V
24
2. Disconnect the power supply, and use the DMM as an Ohmmeter to measure the parallel
combination of R1, R2, and R3, then measure each resistance separately, ( you need to use the
measured values of resistances and Vs to calculate the different currents, and compare the results
with the measured values of these currents.).
R1
R2
R3
REq
Figure3-3
1. Use the DMM as a voltmeter to measure Vs, and the different voltages across the individual
resistors, as indicated:
Vs
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
25
2. Use the DMM as an ammeter to measure the different currents across the resistors, as below:
I1
I2
I3
I4
I5
I6
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
4. Now, use the measured values of voltages to verify KVL on all closed paths, and use the
measured values of currents to verify KCL at all nodes. Finally, use the measured values of
resistances with Ohm's law to calculate voltages using measured currents and vice versa, then
compare all the measured quantities.
26
Biomedical Engineering Department
Pre-lab Report #2
Experiment#3
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
27
Objectives:
Q#1: For the circuit shown in Figure3-4 calculate Is, Vbc, Vcd, and Vde .
Figure3-4
28
Q#2: For the circuit shown in Figure3-5 calculate IS, I1, I2, and I3.
Figure3-5
29
Q#3: For the circuit shown in Figure3-6 calculate all the currents and voltages signed at the circuit.
Figure 3-6
31
Biomedical Engineering Department
Post Report #2
Experiment#3
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
31
1. Series Circuits:
After connect the circuit shown in Figure3-1 fill the below tables and answer the following
questions:
Vs=15V
R1
R2
R3
Use the above values and the measured value of Is to calculate different voltages by Ohm's law, and
compare them with the values obtained previously.
Vbc
Vcd
Vde
32
Now, use voltage division to calculate different voltages, and compare your results with the measured
values.
Voltage name Calculated value Measured value
Vab
Vbc
Vcd
2. Parallel Circuits:
After connect the circuit in Figure3-2 fill the table below and answer the following questions:
Vs/Parameter I1 I2 I3
Name
Vs=15V
33
3. A consequence of KCL is that the current through one conductance
Gk =1/Rk in a parallel circuit can be calculated using the current division Rule ,
Ik = (Gk /Gt ) It
Calculate I1, I2, and I3 using this rule, and compare the results with the measured values.
34
3. Series-Parallel Circuits:
Vs
V1
V2
V3
V4
V5
V6
I1
I2
I3
I4
I5
I6
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
35
Now, use the measured values of voltages to verify KVL on all closed paths, and use the measured
values of currents to verify KCL at all nodes. Finally, use the measured values of resistances with
Ohm's law to calculate voltages using measured currents and vice versa, then compare all the
measured quantities.
36
Conclusion and discussion:
List your Conclusion about all parts of this experiment, and discuss the results as
points:
37
Exp#4 : Laboratory Instrument Loading Effect
Part A
An idealized power-supply I-V characteristic is shown by the solid-line rectangle in Figure4- 2. The
broken lines through the origin are the load lines which represent different values of the load
resistance RL. These lines intersect the I-V characteristic at the operating points. VSO is called the
open-circuit voltage and Imax the short-circuit current.
A dc power supply designed with a current limit that can be set as desired, automatically adjusts its
output voltage to satisfy KVL as has been indicated. You are required to determine the laboratory
power supply I-V characteristic for two combinations of VSO and Imax.
Figure 4-1
Figure 4 -2
38
4.2.2 Circuit Loading by Measuring Instruments:
Ideally, a measuring instrument should have no effect on the quantity being measured. However,
any practical instrument affects the quantity it measures to a certain degree. A voltmeter, for
example, has a finite input resistance, although it may be very large. Therefore, it can change the
measured circuit significantly if the equivalent circuit resistance is also very high. This is called
circuit loading. Subsequent measurements are designed to demonstrate circuit loading caused by the
ammeter, the voltmeter, and the oscilloscope. The equivalent resistance of each instrument will be
calculated from measurement data.
4.2.2.1 Ammeter Loading:
When the DMM used as an ammeter, the equivalent resistance of the DMM may be different for
each measurement range. The circuit shown in Figure4-3(a) is used to measure the equivalent
resistance of the ammeter. *
4.2.2.2 Voltmeter Loading:
Measurements are now made to determine the equivalent resistance of the DM M when used as a
voltmeter, and how it affects the accuracy of experimental results. The circuit shown in Figure4-3(b)
is used to measure the equivalent resistance of the ammeter.**
Like any other practical voltage source, the FG has a nonzero equivalent resistance, Rg
Therefore, at any fixed amplitude setting, its output voltage changes with load. The extent of this
change depends on the value of load resistance relative to that of Rg .The circuit shown in Figure 4-3
(d) is used to measure the equivalent resistance of the ammeter.
Figure 4-3: (a) Ammeter Loading circuit (b) Voltmeter Loading circuit (c)
*
ideally the equivalent resistance of the ammeter equal to zero
**
ideally the equivalent resistance of the voltmeter is infinity
39
4.3.1 Measure the I-V chars of a DC power supply limited by a current
(Imax).
