Sir Notes

Construction & Working Principles of
Transformer
DR. RABINDRA KUMAR SAHU

Professor
Department of EEE, VSSUT, Burla
1
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, the student will be able to
Define transformer
Explain the constructional details of a transformer
Explain the operating principle of a transformer
Classify transformers
Explain Core Type Transformers
Explain Shell Type Transformers
Compare Core and Shell Type Transformers
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2
Introduction
The main advantage of AC over DC is that, the AC can be
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easily transferable from low voltage to high voltage and high

voltage to low voltage.
Alternating voltages can be raised or lowered as per the

requirement at various stages such as generation,
transmission, distribution and utilization. This conversion of
voltage is possible only due to transformer.
A transformer is static electric device, which transfers

electrical power or energy from one circuit to another with
desired change in voltage and current at constant frequency.
The transformer used to increase the voltage is called step-

up transformer, while that is used to decrease the voltage is
called step-down transformer.
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The step-down transformers are generally used to decrease the
voltage at substations for consumer’s use, whereas step-up
transformers are required to increase the voltage at the
generating station for transmission purpose.
In a transformer, electrical energy is transferred from one

circuit to another circuit without the use of moving parts. So,
it has highest efficiency out of all the electrical machines.
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Working Principle of a Transformer
A transformer is a static electric device which transfers electric energy
from one circuit to another circuit without changing the frequency of
the system.
It works on principle of Faraday’s law of electromagnetic induction.
According to this principle, an e.m.f. is induced in a coil if it links with
a changing flux.
Transformer consists of two windings insulated from each other (i.e.
electrically separated) and wound on a common core made up of
magnetic material of low reluctance as show in Fig.(1).
The winding which is connected to the supply is known as primary
winding and the other winding to which the load is connected is called
secondary winding.
25-Jan-21 Fig. (1): Arrangement of a simple transformer

Fig. (2): Symbolic representation
When the primary winding is connected to an AC supply, an
alternating current flow through it. This current in the primary
winding sets up an alternating flux (Ф) in the core, which completes its
path in the common magnetic core as shown in the figure.
This flux links with both the windings and it produces self-induced
e.m.f. in the primary winding and mutual induced e.m.f. in the
secondary winding.
If the secondary winding circuit is closed through the load, the
mutually induced e.m.f. in the secondary winding circulates current
through the load. Thus, the electrical energy is transferred from
primary winding to secondary winding with the help of a magnetic
core.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rp8qWms3Cjw
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Transformer Construction
The main parts of the transformer as shown in fig.3 are

Magnetic core
Windings
Conservator tank
Transformer oil
Radiators
Bushings
Breather
Container
Buchnolz relay.
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Fig.(3):Various parts of a distribution transformer
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Magnetic core
• It is the common part between the two windings and helps
to link magnetic flux with both the windings.
• Made up of silicon steel with low reluctance.
• Sheets are laminated and are coated with an oxide layer to
reduce the iron losses.
Windings
• A conventional transformer has two winding.
• The winding which receives the electrical energy is called the
primary winding and the winding which delivers the
electrical energy to the load is known as secondary winding.
• The two windings are electrically separated
but magnetically coupled through magnetic core.
• Made up of copper or aluminum with enamel coating.
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Conservator tank
• It is an air tight cylindrical drum containing transformer oil,
placed at the top of the transformer and connected to the
transformer tank by a pipe.
• The main tank is completely filled with oil. The oil in the
transformer tank expands due to increase in temperature
and contracts when the temperature or load reduces.
• Its main function is to take up contraction and expansion of
oil without allowing it to come in contact with outside air.
Transformer oil
• It is a mineral oil obtained by refining crude petroleum.
• It serves the following purposes.
a) Acts as an insulating medium between windings and tank.
b) Protects the tank from dirt and moisture.
c) Carries away the heat generated in the core and coils i.e. it
is used for cooling purpose.
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Radiators
• Radiators help in cooling the transformer oil by increasing
the surface area.
• The number of radiators required is independent on the
capacity of the transformer and rate of cooling.
Bushings
• The bushings are employed for insulating and bringing out
terminals of the winding from the container to the external
circuit.
• Number of bushings is equal to number of phases.
• These are generally of two types
(i) Porcelain type, which are used for voltage rating up to
33 kV.
(ii) Oil filled or condenser types, which are used for voltage
higher than 33 kV.
Container
• Cast iron or cast steel air tighted containers are provided
with radiators.
• The container contains the core windings and oil.
Breather
• Transformer oil should not be exposed directly to the
atmosphere because it may absorb moisture and dust from the
environment and may loose its electrical properties in a very
short time.
• To avoid this problem a breather is provided on the top of the
conservator.
• It mainly consists of a silicagel. The silicagel absorbs the
moisture content of air so that the oil contamination can be
prevented.
Buchholz relay
• It is a relay, provided in between conservator tank and
transformer tank.
• It helps in identify incipient faults.
• It is a gas actuated relay.
• It operates on the generation of gases due to any internal fault
of the transformer.
• In incase of severe internal fault it gives an alarm and
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disconnect the transformer from supply mains.
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Transformer on DC Supply
A transformer cannot operate on DC supply.

If rated DC supply is applied to the primary winding of a
transformer, the flux produced in the transformer core will
not vary but remains constant in magnitude and therefore no
e.m.f. will be induced in both primary and secondary
windings.
So, there is no induced e.m.f. in the primary winding, to
oppose the applied voltage.
Practically the winding resistance is very low; therefore, a
heavy current will flow through the primary winding which
may result in damage of the winding. Thus, DC supply
should not be applied to the transformer.
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Types of Transformers (based on
construction
Depending upon the connection of
winding, transformers are classified
into two types, namely
(1) Core type transformer
(2) Shell type transformer
(1). Core type transformer
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Fig.(4): Core type Transformer
It has a single magnetic circuit and the core is made up of
rectangular or square type.
It has two limbs and the windings are wound on these two
limbs.
In this type of transformer, the core is surrounded by the
windings as shown in figure (4).
The two vertical portions are called limbs, each carry one
half of the primary winding and one half of the secondary
winding.
Core is made up of silicon steel laminations to reduce eddy
current losses.
As the windings are uniformly distributed over the two limbs,
the natural cooling is more effective.
The coils can be easily removed by removing the lamination
of the top yoke, for maintenance.
These types of transformers are generally preferred for low
voltage applications.
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(2) Shell type transformer
Fig.(5): Shell type Transformer
It has a double magnetic circuit and the core has three limbs.
Both the windings are wound on the center limb.

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In this type of transformer, the windings are surrounded by
the core as shown in figure (5).
As the winding is surrounded by the core, the natural cooling

does not exist.
For removing any winding for maintenance, large numbers of

laminations are required to be removed.
The coils used are generally multilayer disc type or sandwich

coils.
These types of transformers are generally preferred for high

voltage applications..
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Comparison between Core & Shell Type
Transformers
S.No Core type transformer Shell type transformer
01 It has two limbs It has three limbs
02 Windings are wound around Windings are wound on the

the two limbs central limb only
03 The flux (Φ) is same in both The central limb has flux (Φ),
the limbs while the other two limbs have
flux Φ/2
04 The winding encircles the core The core encircles most part of
the winding
05 It has single magnetic circuit It has double magnetic circuit
06 Cylindrical concentric coils are Sandwiched or multilayered
used disc type coils are used
07 This type of construction is This type of construction is
preferred for low voltage preferred for very high voltage
transformers transformers
08 It is rarely used It is widely used
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Ideal Transformer and E.M.F Equation

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Define ideal transformer
Explain the operation of an ideal transformer
Outline the E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer
Define Voltage Transformation Ratio
Define Current Transformation Ratio
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2
Ideal Transformer
An ideal transformer is one that has
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(i) no winding resistance.

(ii) no leakage flux i.e. the same flux links with both the
windings.
(iii) no iron losses in the core.
Although ideal transformer cannot be physically realized, yet
its study provides a very powerful tool in the analysis of a
practical transformer.
In fact, practical transformers have properties that approach
very close to an ideal transformer.
When the primary winding of a transformer is connected to
an alternating voltage V1 a magnetizing current Im (or I0)
flows through it. Since the primary coil is purely
inductive, the current Im lags the applied voltage V1 by an
angle 900. Due to this current Im, flux is produced in the
primary winding.
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In this flux some of the flux is linked with the primary winding
and some other flux also linked with the secondary winding
and hence self-induced e.m.f, E1 and mutual-induced e.m.f, E2
are induced in the primary and secondary windings
respectively.
Figure (6): Ideal Transformer

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According to Lenz’s law the induced e.m.f opposes the cause
producing, here the cause is the supply voltage V1. Hence E1 is
in anti-phase with V1 but equal in magnitude. The induced
e.m.f. E2 also opposes V1 hence in anti-phase with V1 but its
magnitude depends on N2. Thus, E1 and E2 are in phase.
Mathematically,
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E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer
When the primary winding of a transformer is excited by an alternating
voltage, it circulates an alternating current and hence an alternating
flux is produced in the core.
25-Jan-21 Fig. (7): Sinusoidal flux

According to Faraday’s Law of electromagnetic induction, e.m.f
induced is given by
dΦ d
E = −N = − N ( Φ m sin ω t ) = − N Φ mω cos ω t = N Φ mω sin(ω t − 900 )
dt dt
It is clear from the above equation that maximum value of induced
e.m.f. is
E max = NΦ m ω
The r.m.s. value induced e.m.f. is
E max N ωΦ m 2 NπfΦ m
E rms = = = = 4.44 NfΦ m
2 2 2
Note: It is clear from the equation (3.3) that e.m.f. E1 induced in the
primary winding lags behind the flux Φ by 900. Likewise, e.m.f. E2
induced in the secondary winding lags behind flux Φ by 900.
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Voltage and Current Transformation Ratios
(i)Voltage Ratio:
E1 E 2
∴ = = 4.44 fΦ m
N1 N 2
It means that the e.m.f. per turn is same in both primary and
secondary windings.
In an ideal transformer, the voltage drops in primary and

secondary windings are negligible. Therefore, for an ideal
transformer V1 = E1 and V2 = E2
The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is same as

the ratio of secondary turns to the primary turns. This ratio is
known as transformation ratio, K
E2 V2 N 2
∴K = = =
E1 V1 N1
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(ii) Current Ratio:
In an ideal transformer, the volt-ampere input to the primary is
approximately equal to the volt-ampere output from the secondary
since the losses are negligible. So, input volt amperes = output volt
amperes on no load
i.e., primary and secondary currents are inversely proportional to

their respective turns.
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Solved Problem-1: The maximum flux density in the core of a
250/3000V, 50Hz 1-phase transformer is 1.2Wb|m2.
If the e.m.f. per turn is 8V, determine the
(i) primary and secondary turns
(ii) area of the core
Solution: Given that
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Solved Problem-2: A 1-phase transformer has 400 primary and
100 secondary winding turns. The net cross-sectional area of the
core is 60 cm2. If the primary winding is connected to a 50 Hz
supply at 520V, then calculate the
(i) peak value of flux density in the core
(ii) voltage induced in the secondary winding
(iii) transformation ratio
(iv) e.m.f. induced per turn in both the windings
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14
Actual/Practical Transformer