1. Set, and adjust the Current Limit control in your power supply to (Imax or Is.c = 130 mA.) by
connect short circuit between (+) and (–) terminals.
2. Disconnect the short circuit, adjust the power supply for Vso = 10.4V.
3. Connect the circuit shown in Figure 4-4 use decade box for R1 .
4. Measured the below Values.
Vout (V)
Is (mA)
Vout (V)
Is (mA)
Figure 4-4
41
4.3.2 Circuit Loading By Measurement Instruments:
4.3.2.1 Ammeter Loading:
Note use the bench top multimeter (GDM-8034 ) to measure current
2. Choose R=2.2K
R=……………………..
Figure4-5
Va =……………………………….
Vr =………………………………
(A)
Calculate ra (Ω)
Va/I
Measurements are now made to determine the equivalent resistance of the DMM when used at
voltmeter, and how it affects the accuracy of results.
R1= 470KΩ; R2 = 1 MΩ , Vs = 30 V.
Figure4-6
41
R1=…………………….
R2=…………………….
4. Measure V2.
V2 =……………..
5. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the DMM using the measured values of R1 and R2..
Hint Assume:
(RDMM//R2)=Req
(Req/(Req+R1))*Vs=V2
42
Biomedical Engineering Department
Pre-lab Report 3
Experiment#4
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
43
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
Q#1: The circuit shown in Figure4-9 is used to determine the I-V characteristics of DC power supply.
If you Know that: Imax= 100mA, and Vso= 16V: Demonstrate the effect of using R1= 100Ω at both Is
and Vs .
Figure 4-9
Q#2: 1. Use the circuit shown in Figure4-01 to calculate the equivalent resistance of the ammeter.
Figure 4-10
44
2. Does the equivalent resistance of the ammeter affected by changing the range of the ammeter?
Explain?
Q#3: Use the circuit shown in Figure 4-10 to calculate the equivalent resistance of the voltmeter.
Figure 4-11
45
Biomedical Engineering Department
Post Report #3
Experiment#4
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
46
1. Measure the I-V characteristics of DC power supply limited by a current (Imax):
After connecting the circuit shown in Figure4-4 fill the tables below and answer the following
question:
Vout (V)
Is (mA)
Vout (V)
Is (mA)
For the First table, Plot the I-V characteristics from the taken measurements. Show the load lines
and the operating points For Rl= 400, 80 and 40 Ω.
47
2. Circuit Loading By Measurement Instruments.
1.Ammeter Loading:
After connecting the circuit shown in Figure 4-5 fill the below Values and answer the following
questions:
I=………….
Record Current By DMM2.Using lowest range.
Vr =………………………………
Calculate ra (Ω)……………………………..
(A)
Calculate ra (Ω)
Va/I
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
2. Voltmeter Loading:-
After connecting the circuit shown in Figure 4-6 fill the below Values and answer the following
questions:
V2= …………..
R1(measured)=……………….
R2(measured)=……………….
48
Calculate the equivalent resistance of the voltmeter using the measured values of R1 and R2 ..
Hint Assume:
(RDMM//R2)=Req
(Req/(Req+R1))*Vs=V2
49
Exp#5 : DC Circuit Analysis
Mesh and Nodal equations are verified using experimental data. Figure5-1 shows the circuit
used for this purpose, where the indicated resistances are in kΩ.
Before coming to the laboratory, the student is required to write these equations using Rl =150Ω.
The equations should be solved for the mesh currents I1, I2, and I3 and the node voltages Va and Vb
indicated in the figure.
Figure5-1
1. Replace the first voltage source(Vb1) with short circuit, but leave the second one (Vb2) applied.
Then measure I1', I2', I3', Va' and Vb'.
2. Repeat the previous step with the first source reapplied(Vb1), but the second source (Vb2) replaced
with short circuit. Denote these measurements by I1'', I2'', I3'', Va'' and Vb''.
3. Compare the sum of each two measurement components with the corresponding total quantity
measured.
51
5.2.3 Thevenin Equivalent and Maximum Power Transfer:
Again, the circuit of Figure 5-1 will be used to verify Thevenin’s and the Maximum Power
Transfer theorems experimentally.
1. With both voltage source applied, remove RL and measure the open-circuit voltage Vao(o.c). This
is the equivalent Thevenin VTh.
2. Measure the short-circuit current Iao(s.c.).
3. Determine an experimental value for RTh as Vao(o.c)/ Iao(s.c.).
4. Replace voltage sources with short circuits, and measure the Thevenin equivalent resistance, RTh,
between node a and the reference node 0 with an ohmmeter.
The Thevenin circuit will be represented by a voltage source equal to (VTh) in series with resistor
equal to (RTh) see figure5-2.
(a) (b)
The voltage source with a resistor in series is equal to a current source in parallel with the same
resistor. See Figure5-4
Figure 5-4
Figure5-5
3-Adjust the two outputs of the dual power supply to 16V & 24V.
4- Measure the currents I1, I2, and I3 using the ammeter on the lowest possible range. similarly, use the
voltmeter to measure the node voltage Va, Vb.
52
Current Measured Value
Voltage Measured Value
I1
Va
I2
Vb
I3
I'1
I'2
I'3
V'a
V'b
2- Replace the 16-v source with S.C, but leave the 24-vsource applied measure the mesh current and
voltages:
I"1
I"2
I"3
V"a
V"b
53
5.3.3 Thevenin Equivalent:
The circuit of Figure 5-5 will be used to verify Thevenin’s and the maximum power transfer
theorems.
1-With 16-v and 24-v sources applied, remove RL and measure the open-circuit voltage Vao (O.C) this
is the equivalent voltage Vth .
Vth
Iao
3-Replace both voltage sources with S.C and measure the Thevenin Equivalent resistance RTh
between node a and the reference node.
RTH
200 Ω
300 Ω
400 Ω
500 Ω
600 Ω
800 Ω
1000 Ω
1500 Ω
54
3- Calculate the power:
PL = (VL)2 / RL
5- From the plot determine the value Rmp of RL where PL is the Maximum
Figure 5-6
2- Set the short circuit current limit on each supply to about 200mA, And then set the open circuit
voltages Vs1 = 20V and Vs2 = 10V.
55
3- Construct the above circuit using 2-Watt resistors R1 = 330Ω and R2 = 100Ω. And use a decade box
for Ro.
Ro Measured Vo Measured Io
0Ω
20 Ω
50 Ω
100 Ω
200 Ω
500 Ω
1KΩ
5KΩ
IS2 = VS2 / R2 =
7- Set the open-circuit voltage of the power supply to a value slightly above say 10% above, the value
Figure5-7
56
8- Now measure Vo and Io for this circuit, for the values of Ro as shown in the following table.
Ro Measured Vo Measured Io
0Ω
20 Ω
50 Ω
100 Ω
200 Ω
500 Ω
1KΩ
5KΩ
9- We now construct the equivalent (transformed) circuit shown below with one voltage source as
shown in Figure5-8
Figure5-8
10- set the open-circuit output voltage to the value Ise.[R1.R2/(R1+R2)] exactly.
Vse =
57
11- With Vse calculated from previous part Vse = 12, measure Vo and Io for this circuit, for the values
of Ro as shown in the following table.
Ro Measured Vo Measured Io
0Ω
20 Ω
50 Ω
100 Ω
200 Ω
500 Ω
1KΩ
5KΩ
By comparing the results of the three experiments we can see that the values are equal
with small differences. So we can simplify the circuit by transforming it into another form
to simplify the measurements and calculations.
58
Biomedical Engineering Department
Pre-Report #4
Experiment#5
DC Circuit Analysis
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
59
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Q#1: For the circuit shown in figure5-9 answer the following questions:
Figure 5-9
1- Calculate I1 ,I2 ,I3 , Va, and Vb using mesh and nodal analysis.
61
2- For the same circuit Calculate I1 ,I3, Va, and Vb using superposition principle .
61
3- For the same circuit calculate VTH, RTh as seen by Rl.
62
Q#2: For the circuit shown in figure5-10 answer the following questions:
Figure 5-10
63
2- Covert the circuit to a circuit has only one current source and three resistor with the previous values,
then calculate the current passing through Ro and the voltage across Ro.
3- Cover the circuit that you had at part(2) to a circuit has one voltage source and three resistor with
the previous values, then calculate the current passing Ro and the voltage across Ro.
64
Biomedical Engineering Department
Post Report #4
Experiment#5
DC Circuit Analysis
1. Student Name ………………………………………………………………………
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
Student ID…………………………………………………………………………..
65
1. Mesh and Nodal analysis:
Measure the currents I1, I2, and I3 using the ammeter on the lowest possible range. similarly, use the
voltmeter to measure the node voltage Va, Vb, then record all values at the below table.
Current Measured
Value
I1
I2
I3
Voltage Measured
Value
Va
Vb
Substitute the measured values of resistances, source voltages, and mesh currents into the mesh
equations, group all terms in every equation on one side and compare their sum with zero. Explain
any discrepancies.
66
Substitute the measured values of resistances and voltages into the nodal equations, group all terms
in every equation on one side and compare their sum with zero. Explain any discrepancies.
Replace the 24-v source with S.C, but leave the 16-vsource applied measure the mesh currents and
voltages:
I'1
I'2
I'3
V'a
V'b
67
Replace the 16-v source with S.C, but leave the 24-vsource applied measure the mesh currents and
voltages:
I''1
I''2
I''3
V''a
V''b
Compare the sum of each two measurement components with the corresponding total quantity
measured.