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Explain practical transformer on no-load
Explain practical transformer on load
Explain transformer with winding resistance
Explain transformer with winding resistance and leakage
reactance
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2
Practical Transformer
A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer in

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many aspects. The practical transformer has

(i) iron losses,
(ii) winding resistances, and
(iii) magnetic leakage, giving rise to leakage reactance.
Figure (1): Practical Transformer
So while considering practical transformer, we need to

consider all the above parameters in the performance analysis.
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3
Practical Transformer on No-Load
In the case of ideal transformer losses are neglected, but
practically it is not possible.
When the primary of a transformer is connected to AC supply,
and the secondary is open, the transformer is said to be on no-
load.
Figure (2): Transformer on no-load

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When the transformer is on no-load, the primary current is
used to supply iron losses in the core and a small amount of
copper losses in the primary (there being no copper losses in
secondary as it is open). Hence, the no load primary input
current I0 is not at 900 behind V1 but lags it by an angle
ф0<900
No load input power of the transformer is W0 = V1I0 cosφ0
From the pharos diagram I0 has two components

(i) Working or Active or Iron losses or Wattful component, Iw,
which is in phase with V1 and mainly supplies iron losses and
a small amount of copper losses in the primary
(ii) Magnetizing or Wattless component, Im. This component is

in quadrature with V1 and its function is to maintain the
alternating flux in the core.
I w = I 0 cos φ0 I m = I 0 sin φ0 I 0 = I m2 + I w2
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Practical Transformer on Load
When the transformer is loaded, the secondary current, I2 is set
up and it will be in phase with V2 if the load is resistive, it lags V2
if the load is inductive, it leads V2 if the load is capacitive.
The secondary current I2 sets up its own m.m.f. (=N2I2) and hence
it produces flux Φ2, which is in opposition to the main flux Φ,
which is due to I0.
Secondary flux Φ2 weakens the main flux Φ momentarily and
hence primary back e.m.f., E1 tends to be reduced. For a moment
V1 gains upper hand over E1 and hence causes additional current
I2’ to flow in primary and hence flux Φ2’ (due to m.m.f., N1I2’)
which counter balance the secondary flux Φ2
Here I2’ is known as load component of primary current. This

'
current is in anti-phase with I 2. ∴ I 1 = I 0 + I 2
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Figure (3): Transformer on load
Figure (4): Phasor

diagram
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Transformer with winding resistance
In an ideal transformer it is assumed that there is no winding
resistance, but in actual transformer the winding possesses
some resistance as shown in the figure (5).
Due to this resistance, there is some voltage drop in both
primary and secondary windings. As result
V2 = E2 − I 2 R2
E1 = V1 − I1 R1 ⇒ V1 = E1 + I1 R1
Fig. (5): Transformer with winding resistance

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Figure (6): Phasor diagram
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and leakage reactance
Fig. (7): Transformer with winding resistance and reactance
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and leakage reactance
Fig. (8): Phasor diagram of a transformer

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Solved Problem-3: The no-load current of a transformer is 5 A
at 0.3 p.f., when supplied at 230 V, 50 Hz. If the number of
turns on the primary winding is 200, then calculate the
i) maximum value of flux in the core
ii) magnetizing current
iii) iron losses in the transformer
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Solved Problem-4: In a 50 kVA, 2300/230 V, 50 Hz transformer,
the HV winding is kept open. The meters
indicate the following readings:
W0= 187 W, V1 =230V, I0= 6.5 A, R 1 = 0.06 Ω
Find (i) core losses, (ii) Iw, (iii) Im, and (iv) p.f
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14
Equivalent Resistance/ Impendence of a
Practical Transformer

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Outline the schematic diagram of a practical transformer
Outline equivalent resistance of a transformer
Outline equivalent reactance of a transformer
Outline equivalent impedance of a transformer
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2
Practical/Actual Transformer
The schematic diagram of a practical transformer is as

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shown in figure (1).

Let us calculate the equivalent resistance, reactance and
impedance of the transformer either referred to primary or
secondary.
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3
Equivalent resistance of a transformer
The resistances of the two windings of a transformer can be
transferred to any one side, that is, either primary or secondary side
without affecting the performance of the transformer.
The transfer of the resistances/reactances/impedances on any one
side is advantageous as it makes the calculations very easy.
The total copper losses due to both the resistances is given by
 I 22   R 
Pcu = I R1 + I R2 = I1  R1 + 2 R2  = I12  R1 + 22  = I12 R1 + R2 '
1
2 2
2
2
I1  K 
( )
 
' R2
Where R 2 = is called equivalent resistance of secondary when
K2
referred to primary.
Pcu = I12 ( R1 + R2' ) = I12 R01
R2
Where 01 R = R1 + = Equivalent resistance of the transformer when
K2
referred to primary.
Similarly, total copper losses
 I 12 
Pcu = I1 R1 + I 2 R2 = I 2  2 R1 + R2  = I 2 2 ( K 2 R1 + R2 ) = I 2 2 R02
2 2 2
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4
Where R1' = K 2 R1 =Equivalent resistance of the primary when referred to
secondary &
R02 = K 2 R1 + R2 = Equivalent resistance of the transformer when referred
to secondary
Figure (2): Transformer with winding resistance
Figure (3): Equivalent resistance of Transformer

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5
Equivalent leakage reactance of the
transformer
Similar to the resistance, the leakage reactance can also be
transferred from primary to secondary and vice versa. The relation
through K2 remains same for the transfer of reactance as it
studied earlier for the resistances.
Let X2’ be the reactance of the secondary winding when referred
to primary. For X2’ to produce the same effect in the primary side
as X2 in the secondary side, each must absorb the same reactive
volt amperes.
X
VAR = VI sin φ = IZ × I × = I2X
Z
Equating the reactive volt-amperes consumed by
( I 2' ) 2 X 2' = I 22 X 2
I 22 I 22 X2
⇒ X 2' = X2 = X2 =
( I 2' ) 2 ( KI 2 ) 2 K2
Equivalent reactance of the transformer when referred to primary
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X2
X 01 = X 1 + X 2' = X 1 +
K2
Equivalent reactance of the transformer when referred to secondary
X 02 = X 2 + X 1' = X 2 + K 2 X 1
Figure (4): Equivalent reactance of Transformer

(a) when referred to primary (b) when referred to secondary
Note: It is important to remember that

• When transferring resistance or reactance from primary to secondary multiply it by K2
• When transferring resistance or reactance from secondary to primary, divide it by K2
• When transferring voltage or current from one winding to the other, only K is used.
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Equivalent Impedance of a transformer
The transformer primary winding has resistance R1 and reactance X1,

while the secondary winding has resistance R2 and reactance X2.
Thus, we can say that the total impedance of primary winding Z1 and
is given by
Z 1 = R1 + jX 1 = R12 + X 12
And the total impedance of secondary winding Z2 and is given by

Z 2 = R2 + jX 2 = R 22 + X 22
Similar to resistance and reactance, the impedance can also be

referred to any one side. So, Equivalent impedance when referred
to primary
Z01 = R01 + j X01
R2 X2
Where R01 = R1 + , X 01 = X 1 +
K2 K2
Equivalent impedance when referred to secondary
Z02 = R02 + j X02
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Where R02 = R2 +K2R1, X02=X2+K2X1 8
Figure (5): Equivalent impedance of transformer
(a) when referred to primary (b) when referred to secondary
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Solved Problem-5: A 1-phase transformer has 90 and 180 turns
respectively in its secondary and primary windings and the respective
resistances are 0.2Ω and 0.6Ω. Calculate the equivalent resistance of
the (i) primary in terms of the secondary winding, (ii) secondary in
terms of the primary winding, and (iii) total resistance of the
transformer when referred to primary
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Solved Problem-6: A 5kVA, 440/220V transformer has R1 = 3.45Ω,
R2=0.09Ω, X1= 3.2Ω, X2 = 0.015Ω. Calculate the
(i) Equivalent resistance of the transformer when referred to both
primary and secondary
(ii) Equivalent reactance of the transformer when referred to both
(iii)Equivalent impedance of the transformer when referred to both
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13
Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Outline the equivalent circuit of a practical transformer
Outline the equivalent circuit of a transformer when referred
to primary
Outline the equivalent circuit of a transformer when referred
to secondary
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2
Equivalent Circuit of a Transformer
The equivalent circuit of a transformer consists of fixed and

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variable resistances and reactances, which exactly simulates

the performance and working of the machine.
If an equivalent circuit is available, the computations can be
done by the direct application of circuit theory.
For a transformer, no-load primary current I0 has two
components

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3
Im produces the flux and is assumed to flow through reactance X0
called no-load reactance while Iw is active component representing
core losses hence is assumed to flow through resistance R0. R0 and X0
are connected in parallel across the primary circuit as shown in
figure (2).
From the equivalent circuit we can write
Figure (2): Equivalent circuit of a transformer

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Equivalent circuit when referred to Primary
Let us see how to transfer secondary values to primary side:
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5
Figure (3): Equivalent circuit when referred to primary
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Approximate equivalent circuit when referred to primary:
The no-load current I0 is usually less than 5% of the full load primary
current. So, the voltage drop produced by I0 in (R1+jX1) is negligible for
practical purposes.
Therefore, it is immaterial that the shunt branch (R0 in parallel with X0)
is connected before or after the primary series impedance (R1+jX1). Here
the currents Im and Iw are not much affected.
Therefore, the equivalent circuit can be further simplified by shifting
the no load branch containing R0 and X0 to the supply terminals as
shown in figure (4)
Figure (4): Approximate equivalent circuit when referred to primary

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The equivalent circuit can be further simplified as shown in the figure
(5) by combining parameters
Where
Figure (5): Approximate equivalent circuit when referred to primary
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Equivalent circuit when referred to Secondary
Similarly, if all the primary quantities are transferred to
secondary, we can get the equivalent circuit of the transformer
when referred to secondary as shown in figure (6).
Figure (6): Equivalent circuit when referred to secondary
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Approximate equivalent circuit when referred to secondary:
Similarly, if the exciting circuit parameters also gets transformed to
secondary as then the equivalent circuit when referred to
secondary can be drawn as shown in figure 7.
Figure (7): Approximate equivalent circuit when referred to secondary

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11
Losses and Efficiency of a Transformer

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
List the various losses in a transformer
Explain core and copper losses in a transformer
Explain the separation of core losses in a transformer
Define efficiency of a Transformer
Outline the condition for maximum efficiency
Outline the efficiency at any desired load
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2
Losses in a Transformer
The transformer is a static device and hence there are no
mechanical losses i.e., friction and windage losses. Hence the losses
taking place in transformer are
(i) Core or Iron losses, and
(ii) Copper losses
(i) Core or iron losses (Wi)
This is the power losses that occurs in the iron part of the
transformer due to the alternating flux in the core.
These losses are further classified into two types, such as
Hysteresis losses and Eddy current losses
(a) Hysteresis losses: Due to alternating flux setup in the magnetic
core of the transformer, it undergoes a cycle of magnetization and
demagnetization resulting a loss of energy which is called as
hysteresis losses.
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(b) Eddy current losses: The alternating flux linking the core in a
transformer will induced an e.m.f in the core, called eddy e.m.f. Due
to this eddy e.m.f an eddy current is being circulated in the core. This
eddy current circulation dissipates some losses in the resistance of
the core called eddy current power losses in the form of heat.
Both hysteresis and eddy current losses are depending upon (i)
maximum flux density, Bm in the core and (ii) supply frequency, f.
Since transformers are connected to constant frequency, constant
voltage supply, both f and Bm are constant. Hence, core or iron losses
are practically the same at all loads.
Iron or Core losses, Wi=Hysteresis losses+Eddy current losses =
Constant losses.
The hysteresis losses can be minimized by using steel of high silicon
content whereas the eddy current losses can be reduced by using core
of thin laminations.
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(ii) Copper losses (Wcu)
Copper losses is the power (I2R) wasted in the form of heat due to
resistance of the primary and secondary windings.
From the above equation, it is clear that the copper losses depend
upon the load current and is proportion to the square of the load
current hence called the variable losses.
Thus, for a transformer total loss
WT= Wi+Wcu = Constant losses + Variable losses
It may be noted that in a transformer, copper losses account for
about 90% of the total losses.
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Separation of core losses
The core losses (or iron losses) consist of two components such as
hysteresis losses and eddy current losses. Sometimes it is desirable to
find the hysteresis losses component and eddy current losses
component separately in the total core losses.
If the maximum flux density Bm is kept constant by keeping

(V/f) constant, then
If the measurement of Wi is taken at two different frequencies by

keeping the ratio (V/f) constant, then we will have
By solving the above two equations, we can determine A and B and

hence we can determine Wh and We separately.
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6
Solved Problem-7: In a transformer the core losses is found to be 60W
at 40Hz frequency and 100W at 60Hz frequency; both the losses being
measured at same maximum flux density. Find the hysteresis and
eddy current losses at 50 Hz.
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Solved Problem-8: The core losses for a given single phase transformer
is found to be 2000W at 50Hz. Keeping the flux density constant, the
frequency at the supply is raised to 75Hz resulting in core losses of
3200W. Find separately hysteresis and eddy current losses at both the
frequencies.
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
9
Efficiency of a Transformer
Efficiency of a transformer at a given load and power factor (p.f.) is
defined as the ratio of output power to the input power, when both the
quantities are expressed in the same units.
(i) Condition for maximum efficiency
25-Jan-21
10
Hence the efficiency of a transformer will be maximum when copper
losses are equal to iron losses
25-Jan-21
11
(ii) Efficiency at any desired load
Let S= Full load kVA of the transformer
Wcu= Full load copper losses
25-Jan-21
12
Solved Problem-9: A 200 kVA, 1-phase transformer has an efficiency of
98% at full load. If the maximum efficiency occurs at ¾
full load, calculate the (i) iron losses, (ii) copper losses at full load, and
(iii) efficiency at half full load. Assume a p.f of 0.8 at all loads.
25-Jan-21
13
25-Jan-21
14
Solved Problem-10: A 50kVA transformer on full load has a copper
loss of 600W and iron losses of 500W. Calculate the maximum
efficiency and the load at which it occurs. Assume load p.f.=1
25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-11: The efficiency of a 200 kVA, single phase
transformer is 98% when operating at full load, 0.8 p.f. lagging.
The iron losses in the transformer is 2000W. Calculate the
(i) Full load copper losses
(ii) Half-full load copper losses
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
17
Regulation of a Transformer

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Define regulation of a transformer
Outline the expression for regulation of a transformer
Outline the condition for zero regulation
Outline the condition for Maximum regulation
25-Jan-21
2
Regulation of a Transformer
When the transformer is loaded its terminal voltage falls from no
load to full load. The change in secondary terminal voltage from no
load to full load and expressed as secondary no load voltage is
known as regulation down.
 V −V 
% regulation down =  0 2 2  × 100
 0V2 
If the change in voltage is expressed as secondary full-load voltage
then it is known as regulation up.
 V −V 
% regulation up =  0 2 2  × 100
 V2 
Unless stated otherwise, regulation is to be taken as regulation

down. Lesser the regulation better the transformer performance.
From the circuit diagram shown in figure 1(a), we have
0 V2 = V2 + I 2 R02 + jI 2 X 02
25-Jan-21
3
≈
Figure (1): Regulation of a transformer

Using the above equation, the phasor diagram for lagging power
factor load can be drawn as shown in figure 1(b)
25-Jan-21
4
≈
From equations (1), (2) & (3)
25-Jan-21
5
(i) Condition for zero regulation
The negative sign indicates that zero regulation occurs at leading

power factors i.e., for capacitive loads.
(ii) Condition for Maximum regulation
25-Jan-21
6
Thus, maximum regulation occurs at lagging power factor of the load.
The lagging power factor angle of the load is equal to the angle of the
equivalent impedance of the transformer.
Solved Problem-12: A 10 kVA single phase transformer for 2000/400V
at no load, has R1= 3.5Ω, X1=12 Ω, R2=0.2 Ω, X2=0.45 Ω. Determine the
approximate value of the secondary voltage at full load, 0.8
power factor lagging when the primary applied voltage is 2000 V.
25-Jan-21
7
Solved Problem-13: A 20kVA, 2500/500V, single phase transformer has
the following parameters
HV winding: R=8Ω, X=1.7 Ω
LV winding: R=0.3Ω, X=0.7 Ω
Find the voltage regulation and secondary terminal voltage at full load
(i) for a p.f. of 0.8 lagging, and (ii) for a p.f. of 0.8 leading
kVA rating of transformer =20
E1/E2=2500/500V
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
Percentage Resistance, Reactance
and Impedance
Percentage resistance is the resistance drop in volts at rated current
and frequency expressed as a percentage of rated voltage. Therefore,
percentage resistance or ohmic drop of a transformer at full-load
IR I R
Vr (or ) % R = 1 01 ×100 = 2 02 ×100
V1 V2
I12 R01 I 2 2 R02
⇒ × 100 = × 100 = % Copper losses at full load
V1 I1 V2 I 2
Percentage reactance is the reactance drop in volts at rated current and
frequency expressed as a percentage of rated voltage. Therefore,
percentage reactance drop of a transformer at full-load.
I X I X
V x (or ) % X = 1 01 × 100 = 2 02 × 100
V1 V2
Similarly, percentage impedance drop at full-load
I 1 Z 01 I Z
V z (or ) % Z = × 100 = 2 02 × 100
V1 V2
V z = Vr2 + V x2
25-Jan-21
11
Solved Problem-14: Calculate the voltage regulation of a
transformer in which the ohmic drop is 1% and reactance drop is
5% of the full load voltage, when the load p.f. is (a) 0.8 lagging (b)
0.8 leading
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
13
Testing of a Transformer

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
List the various test of a transformer
Explain Open Circuit Test
Explain Short Circuit Test
List the Advantages of Transformer Tests
Predict the efficiency and voltage regulation of a transformer
25-Jan-21
2
Transformer Tests
The circuit constants, efficiency and voltage regulation of a

transformer at any load and p.f can be predetermined without
actually loading the transformer.
But the equivalent circuit parameters of a transformer are

determined by conducting two simple tests (i) open-circuit test,
and (ii) short-circuit lest.
These tests will give more accurate results than those obtained
by taking measurements on fully loaded transformers.
Further, the power required to carry out these tests is very

small as compared with full-load output of the transformer.
These tests consist of measuring the input voltage, current and

power to the primary first with secondary open-circuited (open-
circuit test) and then with the secondary short-circuited (short
circuit test).
25-Jan-21
3
Open Circuit Test
This test is conducted to determine iron losses (or core losses) and
no-load current, I0 which is helpful in finding R0 and X0.
In this test, the rated voltage is applied to the primary (usually low-
voltage winding) while the secondary is left open circuited.
A wattmeter ‘W’ a voltmeter ‘V’ and an ammeter ‘A’ are connected in
the low voltage side i.e. primary winding in the present case.
The applied primary voltage V1 is measured by the voltmeter, the no
load current I0 by ammeter and no-load input power W0 by
wattmeter as shown in figure (1).
Figure (1): OC test circuit diagram

25-Jan-21
4
With normal voltage applied to primary, normal flux will set up in the
core and hence normal iron losses will occur, which are recorded by
the wattmeter ‘W’.
As the primary no load current I0 (2 to 5% of rated current) is small,
copper losses are negligibly small in the primary and nil in the
secondary (being opened). Hence the OC test gives core losses alone
practically (i.e., wattmeter reading) and is same for all loads.
Thus open-circuit test enables us to determine iron losses and

parameters R0 and X0 of the transformer.
25-Jan-21
5
Short Circuit Test
This test is conducted to determine R01 (or R02), X01 (or X02) and full-
load copper losses of the transformer.
In this test, the secondary (usually low-voltage winding) is short-
circuited by a thick conductor and variable low voltage is applied to the
primary as shown in figure (2).
A wattmeter ‘W’, a voltmeter ‘V’ and an ammeter ‘A’ are connected in
the high voltage side i.e., primary winding in the present case.
Figure (2): SC test circuit diagram

25-Jan-21
6
A low voltage (usually 5 to 10% of normal primary voltage) is applied
through a variac to the primary and is gradually increased till the
ammeter ‘A’ indicates full load current I1 in the primary.
Since the applied voltage is very low, so flux produced is very small.
Hence, the iron losses are so small that these can be neglected, with
the result, the wattmeter ‘W’ reads total full load copper losses of the
transformer.
Thus, short-circuit test gives full-load copper losses, R01 and X01
25-Jan-21
7
Advantages of Transformer Tests
(i) The power required to carry out these tests is very small as
compared to the full-load output of the transformer. In case of
open-circuit lest, power required is equal to the iron losses
whereas for a short-circuit test, power required is equal to
full-load copper losses.
(ii) These tests enable us to determine the efficiency of the
transformer accurately at any load and p.f. without actually
loading the transformer.
(iii)The short-circuit test enables us to determine R01 and X01 (or
R02 and X02). We can thus find the total voltage drop in the
transformer when referred to primary or secondary. This
permits us to calculate voltage regulation of the transformer.
25-Jan-21
8
Predetermination of efficiency and
voltage regulation
Knowing the equivalent resistance and reactance referred to primary
(or secondary) from short circuit test, the voltage regulation of the
transformer at any p.f. can be determined by
I 1 R01 cos φ ± I 1 X 01 sin φ I R cos φ ± I 2 X 0 2 sin φ
% voltage regulation = × 100 = 2 0 2 × 100
V1 V
0 2
By performing OC and SC tests we can find the total losses in a
transformer.
Efficiency at any load is given by

xS cos φ
η at any load =
xS cos φ + Wi + x 2Wcu
Where x=Fraction of F.L at which the transformer is working
25-Jan-21
S=Full load kVA of the transformer
9
Solved Problem-15: A 30kVA, 2000/200V, 1-phase, 50Hz transformer
has a primary resistance of 3.5 Ω and reactance of 3.5 Ω. The secondary
winding resistance and reactance are 0.015 Ω and 0.02 Ω respectively.
Find.
(i) Equivalent resistance, reactance and impedance
(a) when referred to primary, and (b) when referred to secondary.
(ii) Total copper losses in the transformer
(i) (a) Transformer resistance, reactance and impedance when referred to

primary.
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
11
Solved Problem-16: A 5kVA, 200/350 V, 50Hz 1-phase transformer
gave the following test readings:
OC test: 200V, 0.5A, 60W (on LV side)
SC test: 22V, 16A, 100W (on HV side)
Find the voltage regulation at 0.6pf lagging at full load
25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-17: A 10kVA, 450/120V, 50Hz transformer gave the
follow test results:
O.C Test: 120V, 3.2A, 80W (on LV side)
S.C Test: 9.65V, 22.2A, 120W (LV side short circuited)
Calculate the efficiency and voltage regulation for 0.8 p.f lagging at full-
load.
LV is short circuited means instruments are connected on HV side i.e.