68
3. Thevenin Equivalen:.
Fill the below measurements:
Vth
Iao
RTH
200 Ω
300 Ω
400 Ω
500 Ω
600 Ω
800 Ω
1000 Ω
1500 Ω
69
Plot RL & VL Vs p:
From the plot determine the value Rmp of RL where PL is the Maximum.
From the plot determine the Corresponding value Vmp of VL where PL is the Maximum.
71
5. Source Transformations:
Fill the below table with the measurement taken from the circuit at Figure5-6
Ro Measured Vo Measured Io
0Ω
20 Ω
50 Ω
100 Ω
200 Ω
500 Ω
1KΩ
5KΩ
Perform the following calculations to find the value of the short circuit current at Figure5-7:
IS1 = VS1 / R1 =
IS2 = VS2 / R2 =
Perform the following calculations to find the value of the open circuit voltage at Figure5- 4:
R1 * R2
Req = R1//R2 = =
R1 R 2
71
Fill the below table with the measurement taken from the circuit at Figure5-7:
Ro Measured Vo Measured Io
0Ω
20 Ω
50 Ω
100 Ω
200 Ω
500 Ω
1KΩ
5KΩ
Vs= Ise.[R1.R2/(R1+R2)]
Fill the below table with the measurement taken from the circuit at Figure5-8:
Ro Measured Vo Measured Io
0Ω
20 Ω
50 Ω
100 Ω
200 Ω
500 Ω
1KΩ
5KΩ
Compare the results of the three sets of measurements made, and explain any discrepancies.
72
Conclusion and discussion:
List your Conclusion about all parts of this experiment, and discuss the results as
points:
73
Exp#6 Laboratory Instrument Loading Effect
Part-B
A measurement procedure is now used to determine the equivalent input resistance Rin of one of
the Scope channels. The effect of this resistance on the accuracy of voltage amplitude measurements
will then be evaluated. The circuit shown in Figure 6-1(a) is used to measure the equivalent
resistance of the ammeter.
6.2.1.1 Function Generator equivalent resistance :
Like any other practical voltage source, the FG has a nonzero equivalent resistance, Rg
Therefore, at any fixed amplitude setting, its output voltage changes with load. The extent of this
change depends on the value of load resistance relative to that of Rg .The circuit shown in Figure 6-1
(b) is used to measure the equivalent resistance of the ammeter.
Figure 6-1: (a) Oscilloscope equivalent resistance circuit (b) Function generator equivalent
resistance circuit
74
6.3.1 Oscilloscope equivalent resistance:-
3. Use R1 = 1MΩ.
R1 measured……………………………………………………………
4. Set the function generator frequency to 1 KHz sine wave 8Vp-p then connect it to CH1 of the scope
5. Connect CH2 with the voltage o/p at R2 set the scope DC coupling.
Figure 6-2
6. Measure V2:
R2 R2 measured By DMM V2
50 KΩ
1MΩ
2.2 MΩ
5 MΩ
You need to use the above results to calculate the equivalent Scope input resistance Rin using the
measured values of R1 and R2.
75
6.3.2 Function generator equivalent resistance:
Figure 6-3
1. Construct the circuit shown in Figure 6-3 (use decade box for RL).
2. Set the function generator frequency to 10 KHz sine wave With 1Vrms (Apply the o/p of function
generator to the DMM, AC measurements, or to Ch1 of the oscilloscope direct).
RL Vout (rms)
10 KΩ
1 KΩ
500Ω
200Ω
75 Ω
50 Ω
4. Change the frequency of function generator but keep its amplitude constant at 1Vrms Then measure
Vo. (With RL=50Ω)
ƒ = 1 KHz
ƒ =10 KHz
ƒ= 100 KHz
ƒ = 1 MHz
You need to use the above results to calculate the equivalent resistance of the FG At 10 KHz
frequency.
76
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Objectives:
1.
2.
Q#1: Use the circuit shown in Figure 6-4 to calculate the oscilloscope equivalent input resistance Rin
Figure 6-4
78
Q#2:Use the circuit shown in Figure 6-5 to calculate the equivalent resistance of the Function generator
Rg.
Figure0-5
79
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81
1.Oscilloscope equivalent resistance:-
After connecting the circuit shown in Figure 6-2 fill the below Values and answer the following
question:
R1 measured= ……………………………………………………………
Measure V2:
R2 R2 measured By DMM V2
50 KΩ
1MΩ
2 MΩ
3.3 MΩ
Use the above results to calculate the equivalent Scope input resistance Rin using the measured values
of R1 and R2 . Hint 1. Use data measured with R2= 1MΩ
1. (the same equation as voltmeter at experemant#4)
81
2. Function generator equivalent resistance:
After connecting the circuit shown in Figure4-8 fill the below tables and answer the following
questions:
RL Vout (rms)
10 KΩ
1 KΩ
500Ω
200Ω
75 Ω
50 Ω
F = 1 KHz
F =10 KHz
F = 100 KHz
F = 1 MHz
Use the above results to calculate the equivalent resistance of the FG at 10 KHz frequency.