primary side
25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-18: A single phase, 250/500V transformer gave the
following results:
Open circuit test: 250 V, 1A, 80 W (LV side)
Short circuit test: 20 V, 12A, 100 W (HV side)
Draw the equivalent circuit when referred to primary by showing all the
circuit constants.
Open circuit test: 250V, 1A, 80 W (LV side)
Short circuit test: 20V, 12A, 100 W (HV side)
25-Jan-21
As the primary is short circuited, therefore all the values are referred to
the secondary winding.
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-19: Solved Problem-24: A 1-ф, 10kVA, 2500/250V
transformer gave the following test results:
OC test: 250V, 0.8A, 50W (LV side)
SC test: 60V, 3A, 45 W (HV side)
(i) Calculate the efficiency at ¼, ½ of full load at 0.8 p.f. lag
(ii) Calculate the kVA output at which maximum efficiency occurs
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
18
25-Jan-21
19
All Day Efficiency of the Transformer

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Define all-day efficiency of a transformer
Evaluate all-day efficiency of a transformer
Explain why transformer rating in kVA?
25-Jan-21
2
All-day Efficiency of the transformer
The ordinary or commercial efficiency of a transformer is

defined as the ratio of output power to the input power i.e.,
output power output power
Commercial efficiency,η = =
input power output power + losses
There are certain types of transformers whose performance

cannot be judged by this efficiency.
For instance, distribution transformers used for supplying
lighting loads have their primaries energized all the 24 hours in
a day but the secondaries supply little or no load during the
major portion of the day.
It means that the constant losses (i.e., iron losses) occurs
during the whole day but copper losses occur only when the
transformer is loaded and would depend upon the magnitude of
load.
25-Jan-21
3
Consequently, the copper loss varies considerably during the
day and the commercial efficiency of such transformers will vary
from a low value (or even zero) to a high value when the load is
high.
The performance of such transformers is judged on the basis of
energy consumption during the whole day (i.e., 24 hours). This
is known as all-day or energy efficiency.
All-day efficiency is defined as the ratio of output in kWh (i.e.
output energy) to the input in kWh (i.e. input energy) of a
transformer over a 24-hour period. i.e.
kWh output in 24 hours
η all day =
kWh input in 24 hours
This efficiency is always less than the commercial efficiency of a
transformer. To find the all-day efficiency, we have to know the
load cycle on the transformer i.e., how much and how long the
transformer is loaded during 24 hours.
25-Jan-21
4
Rating of the Transformer
An important factor in the design and operation of electrical

machines is the relation between the life of the insulation and
operating temperature of the machine. Therefore, temperature
rise resulting from the losses is a determining factor in the
rating of a machine.
We know that copper losses in a transformer depends on

current and iron losses depends on voltage.
Therefore, the total losses in a transformer depends on the

volt-ampere product only and not on the phase angle between
voltage and current i.e., it is independent of load power factor.
For this reason, the rating of a transformer is in kVA and not

kW.
25-Jan-21
5
Solved Problem-20: A 5kVA, single phase transformer has a core
loss of 40W and full load copper losses of 100W. The load cycle of
a transformer is as given below:
7AM to 1PM - 3kW at 0.6 p.f. lagging
1PM to 6PM - 2kW at 0.8p.f. lagging
6PM to 1AM - 6kW at 0.9 p.f. lagging
1AM to 7AM - no load
Determine the all-day efficiency of the transformer.
• Full load kVA rating of the transformer =5
• Core losses = 40W
• Full load copper losses i.e. copper losses at 5kVA, Wcu =
100W=0.1kW
• Iron losses are constant for 24 hours. So, energy spent due to
iron losses for 24 hours is
Wi=24×40= 960Wh=0.96kWh
• Copper losses are proportional to square of kVA ratio i.e.
(kVA)2
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
7
Solved Problem-21:A transformer has a maximum efficiency of 98% at
15kVA at u.p.f. During the day, it is loaded as follows:
10 Hours- 3kW at 0.6 p.f.
5 Hours- 10kW at 0.8p.f.
5 Hours- 18kW at 0.9 p.f.
4 Hours- no load
Determine the all-day efficiency of the transformer.
Iron losses is constant for 24 hours for any load and copper losses are
proportional to (kVA)2
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
10
Parallel Operation of Transformers

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
List the Reasons for Parallel Operation of Transformers
List the Conditions for satisfactory parallel operation
Explain the Parallel operation of transformers with un-equal
voltage ratios
Explain the Parallel operation of transformers with equal
voltage ratios
25-Jan-21
2
Reasons for Parallel Operation of
Transformers
Transformers are operated in parallel due to the following reasons:
i. Higher efficiency: During the period of light load, one or more
units may be shut down, and the remaining units are operated at
their rated capacity to increase the efficiency.
ii. Continuity of power supply: When one transformer is taken out of
service for its scheduled maintenance and inspection, with the
remaining units’ continuity of supply can be maintained.
iii.Easy repair and maintenance: For routine maintenance and
inspection, a unit must be shut down for a certain period. So,
repairing and overhauling (maintenance) is convenient.
Consequently, the cost of standby unit is much less when several
units are operated in parallel.
iv. Easy installation of additional unit: In order to meet the
increasing load demand, more number of units (i.e. transformers)
can be added parallel without distributing the original installation.
25-Jan-21
3
Conditions for satisfactory parallel
operation
In order to operate the transformers satisfactorily in parallel, the

following conditions should be fulfilled:
1) Polarities of the two transformers should be same.
2) Voltage ratings and voltage ratios of the transformers should
be same.
3) Per unit or percentage impedances of the transformers
should be equal.
4) Reactance/resistance ratios of the transformers should be
equal.
25-Jan-21
4
Parallel operation of transformers with
equal voltage ratios
Figure (1):Parallel operation of transformers with equal voltage ratios
25-Jan-21
5
Figure (2):Phasor diagram
From the figure 1(c)

E = V2 + I A Z A = V2 + I B Z B
From the figure 1(b)
25-Jan-21
6
I = I A + IB − − − (1)
IBZB
I AZ A = IBZB ⇒ I A = − − − (2)
ZA
From equations (1) and (2), we have
IBZB Z   Z + ZB 
I= + I B = I B ×  B + 1 = I B ×  A 
ZA Z
 A   Z A 
25-Jan-21
7
Let V2I×10-3=S, be the kVA of the combined load. Then, the kVA
carried by each transformer is
Thus, the loads shared in kVA are inversely proportional to the

transformer impedances.
25-Jan-21
8
Solved Problem-22: Two 1-phase transformers with equal turns have
impedances of (0.5+ j3) Ω and (0.6 + j10) Ω with respect to the
secondary. If they operate in parallel, determine how they will share a
total load of 100 kW at p.f. 0.8 lagging.
25-Jan-21
Parallel operation of transformers with
un-equal voltage ratios
Figure (3):Parallel operation of transformers with un-equal voltage

ratios
Figure (4):Parallel operation of transformers referred to secondary

25-Jan-21
10
Let
EA, EB = No-load secondary e.m.f.s of transformers A & B, assuming
that EA >EB
ZA, ZB = Transformers impedances as referred to secondary
ZL = Load impedance
IA, IB = Transformers secondary currents
V2= Common terminal voltage
I= Total load current
At no-load, the circulating current IC is
E − EB
IC = A
ZA + ZB
When the system is loaded, the load current I is shared by the two
transformers.
From the circuit diagram we have,
25-Jan-21
By subtracting equation (2) from equation (3), we have
Putting this value of IA in equation (3), we have
25-Jan-21
Dividing both numerator and denominator of the above equation
with ZA ZB
EA EB E A EB
+ +
ZA ZB ZA ZB
I= =
Z L (Z A + Z B ) Z Z
1+ 1+ L + L
Z AZB ZA ZB
The load voltage is given by

 EA EB  E A EB
 +  +
V 2 = IZ L =  Z =
Z A ZB Z A ZB
Z Z  L 1 1 1
 1 + L + L  + +
25-Jan-21  ZA ZB  ZL ZA ZB
Solved Problem-23: Two single-phase transformers with equal voltage
ratios are connected in parallel and supply a load of 1000A at 0.8p.f
lagging. The total impedances of the two transformers in terms of
secondary are (2+j3)Ω and (3.5+j5)Ω respectively. Calculate the current
supplied by each transformer.
25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-24: Two single-phase transformers A and B are
connected in parallel. They have same kVA ratings but their resistances
are respectively 0.005 and 0.01 per unit and their leakage reactances are
0.05 and 0.04 per unit. If transformer-A is operated on full-load at a 0.8
p.f lagging then what will be the load and p.f. of transformer-B.
25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-25: Two transformers A and B are operated in parallel
to supply the same load. Determine the current delivered by each
transformer having open-circuit e.m.f. 6,600 V for A and 6,400 V for B.
Equivalent leakage impedances in terms of the secondary are (0.3+j3)Ω
for A and (0.2+j1) Ω for B and the load impedance is (8+j6) Ω.
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
17
Basics of DC Motors
By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Define a DC motor
Explain the constructional details and operating principle of a DC
motor
Define back e.m.f. and explain its significance
Outline the voltage equation of a DC motor
Find the condition for maximum power of a DC motor
1-Dec-20
2
Introduction
Definition of Motor: Machine that converts other forms of energy

into mechanical energy and so imparts motion is called a motor.
Different types of Motors: Following are different types of motors
Pneumatic Motor : It converts pneumatic energy into
mechanical energy.
Hydraulic Motor : It converts kinetic energy of fluid into
mechanical energy.
Engine: It converts thermal energy into mechanical energy.
Electric motor: It converts electrical energy into mechanical
energy.
Turbine: It converts kinetic energy of water / gas / steam into
mechanical energy.
1-Dec-20
3
Electric Motor
Definition: Machine that converts electrical energy into