82
Conclusion and discussion:
List your Conclusion about all parts of this experiment, and discuss the results as
points:
83
Exp#7 :Inductance, Capacitance I-V Relations and
Transients in RL and RC Circuits
Ideal inductors and capacitors can store energy, but their average power loss is zero. Practical
components, however, lose a finite amount of energy. Therefore, in addition to inductance and
capacitance, their electrical circuit models include resistance as shown in Figure 7-1.
vt = vL + vRL = L + RL iL , (1)
and
it = iC + iRC = C + RL iL (2)
For high quality components, RL is relatively small and RC is relatively large. Thus, if diL/dt are
large enough, then VRL << VL and IRC << IC. Consequently,
≈ =L (3)
and
≈ =C (4)
84
7.2.2 RL and RC Circuit Transients:
A series RL circuit with a step input voltage is shown in Figure 7-2 (a). For an initial current
iL(0) = Io, which may be positive or negative, the inductor current and voltage transient responses for
t ≥ 0 are given by:
iL(t) = -( ) (5)
and
( ) ( ) (6)
Where
τ=L/R (7)
is the circuit time constant. Figures 7-2 (b) and 7-2 (c) depict the responses given by equations (5)
and (6) with Vm > 0 and Io < 0.
y(t) = [ ] (8)
where yf is the final value of y and yi is its initial value, is that τ can be calculated using any two
points, y1 and y2, corresponding to t1 and t2, , respectively, viz,
τ= ( )
(9)
( )
For the special case where (t2 –t1) = τ, equation (9) yields:
=( )( ) = .0632 ( ) (10)
That is, about 63% of the change from y1 to yf occurs in one time constant. Likewise, one can
show that 99.3% of this change occurs in five time constants.
85
Similarly, for the RC circuit shown in Figure 7-3(a), the transient responses VC (t) and iC(t) are
shown in Figures 7-5(b) and 7-5(c) for an initial capacitor voltage VC(0) = Vo < 0.
( ) ( ) (11)
( ) (12)
and
τ = RC (13)
2- Construct the circuit shown in Figure 7-4 Where Vs is 4-Vp-p, 2-KHz square wave, and Rs = 47 Ω
Figure 7-4
86
RL (measured) = Rs = 47Ω L = 400 mH
3- Display the FG output voltage VS and V2 across Rs Make an accurate sketch of both signals
showing values of time and amplitude.
2- Construct the circuit shown in the Figure 7-5 Where Vs is 8 Vp-p 200-Hz Triangular wave, and Rs=
500Ω.
Figure 7-5
3-Display the FG output Voltage V1 and V2 across RS together, uses DC coupling on both scope
channels
87
4- Sketch V1 & V2 showing values of time and amplitude.
Figure 7-6
2- Measure the dc resistance of the inductor and the actual value of R with an Ohmmeter.
Note: Remember to record the 50-ohm’s source resistance of the FG found in previous experiment.
Rg RL R(measured) L T/2
RL Rg R
88
3- Use a 100-Hz symmetrical square wave from the FG, with voltage = 4 Vp-p .
6- Make an accurate sketch of VL(t) ,then expand the time scale to make an accurate measurement of τ
using the 63% change Criterion.
89
8- Exchange the positions of R and L in the circuit to enable the display of VR By Using a common
ground between the scope and FG, then sketch VR.
Figure 6-8
1- For the RC circuit shown in Fig 6-8. Use Use a 100-Hz symmetrical square wave from the FG, with
voltage = 4 Vp-p .
2- Select R = 100 K Ω and C= 10 nF Measure the actual value of resistance R with an ohmmeter and
calculate theoretical value of the time τ = RC.
R( measured)=
τ = RC
3- Make an accurate sketch of VC(t) ,then expand the time scale to make an accurate measurement of τ
using the 63% change Criterion.
91
4- Measure τ using two-point method:
5- Exchange the positions of R and C in the circuit to enable the display of VR by using a common
ground between the scope and FG, then sketch VR.
91
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Objectives:
1.
2.
Q#1: draw the ideal and the practical circuit model for the inductors and capacitors, then explain briefly
the reasons of the differences between ideal and piratical model.
Q#2: 1. For the RL circuit shown in Figure 7-8 plot Vin and Vout at the same sit of axis.
Note: show only the shape of both signals without the nominal values of the voltages.
Figure 7-8
93
2. Calculate the time constant (τ) for the circuit.
Q#3: 1. For the RC circuit shown in Figure 7-10 plot VS and Vout at the same sit of axis.
Note: show only the shape of both signals without the nominal values of the voltages
Figure 7-10
94
Q#4: Derive the below equation:
Q#5: use the same equation of question #4 to prove that about 63% of the change from Y1 to Yf occurs
in one time constant.