mechanical energy is called an electric motor.
Types of Electric Motors: Depending upon the source of
electrical energy, there are two types of electric motors:
AC Motors : Motor that converts alternating current energy
into mechanical energy is called AC motor.
DC Motors : Motor that converts direct current energy into
mechanical energy is called DC motor.
The DC motors are well known for its superior characteristics
such as full torque from zero speed, wide field weakening
range and excellent control behavior.
The construction of DC motor and DC generator is same.
1-Dec-20
4
Working principle of a DC motor
Its operation is based on the principle that whenever a

current carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the
conductor experiences a mechanical force.
The direction of the force is given by Fleming’s left hand rule

and hence the conductor moves in the direction of force.
The magnitude of the mechanical force experienced on the

conductor is given by, F = BIL newtons
Where, B=flux density in tesla ( Wb/m2 )
I =current flowing through conductor in A
L=length of conductor in meters.
In general if the conductor lies at an angle θ with a magnetic

field of flux density B weber/m2, the mechanical force
experienced on a conductor is given by
F = BIL sin θ newtons
1-Dec-20
5
Fleming's left-hand rule:
This rule states that if the thumb, forefinger and middle
finger of the left hand are stretched in such a way that they
are at right angle to each other mutually and forefinger points
towards the direction of magnetic field, the middle finger
towards the direction of flow of current then the thumb will
point the direction of force acting on the conductor.
1-Dec-20
6
Force on a Current Carrying Conductor Lying in the
Magnetic Field
To understand the force on a current carrying conductor lying
in the magnetic field, let us see the following three figures:
Figure (1) shows the uniform magnetic field between the two
opposite poles
N S
Figure (1):Main magnetic field
In figure (2) the cross section of a conductor carrying current

in inward direction placed between two magnets, the field
being temporarily removed, is shown. By applying the right
hand thumb rule, the direction of the field around the
conductor is found to be clockwise
1-Dec-20
7
Figure (2):Field due to the current in the conductor
If the current carrying conductor shown in figure (2) is placed

in the magnetic field shown in figure (1), the resultant
magnetic field would be similar to that shown in figure (3)
Figure (3):Resultant field

1-Dec-20
8
The lines of force above the conductor are strengthened, since
they are in the same direction, but the lines of force below the
conductor are weakened because the two fields below the
conductor are opposite in directions and hence tends to
destroy each other.
Magnetic lines like rubber bands have a tendency to

strengthen out and, therefore, a force is experienced on the
conductor in the downward direction, as shown in the fig.( 3 ).
Since all the conductors are placed in the slots provided at the
periphery of the armature, a twist force/torque is developed in
the armature and hence its start rotating.
1-Dec-20
9
Back E.M.F or counter E.M.F
When the armature of a DC motor rotates under the influence
of the driving torque, the armature conductors cuts the
magnetic flux and hence e.m.f is induced in them according to
Faraday's law of electro magnetic induction.
The induced e.m.f acts in opposite direction to the applied

voltage V, according to Lenz's law and so it is called as back or
counter e.m.f which is given by E = ΦZN ×  P  .
b  
60  A
1-Dec-20
10
Significance of back E.M.F
The presence of back e.m.f makes the DC motor as a self-

regulating machine, i.e. it makes the motor to draw armature
current just sufficient to develop the torque required by the
load. The armature current is given by, I = V − Eb
a
Ra
(i) When the motor is running at no-load, small torque (Ta=kIa) is
required by the motor to overcome friction and windage.
Therefore, a small current is drawn by the motor armature
and the back emf is almost equal to the supply voltage.
(ii) If the motor is suddenly loaded, the load torque becomes
greater than the armature torque and the motor starts to slow
down. As motor speed decreases, back emf decreases and
therefore, armature current starts increasing. With increasing
Ia, armature torque increases and at some point, it becomes
equal to the load torque. At that moment, motor stops slowing
down and keeps running at this new speed.
1-Dec-20
11
(iii) If the load on the motor is suddenly reduced, the driving
torque becomes more than the load torque and the motor
starts accelerating. As the motor speed increases, back emf
increases and therefore, armature current decreases. Due to
this reducing Ia, armature developed torque decreases and at
some point, becomes equal to the load torque. That point
onwards, motor will stop accelerating and will start rotating
uniformly at this new slightly decreased speed.
From the above three points it is clear that the back e.m.f. in
a DC motor regulates the flow of armature current i.e., it
automatically changes the armature current to meet the load
requirement.
1-Dec-20
12
Voltage equation of a DC motor
Let V= applied voltage

Eb = back e.m.f.
Ra = armature resistance
Ia = armature current
Since back e.m.f. acts in opposition to the applied voltage V,

the net voltage across the armature circuit is V- Eb. Therefore,
the armature current Ia is given by
V − Eb
Ia =
Ra
⇒ V = Eb + I a Ra
This is known as voltage equation of a DC motor.
1-Dec-20
13
Condition for maximum power
The voltage equation of a DC motor is given by
V = Eb + IaRa
By multiplying both sides with Ia
VIa = EbIa + Ia2Ra
Where VIa= Electrical input to the armature
EbIa = Electrical equivalent of mechanical power developed in
the armature
Ia2 Ra = Copper losses in the armature
The gross mechanical power developed by the motor is
Pm= EbIa=VIa-Ia2Ra
1-Dec-20
14
1-Dec-20
15
Types of DC Motors
By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Outline the types DC Motors
Explain DC Series Motor
Explain DC Shunt Motor
Explain Long Shunt Compound Motor
Explain Short Shunt Compound Motor
1-Dec-20
2
Types of DC Motors
Like DC generators, there are three types of DC motors

characterized by the connections of field winding in relation to
the armature.
(i)Shunt wound motor; in which the field winding is
connected in parallel with the armature.
(ii)Series wound motor; in which the field winding is
connected in series with the armature.
(iii) Compound wound motor; which has two field windings
one connected in parallel with the armature and the other in
series with it. Depending upon the connections of two field
windings with the armature the compound motors are
classified into two categories.
(a)Long shunt compound motor; in which the shunt field
winding is connected across the series combination of
armature and series field.
(b)Short shunt compound motor; in which the shunt field is
connected only across the armature.is
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3
(i) Series-wound motor
Figure (1.19): Series wound motor
Important relations:
Armature current, Ia = Ise= IL
Back e.m.f., Eb = V-IaRa-IseRse-BCD
Power delivered or electrical input to the armature, Pb= EbIa
Power developed in the load, PL= VIL
Note: BCD= Brush contact drop, generally 1V per brush
1-Dec-20
4
(ii) Shunt-wound Motor
Figure (1.20): Shunt wound motor
Armature current, Ia = IL-Ish
Shunt field current, Ish= V/Rsh
Back e.m.f., Eb = V-IaRa-BCD
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5
(iii) Compound-Wound Motors
(a) Long-shunt compound Motor
Figure (1.21): Log-shunt compound wound motor
Armature current, Ia =Ise= IL-Ish
Back e.m.f., Eb= V-IaRa-IseRse-BCD
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6
(b) Short shunt compound-wound motor
Figure (1.22): Short-shunt compound wound motor
Armature current, Ia = IL-Ish
Series field current, Ise= IL
Back e.m.f., Eb= V-IaRa-IseRse-BCD
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7
Solved Problem-1: A 4-pole lap connected 220V shunt motor has
450 armature conductors. It takes 40 A on full load and the flux
per pole is 0.01 Wb. The armature resistance, shunt field
resistance and BCD are 0.2 Ω, 110 Ω, 2V respectively. Determine
the speed of the motor at full load.
1-Dec-20
8
Solved Problem-2: A DC series motor has armature and series
filed resistances are 0.03Ω and 0.02 Ω respectively. The line draws
a current of 30A. The electrical power equivalent to mechanical is
2.5kW. Calculate the back e.m.f. and terminal voltage
1-Dec-20
9
Solved Problem-3: A long shunt compound DC motor takes a load
current of 50A at 500V and has armature, series filed and shunt
filed resistances are 0.05 Ω, 0.03 Ω and 250 Ω respectively.
Calculate the back e.m.f. and armature current 1V per brush
contact is allowed.
1-Dec-20
10
Solved Problem-4: Solved Problem-6: A short shunt compound
DC motor is connected to 200V supply and takes a line current of
200A. Its armature, series filed and shunt filed resistances are 0.1
Ω, 0.2 Ω and 50 Ω respectively. Calculate the back e.m.f.
1-Dec-20
11
1-Dec-20
12
Torque and Speed Equations of a DC Motor
By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Outline the torque equation of a DC Motor
List the different parameters affecting the toque of a DC
motor
Outline the speed equation of a DC Motor
List the different parameters affecting the speed of a DC
motor
1-Dec-20
2
Torque equation of a DC motor (Ta)
When a DC machine is loaded either as a motor or as a generator,

the armature conductors carry current. These conductors lie in
the magnetic field of the air gap. Thus, each conductor experiences
a force.
The conductors lie near the surface of the armature at a common
radius from its center. Hence a torque is produced around the
circumference of the rotor and the rotor starts rotating.
Thus, the measure of causing rotation of the wheel or the turning
or twisting moment of a force about an axis is called the torque,
which is given by the product of force and radius at which this
force acts.
1-Dec-20 Figure (2.2): Production of Torque in a DC motor

3
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4
Shaft Torque (Tsh): The whole of the armature torque, as
calculated above, is not available for doing useful work,
because a certain percentage of it is required for supplying iron
and friction losses in the motor. The torque which is available
for doing useful work is known as shaft torque. It is so called
because; it is available at the shaft.
The motor output is given by
The difference (Ta – Tsh) is known as lost torque and is due to

friction and iron losses.
1-Dec-20
5
Speed equation of a DC motor
The back e.m.f of a DC motor is given by
For a given DC machine A, Z, and P are constant
Therefore, in a DC motor, speed is directly proportional to

back e.m.f. Eb and inversely proportional to flux per pole, Φ.
Speed Relations: If a DC motor has initial values of speed, flux
per pole and back e.m.f. as N1, Φ1, Eb1 respectively and
corresponding final values are N2, Φ2, Eb2, then
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6
The speed regulation of a motor is the change in speed from full
load to no load and is expressed as a percentage of speed at full
load
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7
Solved Problem-5: The armature of a 4-pole lap wound DC shunt
motor has 1200 conductors. The useful flux per pole is 0.04Wb.
The friction and windage losses amount to be 10%. Calculate the
shaft torque when the armature current is 50A.

P=4, Z=1200, Ф=0.04Wb, Ia=50A
A=P=4, Lap wound connected
Armature torque is given by,
P 4
Ta = 0.159Φ ZI a   = 0.159 × 0.04 × 1200 × 50 ×   = 381.6 N − m
 A 4
The friction and windage losses amount to be 10%, the remaining
is available at the shaft, i.e.,
Tsh = 0.9Ta = 0.9 × 381.6 = 343.4 N − m
1-Dec-20
8
Solved Problem-6: A 250V, 4-pole DC shunt motor has wave
wound armature 600 conductors. The armature and shunt field
resistances are 0.25 Ω and 125 Ω respectively and the flux per pole
is 0.02 Wb. If the motor draws 15A from the mains neglecting
armature reaction, calculate
(i) speed and torque developed in the armature
(ii) shaft torque when rotational losses is equal to 300W

V=250V, P=4, Z=600, Ф=0.02Wb, Ra=0.25 Ω, Rsh=125 Ω, IL=15A
A=2, Wave wound connected
1-Dec-20
9
Ω, R = 0.1
Ω se
Solved Problem-7: A DC series motor draws a line current of

100A from the mains while running at 1000 rpm. Its armature
resistance is 0.15Ω and field resistance is 0.1 Ω. Assuming that
the flux corresponding to a current of 25A is 40% of that
corresponding to 100A. Find the speed of the motor when it is
drawing 25A from 230V supply.
Ia1 = IL1 = 100A, N1 = 1000 rpm, Ra = 0.15
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10
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11
Solved Problem-8: A 220V DC shunt motor runs at 500rpm when
the armature current is 50A. Calculate the speed if the torque is
doubled. Given that Ra = 0.2 Ω
1-Dec-20
12
Solved Problem-9: A 240V DC shunt motor runs on no-load at 800 rpm
with no extra resistance in the field or armature circuit, the armature
current being 2A. Calculate the resistance required in series with the
shunt winding so that the motor may run at 950 rpm when taking a line
current of 30A. Shunt winding resistance is 160 Ω, armature resistance is
0.4 Ω. Assure that flux is proportional to field current.
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13
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14
Solved Problem-10: A 220V DC shunt motor has an armature and field
resistances of 0.2 Ω, 110 Ω respectively. At no load the motor takes 5A
and runs at 1500rpm. If the motor draws 52A at rated voltage and rated
load, calculate the motor speed and its rated shaft torque in N-m. The
rotational losses at no load and full load are the same. Neglect armature
reaction.
1-Dec-20
15
Solved Problem-11: A 200 V DC series motor runs at 1000 rpm when
operating at its full load current of 30A. The motor resistance is 0.5 Ω and
the magnetic circuit can be assumed unsaturated. What will be the
speed if the (i) load torque is increased by 44%, and (ii) motor current is
20A.
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19
Speed Control of DC Motors
By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this lecture, the student will able to
List the various speed control methods of DC motor
Explain Field control methods of a DC shunt motor
Explain Armature control of DC shunt motor
Explain Field control methods of a DC series motor
Explain Armature control methods of a DC series motor
Explain Ward Leonard method of speed control
1-Dec-20
2
Speed control of DC motors
The voltage equation of a DC motor is given by
In a DC motor P, Z, A are constants and hence put Kb =

PZ/60A in the above eqn., we have
1-Dec-20
3
From the above equation the speed can be varied by changing
(i)Armature circuit resistance, Ra
(ii)Applied voltage or terminal voltage of the armature
(iii)Field flux or field current
The first two cases involve change that affects armature circuit
and the third one involves change in magnetic field. Therefore,
speed control of DC motor is classified as
(i) Armature control methods
(ii) Field control methods
1-Dec-20
4
Speed control of a DC shunt motor
(i) Field control methods of a DC shunt motor
(a) Field rheostat control method
In this method of speed control an
external variable resistance R is
connected in series with the shunt field
winding as shown in figure. By changing
the external resistance R the shunt field
current Ish is varied, hence the flux in
the field winding is varied and hence the
speed of the motor is varied.
If R=0, only shunt field resistance is
there in the circuit, corresponding to
this, flux is rated flux and the speed of
the motor is rated speed.
By connecting external resistance, R
total shunt resistance increases and
flux decreases and hence speed
increases. So using this method we can
get always above the rated speed.
1-Dec-20
5
(b) Field voltage control method
This method requires a variable voltage supply for the field circuit
which is separated from the main power supply to which the
armature is connected.
Such a variable supply can be obtained by an electronic rectifier.
(ii) Armature control of DC shunt motor
(a) Armature resistance control method
In this method of speed control, an
connected in series with the armature
as shown in figure.
By varying external resistance R, IaR
drop is increased. Net voltage applied to
motor is reduced. Therefore, the speed
of the motor is reduced.
So, by this method of speed control,
always below the rated speeds are
possible.
1-Dec-20
6
(b) Armature voltage control method
In this method, a variable DC supply is
connected across the motor as shown in
figure.
By varying applied voltage V, speed of
the motor is varied. Maximum voltage
impressed across the motor is only the
rated voltage.
Rated voltage is never exceeded on
account of insulation problem.
Voltage can be varied below rated
voltage, hence in this method of speed
control, below rated speeds are only
possible.
1-Dec-20
7
Speed control of a DC series motor
(i) Field control methods of a DC series motor

(a) Field diverter method
In this method a variable
resistance called field diverter is
connected across series field
winding as shown in figure.
It diverts the main current and
reduces the flux, thus increases
the speed.
It gives the speed above the
rated speed only.
(b) Armature diverter method

In this method, a variable
resistance called armature
diverter is connected across the
armature as shown in figure
1-Dec-20
8
For a given constant load torque, if Ia is reduced due to
armature diverter, flux must increase (since T=kфIa) and hence
speed decreases.
In this method we can obtain always below the rated speeds
only.
(c)Tapped field control method

This is another method of
increasing the speed by
reducing the flux and it is
done by lowering number of
turns of field winding through
which current flows.
In this method, a number of
tapping from field winding are
brought outside as shown in
figure.
1-Dec-20
9
(ii) Armature control methods of a DC series motor
(a) Armature resistance control method
In this method of speed control, an
connected in series with the
armature as shown in figure.
This reduces the voltage across the
armature (Eb=V-Ia(Ra+R) and hence
speed (N=k Eb/Φ) falls.
In this method always below the
rated speed can be obtained
(b) Shunted armature control method
The combination of a rheostat shunting the
armature and a rheostat in series with the
armature as shown in figure is involved in
this method of speed control.
The voltage applied to the armature is
varied by varying series rheostat R1. The
exciting current can be varied by varying
the armature shunting resistance R2.
1-Dec-20
10
This method of speed control is not economical due to
considerable power losses in speed controlling resistances.
Here speed control is obtained over wide range but below
normal speed.
(c) Armature terminal voltage control method
The speed control of DC series motor can be accomplished by
supplying the power to the motor from a separate variable
voltage supply.
This method involves high cost so it rarely used.
1-Dec-20
11
Ward Leonard method of speed control
This method of speed control is used for controlling the basic armature
control method. This control system is consisting of a DC motor M1
powered by a DC generator G.
In this method the speed of the DC motor (M1) is controlled by applying
variable voltage across its armature. This variable voltage is obtained
using a motor-generator set which consists of a motor M2 with the
generator G.
1-Dec-20 12
The speed of motor M1 is to be controlled which is powered by the
generator G. The shunt field of the motor M1 is connected across the
DC supply lines. Now, generator G is driven by the motor M2. The
speed of the motor M2 is constant.
When the output voltage of the generator is fed to the motor M1 then
the motor starts to rotate.
When the output voltage of the generator varies then the speed of the
motor also varies. Now controlling the output voltage of the generator,
the speed of motor can also be controlled.
For this purpose of controlling the output voltage, a field regulator is

connected across the generator with the DC supply lines to control
the field excitation.
The direction of rotation of the motor M1 can be reversed by excitation

current of the generator and it can be done with the help of the
reversing switch R.S.
But
1-Dec-20 the motor-generator set must run in the same direction.
13
Solved Problem-12: A 200 V, DC series motor runs at 750 rpm when
taking a current of 30 A. The resistance of the armature is 0.5 Ω and field is
0.3 Ω. If the current remains constant, calculate the resistance necessary to
reduce the speed to 250 rpm.
1-Dec-20
14
Solved Problem-13: A 230 V, DC shunt motor takes an armature current
of 20 A on a particular load. The armature circuit resistance is 0.5 Ω.Find
the resistance required in series with the armature to reduce the speed by
50% if the (i) load torque is constant, and (ii) the load torque is proportional
to the square of the speed.
1-Dec-20
15
1-Dec-20
16
Solved Problem-14: A 200 V, DC shunt motor takes 22 A at rated voltage
and runs at 1000 rpm. Its field and armature resistances are 100 Ω and
0.1 Ω respectively. Compute the value of additional resistance to be
included in the armature circuit to reduce the speed to 800 rpm, when (a)
the load torque is proportional to speed, and (b) the load torque varies as
the square of the speed
1-Dec-20
17
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18
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19
Solved Problem-15: A 240 V, 50 A, 800 rpm DC shunt motor has armature
resistance of 0.2 Ω. If the load torque is reduced to 60% of its full load value
and a resistance of 2 Ω is inserted in series with armature circuit, find the
motor speed. Armature reaction weakens the field flux by 4% at full load
and by 2% at 60% of full load.
1-Dec-20
20
1-Dec-20
21
1-Dec-20
22
DC Motor Characteristics
By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
List the various characteristics of DC motor
Explain torque and armature current (torque-load)
characteristic
Explain speed and armature current (speed-load) characteristics
Explain Speed and torque characteristics
List the applications of DC motors
1-Dec-20
2
DC Motor Characteristics
The performance of a DC motor can be judged from its

characteristic curves known as motor characteristics. Following
are the three important characteristics of a DC motor:
(i) Torque vs armature current (Ta/Ia) characteristics: Curve
drawn between armature torque Ta and armature current Ia of a
DC motor
(ii) Speed vs armature current (N/Ia) characteristics (N/Ia):
Curve drawn between speed N and armature current Ia of a DC
motor.
The above two characteristics are called as electrical
characteristics.
(iii) Speed vs torque N/Ia characteristics : Curve drawn between
speed N and armature torque Ta of a DC motor. It is also
known as mechanical characteristics.
1-Dec-20
3
Torque- load (Ta vs Ia) characteristics
The torque equation of a DC motor is given by
(i) DC series motor

In DC series motor, armature and field windings are connected
in series. Therefore, field and armature currents are the same.
The armature current produces field flux and hence Φ ∝ I a
∴ T ∝ ΦI a ∝ I a 2 ⇒ Represents equation of a parabola
. Therefore,
torque versus Ia relation is parabolic curve as shown in figure.
This relation holds good till magnetic saturation. Beyond this,

flux remains constant, hence Ta=KIa. So, characteristic
becomes linear.
1-Dec-20
4
(ii) DC shunt motor
In DC shunt motor, field winding is connected across constant
supply voltage V. Therefore, field current remains constant and
hence flux is constant.
∴ T ∝ Φ I a ∝ I a ⇒ Represents equation of a straight line passing
through origin as shown in the fig.
1-Dec-20
5
Speed- load (N vs Ia) characteristics
The speed equation of a DC motor is given by