95
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96
1. Inductance and Capacitance Voltage-Current Relations.
1.1 Inductor Test:
RL = Rs = 47Ω L = 400 mH
2-Make an accurate sketch of both signals showing values of time and amplitude for (Ch1,Ch2)
L / RL =
T/2=
97
4-Calculate an approximate expression for IL = ( 1/ L) ∫ VL dt, using the 400-mH nominal value of L,
and VL ≈ Vs( t ), then Compared with measure iL (t).
iL (t)=(1/. 4) * ∫ VL.dt =
iL =V2(t) / Rs=
5. Use VL (t) = Vs (t) and diL / dt from measurements in the expression VL (t) =L* diL / dt to calculate
an approximation value for L compare with nominal value 400 mH.(Note: use only one point to
calculate L)
98
1.2. Capacitor Test:
1- Make an accurate sketch of both signals showing values of time and amplitude for (Ch1,Ch2).
2- Calculate an approximate expression for iC (t) = C * dv / dt, By using the 0.02 μF Nominal value for C,
ic(t) = C(dvC/dt) =
i Measured(t) = V2(t)/Rs =
99
3- In the expression VC(t)= (1/C) ∫iC(t) dt, use VC(t) ≈VS(t) and the measured iC(t) to calculate an
approximate value for C, then compare with the nominal value of .02µF.(Note: use only one point to
calculate C)
1- Measure the dc resistance of the inductor and the actual value of R with an Ohmmeter and calculate
the value of ( τ ).
Rg RL R(measured) L T/2
RL Rg R
2- Make an accurate sketch of VL(t) , then calculate ( τ ) using the 63% change criterion.
t 2 t1
τ=
ln(Yf Y1) ln(Yf Y 2)
Vm Vm
IL(t)= -[ -Io] *e^(-t/ τ), where:
Rtotal Rtotal
Vm= Vs(p-p)/2
Rtotal= RL+Rg+R1
Assume: Io=0A
5- Exchange the positions of R and L in the circuit to enable the display of VR By Using a common
ground between the scope and FG
111
6- Draw [VL(t)+V2(t) ]and compare the result with input voltage.
1. Measure the actual value of resistance R with an ohmmeter and calculate theoretical value of the
time τ = RC.
R Measured =…………………………………………………
τ = RC =……………………………………………………..
2. Make an accurate sketch of Vc(t) , then calculate ( τ ) using the 63% change criterion.
t 2 t1
τ=
ln(Yf Y1) ln(Yf Y 2)
Vm= Vs(p-p)/2
Rtotal= Rg+R1
Assume :Vo=1.8V
5- Exchange the positions of R and C in the circuit to enable the display of VR By Using a common
ground between the scope and FG.
113
6- Draw [VC(t)+V2(t) ]and compare the result with input voltage.
114
Exp#8 : Transients in RLC Circuits
Measurement verification of transient parameters, in RLC circuits, viz, damping factor, and natural
frequency.
A series RLC circuit is shown in Figure8-1(a) with a step input voltage. This circuit
exhibits three types of transient responses. These are determined by the roots of the
characteristic equation (complex frequancies):
+ s+ =0 (1)
Viz,
s1,2 = -α ± √ (2)
The damping factor, α, and the resonant frequency, ωo, are given by:
α= (3)
and
ωo= (4)
√
Figure 8-1: (a) RLC circuit, and transient responses (b) underdamped, (c) critically damped,
(d) overdamped. *
*
https://voer.edu.vn/m/second-order-circuits/072b46c4
115
8.2.1.1 The Underdamped Case:
If ωo > α the two roots s1 and s2 given by equation (2) are complex conjugate, and the response
is an exponentially decaying sinusoidal oscillation. Such a response is said to be underdamped.
Figure1(b) shows the current response with initial conditions VC(0) =VC0 and i(0)=0.
With assumed initial conditions VC(0) =VC0 and i(0) = 0, the current in Figure 8-1(b) is given by :
ωd = √ (6)
is the natural frequency of the system, and
is the amplitude of the exponential envelope, ±Ie , shown by the dotted lines, at t = 0, and Vm is
the input square-wave peak. It is clear form equation (5) that the zero crossings of i(t) occur at
multiples of T/ 2, where T = 2 π/ωd is the period of oscillation. Thus, ωd , may be found from a
measurement of the period T , i.e.,
For small damping , i.e., α << ωo, the exponential envelope in Figure8-1(b) is tangent to the i(t)
curve near the extremum points, which are also separated by T /2. Thus, may be calculated from
peak-current measurements using the relation:
α= ( ) (9)
If ωo = α, the two roots are real and equal, and the current response in this case is an exponential
pulse as shown in Figure8-1(c). This response is said to be critically damped, and settles toward its
final value considerably faster than the underdamped response.
Assuming the initial conditions are again VC(0) =VC0 and I (0) = 0, the exponential current pulse in
this case is given by:
And occurs at
tm= 1/α (12)
116
an alternative formula to equation (12) for calculating α from experimental data is:
where t2 and t1 are any two points with i(t2) = i(t2) = I12, as indicated in Figure8-1(c).