Eb
N∝
Φ
(i) DC series motor
The back e.m.f. equation of a DC series motor is
At the low values of supply voltage, Ia is very small, so Ia(Ra+Rse)

drop can be neglected when compared to V.
But in a DC series motor, Φ ∝ I a , since armature current is

responsible for production of flux.
1-Dec-20
6
If Ia=0 (no load on the motor) then N=infinity i.e. the motor
attains dangerously high speed, which may damage the motor.
Therefore, series motor should never be started without any
load on it.
The speed-load characteristic of series motor is as shown in
figure.
(ii) DC shunt motor
Eb
The speed of a DC motor is N∝
Φ
As the supply voltage is constant, so current flowing through
the shunt field winding is constant. So, the flux in a DC shunt
motor is constant.
∴ N ∝ Eb ∝ (V − I a Ra )
As Ia increases, IaRa drop increases, Eb decreases and hence
speed N decreases i.e. as the load increases speed falls
1-Dec-20
linearly. 7
If Ia=0 (no load on the motor) then N=V=N0= constant.
The speed load characteristic of shunt motor is shown in
figure .
1-Dec-20
8
Speed - torque (N/Ta) characteristics
(i) DC series motor
From the above two eqns. We have
From the above eqn., the speed-torque characteristics can be

drawn as shown in figure
(ii) DC shunt motor
The torque equation of a DC motor is Ta ∝ ΦI a
1-Dec-20
9
As armature current increases, torque increases; back e.m.f
decreases and hence speed deceases. So, for shunt motor
torque decreases linearly with increase in speed as shown in
figure
1-Dec-20
10
Applications of DC Motors
S.No Type of Motor Characteristics Applications

1. Separately excited Possible to obtain very Paper machines, Steel rolling
motor accurate speeds. machines.
2. Shunt motor Torque produced is Lathes, Machine tools,
proportional to armature Printing presses, Centrifugal
current. pumps, Fans and blowers
etc.
Constant speed motors.
5. Series motor Produces very high starting Electric locomotives, Cranes
torque. and hoists, Conveyors,
Variable speed motors. Trolley cars etc.
4. Compound motor Produces high starting Elevators,Shears, Conveyors,
(a)Cumulative torque. Variable speed Rolling mills, Heavy planes
compound motor motors. etc.
(b)Differential Torque and speed almost Employed for experimental
compound motor constant. and research work.
1-Dec-20 11
1-Dec-20 12
DC Motor Starters
By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Explain the necessity of a starter
List types of starters for DC motor
Explain 2-pont starter
List the drawbacks of 3-point starter
List the various applications of starters
1-Dec-20
2
DC Motor Starter
The starter is a device used to start and accelerate a motor.
The starting of DC motor is somewhat different from the
starting of all other types of electrical motors.
While starting the DC motor, it draws high current which
damages the internal circuit of the motor if not restricted to
some safe limited value.
At the time of starting speed is zero and back emf is zero.
The current drawn by DC motor is Ia=(V-Eb)/Ra
Ia=V/Ra. Let V=200 Volt and Ra=0.1 Ohm. The rated current
be 50A. The starting current = 200/.01=2000A=40x(50)A
The starting current is 40 times of the rated current. This large
current produces more heat land motor gets damaged. A
resistance is connected in series with armature to limit the
starting current to a safe value, which is called starter.
1-Dec-20
3
DC Motor Starter
The following types of starters are used in DC motor to limit

the starting current:
(i) Two-pint starter------used for DC series motor
(ii)Three-point starter----- used for DC shunt motor
(iii) Four-point starter---- used for DC compound motor
1-Dec-20
4
Two-point starter
Two-point starter is generally used in DC series motors.
In DC series motors, armature coil is connected in series with the
field winding. Therefore, at the starting of the motor, in absence of
load, the motor will achieve very high speed which damages the
motor. So, series motor should not be started without any load.
Construction and Working:
The circuit diagram of two-point starter is as shown in the figure.
Its construction is quite similar to a potentiometer or rheostat
with tap changing.
It consists of only two terminals L and A. The terminal L
connected to positive terminal of the supply voltage and A is
connected to the field winding.
1-Dec-20 Figure (1): 2-Point Starter

5
Ω
The field winding is connected in series with the armature

winding.
Once the supply is given to the DC series motor, the starter
handle is moved from OFF to ON position i.e. to point-1, resulting
in full resistance available in series with the armature winding.
This reduces inrush of high starting current to the series motor.
Then starting resistance is gradually cut down and the motor
gathers speed, which will then develop back emf.
Purpose of no-load release coil:
The load current first flow through the no load release coil and
then to the armature as they are connected in series.
In normal speed conditions, no-load release coil holds the
connection by staying energized and current flow to the armature
winding and the motor keeps on running in normal state.
1-Dec-20
6
Ω
As the speed of the DC series motor is inversely proportional to

the load current, the motor should not be allowed to start at
no load.
If the DC series motor is stared with no load, then no load
release coil will detect it and it de-energized itself to release the
handle to OFF position.
Advantages of Two-point Starter:

It protects the motor from drawing high starting current.
It automatically gets off when the power supply is off.
Applications of Two-point Starter:

These starters are used with DC series motors.
Theses starters are used in railway to start or stop the rail.
Theses starters are used in cranes.
1-Dec-20
7
Ω
Three-point starter
Figure (2): 3-Point Starter
1-Dec-20
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=89FckeOEd94
8
Ω
Construction:
A 3-point starter of a DC shunt motor as shown in figure is
basically a variable resistance, divided into a number of
sections.
The contact points of these sections are called studs and

brought out separately shown as OFF, 1, 2, 3, 4 - - RUN.
Other than that there are three main points, referred to as

(i) ‘L’ Line terminal (connected to positive of supply)
(ii) ‘A’ Armature terminal (connected to the armature winding)
(iii)F’ Field terminal (connected to the field winding)
Point L is further connected to an electromagnet called over

load release (OLR).
1-Dec-20
9
Ω
The second end of the OLR is connected to a point where the

handle of the starter is pivoted/twisted with spring.
This handle is free to move from its other side against the
spring force.
This spring brings back the handle to the OFF position under
the influence of its own force.
Another parallel path is taken from stud-1 to another
electromagnet called no voltage coil (NVC).
The NVC is further connected to field terminal ‘F’.
The starting resistance is entirely in series with the armature.
1-Dec-20
10
Ω
Operation:
Initially the starter handle is in the OFF position.
To start the motor, DC supply is switched ON.
Then the starter handle is slowly moved to the right, as soon

as it comes in contact with stud no-1, the field circuit is
directly connected across the line and at the same time the
entire starting resistance comes in series with the armature
and the armature current which is high at start, gets reduced.
As the handle is gradually moved over to the finial stud, the

starting resistance is cutout from the armature circuit in
steps.
Finally, when the starter handle is in at RUN position, the

entire starting resistance gets removed from the armature
circuit and the motor starts rotating with normal speed.
1-Dec-20
11
Ω
Functions of No Voltage Coil (NVC):

When the starter handle is in RUN position, the no voltage coil
is magnetized and attracts the soft iron piece ‘S’ and keeps the
handle in RUN position against the spring tension. Design of
NVC is such that it holds the handle in RUN position against
the spring force as long as supply to the motor is proper and
hence it is also called as hold on coil (HC).
(ii) In case of failure or disconnection of the supply or a break
in the field circuit, the NVC coil is de-energized there by
releasing the arm, which is pulled back by the spring force to
the OFF position. This prevents the damage of the motor
caused due to accidental starting.
1-Dec-20
12
Ω
Functions of Over Load Release (OLR) coil:

This coil is provided for the protection of the motor against
the flow of excessive current due to over load or fault. If the
motor becomes over loaded beyond a certain predetermined
value, line current (or) armature current increases and hence
the attracting power of the electromagnet i.e. OLR increases,
then the movable arm M’ is lifted and the short circuits the
electromagnet i.e. NVC. Hence the NVC demagnetizes
and the starter arm is returned to OFF position with the
action of spring force and the motor is automatically
disconnected from the supply.
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13
Ω
Advantages of 3-point starter:

It gives the protection to the motor from overload and short
circuit faults.
It helps in speed control of the motor by adding some extra
equipment.
Drawbacks of 3-point starter:
In this starter, the NVC and the field winding are connected
in series. So, while controlling the speed of the motor above
rated speed, field current is reduced by adding an extra
resistance in series with the field winding. This low value of
the current also passes through NVC, which is unable to
create enough electromagnetic pull to overcome the spring
tension. Hence the arm is pulled back to OFF position during
the normal operation of the motor and thus disconnected the
motor from the line.
1-Dec-20
14
Ω
Applications of 3-point Starter:

It is used with DC Shunt motors
These starters are used in lathe factories
These starters are used in spinning mills
1-Dec-20
15
Ω
Four-point starter
Figure (3): 4-Point Starter
1-Dec-20
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vhnbvxrAucg
16
Ω
In a 4-point starter, NVC is connected independently across

the supply voltage instead of connecting it in series with the
motor field winding, through the terminal 'N' in addition to the
line (L), field (F) and armature (A) as shown in figure.
When the arm touches stud No. 1, the line currents divides
into three parallel paths, such as:
(i) First passes through the armature winding through the
starter resistance, which will reduce the high inrush of
starting current as a whole resistance is added to the
armature winding.
(ii)Second part passes through shunt field and hence the speed
of a DC motor is varied, by varying the field winding current
with the help of variable resistance
(iii)third part passes through NVC and resistance 'R'
1-Dec-20
17
Ω
When started, the starter arm is brought to RUN position, the

armature of the DC motor will run at its full speed and remain
connected to the supply through the starter arm. Thus the
field winding and NVC will get full voltage independently.
Now its possible to release the hand from the starter as NVC is
supplied independently, which means the spring tension
cannot bring back the starter arm to OFF position because of
the attractive force of the NVC.
In case of overload, the OLR terminal will short circuited the
NVC to release the starter arm to the OFF position.
1-Dec-20
18
Ω
Advantages of 4-point Starter:

The four-point starter is suitable for variable speed motors.
Disadvantages of 4-point Starter:
It cannot control the motor from high speeds. If the field
winding of the motor gets opened under running condition,
the field current automatically reduces to zero. But, as some
of the residual flux is still present in the motor and we know
that the relation between speed and flux as N=k/Φ the
motor tries to run with high speed which is dangerous and
thus protection is not possible.
Application of 4-point Starter:

It is used with mainly DC compound motors but it can be
used with DC shunt motors.
These starters are used in press industries.
These starters are used in rolling mills.
1-Dec-20
19
Ω
Calculation of starter resistance for
DC Shunt Motor
From figure (4), it is seen that the instant the starter is moved
to stud-1 or contactor CM is closed, the current in the circuit
reaches a value I1, designated as the upper current limit,
given by
V
I1 = − − − (1)
R1
1-Dec-20 Figure (4): DC shunt motor starting