If ωo < α, the two roots are real and unequal, and the current response in this case is an exponential
pulse as shown in Figure8-1(d). However, it settles toward its final value more slowly than the
critically damped response, and is said to be overdamped.
Once more assuming the initial conditions VC(0) =VC0 and I (0) = 0, the exponential current pulse in
this case is given by:
i (t) = A( ) (14)
Where
A= (Vm - VC0) / [( )L] (15)
+√ (16)
and
-√ ( )
tm = [ln( )] / ( ) (18)
In general, two distinct measurements of current, I1 = I(t1) and I2 = I(t2 ) are sufficient to determine
and . This, however, requires the numerical solution of two simultaneous transcendental
equations of the form (8).
With any appreciable overdamping, and become widely separated, i.e., << . For
example, if R = 2Rcd , then ≈14 . In this case, for two values of t appreciably greater than tm,
say t > 2 tm, the current may be well approximated by:
Substituting this and the previously measured value of ωo into equation (16) yields:
117
8.2.2 Parallel RLC Circuit Transients:
A parallel RLC circuit with a current source is the dual of a series RLC circuit with a voltage
source. Therefore, all the formulas given previously apply to the parallel circuit provided we
replace R with 1 /R, L with C, and C with L. see figure 8-2
Figure88-2
Figure88-3
3-Display about 2 periods of Oscillation of voltage VR (t) which is proportional to the desired current
i(t). (See Figure 8-4).
Figure8-4
118
4-Measure the following data:
T IP1 IP2
Note: you need these results to calculate α , ωd, , ω0 using equations (7), (8), (6) respectively then
compare these values with theoretical values .
2-Display VR (t) on Oscilloscope, Increase R Gradually until the oscillation just disappears. Figure8-5
Figure 8-5
4- Interchange the physical position of Rand C in the test circuit. Display VC (t) on the oscilloscope and
measure its initial value VCO.
Note: you need the above results to calculate α using equations ( 12 ), (13) and compare these
values with theoretical value obtained using equation (16),also compare the value of I m measured
directly with the value calculated using equation (11).
119
8.3.3 The over Damped Case:
1- Use the same circuit as in Figure8-1, but Let R=25KΩ
2-Display VR (t) on Oscilloscope, which is proportional to the desired current i(t), see Figure 8-6
Figure 8-6
tm t1 t2 Im I1 I2
Note: you need these results to calculate α1, α, and α2 using equations (20),(21),(22) then compare
these values with theoretical values .
111
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Q#1: For the circuit shown in Figure8-7:
Figure8-7
3. plot i(t).
112
without the nominal values of the current.
1. Calculate the damping factor, the resonance frequency, the complex frequencies, and the time where
the maximum value of the current occurs.
Figure8-8
3. plot i(t).
113
Note: show only the shape of the signals without the nominal values of the current.
Figure 8-9
114
3. plot i(t).
Note: show only the shape of the signals without the nominal values of the current.
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T IP1 IP2
4. Calculate the above parameters using equations (3+4+5), then compare between the measured and
the calculated one.
117
2. Critical damped Case:
1. The value of R (decade Box) =…………………………
4. From the measured data, calculate, then compare with the theoretical values:
118
A. α from equation (12) then from equation (13)
119
tm t1 t2 Im I1 I2
3. From the measured data, calculate, then compare with the theoretical values:
121
Exp#9 : Sinusoidal AC Circuit Measurements
121
3. Learn phase-angle measurement techniques using the oscilloscope, and verify the
sinusoidal average power formula using the power factor.
2. Measure voltage and current phasors in a series-parallel RLC circuit to verify
Kirchhoff’s Current and Voltage Laws, KCL and KVL.
4. Determine the Thevenin equivalent of an RLC circuit by open- circuit voltage and short-
circuit current mea- surements.
5. Verify the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem for ac circuits.
( ) (1)
and
( ) ( ) (2)
Two adjacent zeros on v1(t) and v2(t) are shown at t1 and t2 as well as the common period T = 2π/ω.
Clearly, from equations (1) and (2), ωt1 = (2n + 1)π/2 = (ωt2 − θ), which gives:
radians, (3)
degree (4)
Thus, the phase angle θ is determined from the time difference ∆ t = ( ) and the period T.
*
http://www.electronics-tutorials.ws/accircuits/phase-difference.html
In this method, one of the sinusoidal functions is used to provide the oscilloscope horizontal
detection (x-axis), while the other is used to provide the vertical detection (y-axis). For example,
122
(5)
( ) (6)
When the time parameter, t, is eliminated, it can be shown that these two equations generate the
ellipse equation:
( )2 + ( )2 + 2( )( ) = (7)
For ≠ π/2, the ellipse is rotated as shown in Figure 9-2. For = π /2, the ellipse axes are along the
x and y axes.
Since x = 0 when t = (2n + 1) π /2, and y = 0 when t = (2n + 1) π /2 + , equations (5) and (6)
give the maximum intercept values on the x and y axes, viz,
; (8)
and
; (9)
Thus, the phase angle may be calculated from these measurements as:
( ⁄ ) or ( ⁄ ) (10)
To calculate the average power for RL and the RC circuits use the following two equations:
123
= , (11)
= , (12)
where Vsm is the amplitude of Vs (t), is the power-factor angle, Im = Vm1 /R1 and R=R1 for
the RL circuit, and Im= Vm2/R2 and R= R2 for the RC circuit.
A circuit containing R, L, and C elements in series and parallel combinations will be used to verify
Kirchhoff’s Current and Voltage Laws experimentally. Amplitude and phase-angle measurements
will be made to determine the phasors needed using circuit in Figure 9-3.
Including inductors, capacitors, and linear AC sources into any linear circuit will not change the
circuit linearity, accordingly same superposition principle, source transformations, and Thevenin or
Norton , the geometry still applicable. (review expirement#5)
│VL│=
∆t=
T=
θ = (∆t/T)*360º
VL(t)=
5. Place the scope in the XY mode to display an ellipse, Measure maximum and intercept values
along both axes to determine the phase angle ( see Figure 9-2)
Xi Xm Yi Ym
6. Repeat steps 4 and 5 above when Ch2 of scope is connected across the capacitor (VC(t)) in order
to measure the phase angle
│VC│=
∆t=
T=
θ = (∆t/T)*360º
VC(t)=
Xi Xm Yi Ym
125
3- With Vs as reference, measure the amplitude and phase angle of V2(t) and of V3(t) and Vab(t) using
the time difference method.
Note: 1. To measure V2 Interchange the physical position of R2 and L in the test circuit.
2. To measure V3 Interchange the physical position of R3 and C in the test circuit.
5- Turn the function-generator connections around so that its ground is connected to point g2, then
measure the amplitude and phase angle of v1(t)
│V1│=
∆t=
126
Figure 9-4
1- Measure the amplitude and phase angle of the open- circuit voltage Vxy(oc) and the short circuit
current IXY(sc).
127
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Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
4.
3∟18o
Q#2: Figure9-5 shows Three sinusoids signal that displayed together using common trigger
signal, answer the following two questions:
Figure99-5
1. Use V1 (t) as reference signal, then calculate the phase shift (in radian then in degree) between
the V1 (t) and V2 (t).
129
2. Which Signal is leading the other V1 (t) or V2 (t)?
Note: show the explanation.
3. Use V1 (t) as reference signal, then write V3 (t) in form of sin wave.
Q#3: For the circuit shown in Figure9-6, calculate Vab, V1, V2, V3, VL, and VC .
Figure 9-6
131
131
Q#4: For the circuit shown in Figure9-7, calculate VTh, and ZTh as seen by X and Y points.
Figure9-7
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133
1. Phase- angle measurements:
1. Fill the below table referring to measurement at circuit of Figure9-3:
2. After place the scope in the XY mode Fill the below table, then compare the value of θ with that
from the previous part.
Xi Xm Xi Yi Ym Yi
θ =Sin-1( ) θ =Sin-1( )
Xm Ym
Xi Xm Xi Yi Ym Yi
θ =Sin-1( ) θ =Sin-1( )
Xm Ym
Note: Express the phasors corresponding to the measured voltages in rectangular form.
│ V 2│ θ │ V 3│ θ │ Vab│ θ
134
V2(t)=
V3(t)=
Vab(t)=
2. Turn the function-generator connections around so that its ground is connected to point g2, then
measure the amplitude and phase angle of v1(t)
Note: Express the phasors corresponding to the measured voltages in rectangular form.
│V1│ Θ
V1(t) =
3. Calculate the current phasor using the previously measured value of voltage V1, V2, and V3 and
check KCL.
I1-I2-I3
I1= V 1 I2= V 2 I3= V 3
R1 R2 R3
135
4. Check voltage sums and KVL. For example, Vab= VL+ V2= VC+ V3,and V1+ V2+ V L− Vs= 0.
136
3. Thevenin Equivalent and Maximum Power Transfer:-
1-Measure the amplitude and phase angle of the open- circuit voltage Vxy(oc), the short –
circuit current IXY(sc), and find ZTh= Vxy (oc)/Ixy(sc).
Voc
Zth=
Isc
│ Voc│ θOC │ ISC│ θSC Zth*
3- Determine the value of L and C for the ZTh and conjugate ZTh*
137
Conclusion and discussion :
List your Conclusion about all parts of this experiment, and discuss the results as
points:
138
References :
[1] W. Hayt, J. Kemmerly, and S. Durbin, Engineering Circuit Analysis, 8 ed.: McGraw-
Hill, 2011.
[2] I. Babaa, "Electrical Circuit Laboratory," Jordan University of Science and
Tehnology1992.
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