20
Figure (5): Variation of armature current and sped w.r.t time for a DC shunt motor
1-Dec-20
21
Ω
Thereafter the current value decreases as the motor speeds

up and its back emf rises as shown in figure (5). The current
is allowed to reduce to I2, the lower current limit, given by
V − Eb
I2 = − − − (2)
R1
Where Eb is the back emf at speed N1 reached by the motor.
At this instant the starter is moved to stud-2 or contactor C1
is closed. The current increases instantaneously to 11 as
shown in figure (5) and satisfies the relationship
V − Eb
I1 = − − − (3)
R2
From the eqns. (2) and (3), we get
I1 R1
=
I 2 R2
Similarly, by moving starter arm to stud-3 and so on we will
have the relation as
1-Dec-20
22
Ω
I1 R1 R 2 R3 R4
= = = = = .... − − − (4)
I 2 R2 R3 R4 R5
I1 upper current limit
Let α = =
I 2 lower current limit
In general, for n number of studs
R1 R2 R R
αn = × × ... × n −1 × n
R2 R3 Rn Rn +1
R R
⇒αn = 1 = 1
Rn +1 Ra
1n
 R1 
⇒α =  − − − (5)
 Ra 
Once the designer has selected the upper and lower limits of
armature currents during starting, starter step calculations can
proceed on the following lines:
(i) From Eq. (1) calculate RI.
(ii) From Eq. (5) calculate the number of steps ‘n’ choosing the nearest
integral value.
(iii)Calculate resistances R1, R2 … from Eq. (4).
1-Dec-20
23
Solved Problem-16: The armature resistance of a 400V DC shunt motor is
0.25 Ω. Calculate the value of different resistance elements of a starter for
this motor if the maximum current should not exceed 100 A and the ratio of
maximum to minimum current during starting be about 1.8.
1-Dec-20
24
1-Dec-20
25
Solved Problem-17: Calculate the resistance steps for the starter of 220 V,
DC shunt motor having resistance of 0.12 Ω and a full load current of 120
A. The motor is to start against full load and maximum current is not to
exceed 180 A.
1-Dec-20
26
1-Dec-20
27
Solved Problem-18: A 230 V shunt motor has an armature resistance of
0.2 Ω. The starting armature current must not exceed 50 A. If the number of
sections of resistances in the starter is 5, find the value of resistance in
each section.
1-Dec-20
28
1-Dec-20
29
Testing of DC Machines
By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
List the various testing methods of DC machine to find the
efficiency.
Explain brake test or direct loading method
Explain Swinburne’s test or no-load test or indirect loading
method
1-Dec-20
2
Testing of DC Machines
DC machines are tested for finding out losses, efficiency and

temperature rise.
These machines are tested either directly (for small machines)
or indirectly (for large machines) to know the losses and
efficiency.
The following methods are used for testing of DC machines:
(i)Brake test or direct loading method
(ii) Swinburne’s test or no-load test or indirect loading
method
(iii) Hopkinson’s test or Regenerative test or Back to Back test
(iv) Retardation test or Running down test
1-Dec-20
3
Ω
Brake test or direct loading method

This test is suitable for small DC motors.
In this test, brake is applied to a water-cooled pulley mounted
on the motor shaft.
The experimental setup for conducting this test on a DC motor
is shown in figure.
1-Dec-20
4
Ω
In figure, a belt around the pulley has its ends attached to the
spring balances S1 and S2.
By adjusting the tension of the belt through hand wheels H1

and H2, the load is adjusted to give the various values of
current.
The motor is run at rated speed and finally the load on the
motor adjusted to carry its full load current. At this time the
readings of the spring balances S1 and S2 are noted down.
If the spring balances are calibrated in kg, the net force

applied on the pulley or brake drum = (S1 - S2).
If r is radius of the pulley in meters, then the shaft torque, Tsh

developed by the motor is,
1-Dec-20
5
Ω
If V is the supply voltage and I is the full load current taken by

the motor, then the
1-Dec-20
6
Ω
Disadvantages:
This method is used only for determining the efficiency of
small machines.
The output of the motor cannot be measured directly.
This method requires the application of load on the machine
directly, but for machines of large rating, the loads of the
required sizes may not be available.
The power output is converted into heat and wasted. As the
heat developed in the pulley, due to the friction between the
pulley and the belt, pulley has to be cooled by water.
1-Dec-20
7
Solved Problem-19: In the brake test on a DC shunt motor, the
loads on brake drum are 25 kg and 10 kg. The diameter of the
pulley is 1m. Motor is running at 1500 rpm and its input being 40 A
at 400 V. Determine the torque, output of the motor and efficiency of
the motor.
1-Dec-20
8
Solved Problem-20: A full load brake test on a small DC shunt
motor gave the following data: applied voltage=250V, line
current=15A, motor speed=1500rpm, diameter of pulley=19.5cm,
thickness of belt=0.5cm, spring balance readings= 25kg and 9kg.
Determine the shaft torque, shaft power and efficiency of the
motor.
1-Dec-20
9
1-Dec-20
10
Ω
Swinburne’s test or No-load test or
indirect loading test
It is an indirect method of testing of a DC machine.
In this method, losses are separately found and from their knowledge,
efficiency at any desired load can be predetermined.
The machine is run as a motor on no-load at its rated voltage and
speed is adjusted to the rated speed with the help of shunt regulator as
shown in figure.
1-Dec-20
11
Ω
(i) Determination of constant losses

Let V= supply voltage
I0 = no-load current
Ish=shunt field current
No load input power of the machine is completely used to

overcome the total losses of the machine.
1-Dec-20
12
Ω
(ii) Efficiency of the machine when running as motor:
(iii) Efficiency of the machine when running as generator:
1-Dec-20
13
Ω
Advantages:
(i) Economical, because no load input power is sufficient to perform
the test.
(ii) Efficiency can be predetermined at any load without actually
applying the load on the machine, because constant
losses are known.
Disadvantages:
(i) Change in iron loss from no load to full load is not taken into
account
(ii) Stray load loss cannot be determined by this test and hence
efficiency is over estimated.
(iii)Temperature rise of the machine cannot be determined.
1-Dec-20
14
Solved Problem-21: A 440 V, DC shunt motor takes no load current of 2.5
A. The resistance of shunt field and armature are 550 Ω and1.2 Ω
respectively. The full load line current is 32 A. Determine the full load
efficiency of the motor.
According to Swinburne’s test no load input power is completely used to

overcome the losses.
1-Dec-20
15
Solved Problem-22: Swinburne’s test gave the following results on DC
machine: supply voltage 500 V, no-load current 5 A, armature resistance
0.5 Ω and field resistance 250 Ω. Determine the efficiency of the machine
(a) as a generator delivering 100A at 500V, and
(b) as a motor having a line current of 100A at 500V.
Neglect temperature rise during operation.
1-Dec-20
16
According to Swinburne’s test no load input power is completely used to
overcome the losses.
1-Dec-20
17
1-Dec-20
18
1-Dec-20
19
Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology
Burla, Odisha
Subject: Electrical Machines-I

B.Tech., 3rd Semester
Branch : Electrical and Electronics Engineering
By
Professor
1
Introduction to DC Machines
By
Professor
2
Overview of Electrical Machines
Converters which are used continuously to convert
electrical input to mechanical output or vice-versa are
called electric machines. An electric machine is
therefore a link between electrical system and a
mechanical system.
Electric Machines are basically classified into two types
such as static machines and rotating machines.
Electrical supply is available in two forms such as DC
supply and AC supply.
Based on supply, the rotating machines are classified
into two types such as (i) DC machines, and (ii) AC
machines.
14-Oct-20
3
10/14/2020
4
Overview of DC Machines
DC machine is one of the most commonly used machine
for electro-mechanical energy conversion.
DC machines are classified into two types such as (i) DC
generators, and (ii) DC motors.
(i) DC generator
The machine which produces DC electrical power is known
as DC generator.
An electric generator is a machine which converts
mechanical energy/power into electrical energy/power.
It works on the principle of Faraday’s laws of
electromagnetic induction, which states that “whenever a
conductor cuts the magnetic flux, an e.m.f. induced in it
14-Oct-20
5
Applications: DC generators are suitable for many
applications – including general lighting, battery charging,
giving excitation to the alternators, series arc lighting etc.
(ii) DC Motor
The machine which produces mechanical power is known
as DC motor.
An electrical motor is a machine which converts electrical
energy/power into mechanical energy/power.
It works on the principle of Lorentz Law, which states that
“the current carrying conductor placed in a magnetic and
electric field experience a force”
14-Oct-20
6
Applications: DC motors are suitable for many
applications – including conveyors, turntables, trolleys,
underground subway cars etc.
Any DC machine can act either as a generator or a
motor
A DC machine works as a DC generator when it is
driven by a prime mover.
The same machine works as a DC motor when
electrical energy is supplied to it.
Therefore, the constructional features of a DC
generator and DC motor are the same.
14-Oct-20
7
14-Oct-20
8
Burla, Odisha
Introduction to Transformers
By
Professor
1
Overview of Transformers
In most cases, appliances are manufactured to work

under some specific voltages. Transformers are used to
adjust the voltages to a proper level.
Transformers are the basic components for the
transmission of the electricity.
A transformer is a static device which transfers electric
energy from one circuit to another circuit without
changing the frequency of the system.
Transformers works on principle of Faraday’s law of
electromagnetic induction. According to this principle, an
e.m.f. is induced in a coil if it links with a changing flux.
14-Oct-20
2
The transformer used to increase the voltage is called
step-up transformer, while that is used to decrease the
voltage is called step-down transformer.
The step-down transformers are generally used to
decrease the voltage at substations for consumer’s use,
whereas step-up transformers are required to increase
the voltage at the generating station for transmission
purpose.
In a transformer electrical energy is transferred from one
circuit to another circuit without the use of moving parts.
So it has highest efficiency out of all the electrical
machines
14-Oct-20
3
10/14/2020
4
(i) Single Phase Transformer
A single-phase transformer is an electrical device that
accepts single-phase AC power and gives single-phase AC
power as output.
A transformer is a device which converts magnetic energy
into electrical energy.
14-Oct-20
5
It consists of two electrical coils called as a primary
winding and secondary winding. The primary winding of
a transformer receives power, while the secondary
winding delivers power.
Applications:
• Transmitting electrical energy over long distances
through wires.
• Transformers with several secondary's are used in
television and radio receivers where several different
voltages are required.
• Used as voltage regulator
• Used almost everywhere in day to day life.
14-Oct-20
6
(ii) Three Phase Transformer
A three-phase transformer is made of three sets of
primary and secondary windings, each set wound around
one leg of an iron core assembly. Essentially it looks like
three single-phase transformers sharing a joined core as
in figure below
14-Oct-20
7
Applications
• 3-phase transformers are used in power supply such
as Power station generator, Network transformer,
Distribution transformer, Substation transformer etc.
• Power stations and substations use 3-phase
transformers to step-up or step-down the voltages.
• Laboratories use 3-phase variacs i.e. 3-phase auto
transformers to supply power to induction and
synchronous motors.
• 3-phase transformers are used in buck-boost
converters etc.
14-Oct-20
8
(iii) Auto Transformer
The autotransformer has only one winding, which is
common to both the primary and the secondary.
14-Oct-20
9
The working principle is same as that of normal
transformer, difference is that it has only one winding
divided into primary and secondary.
Applications:
• Used for starting of induction motors.
• Used to compensate voltage drops in transmission and
distribution lines, called as booster transformers.
• Used for continuously variable supply.
• Used in control equipment for 1-phase and 3-phase
electrical locomotives.
• Used as interconnecting transformers in 132 kV/330
14-Oct-20
kV system etc.
10
(iii) Instrument Transformer
These are special type of transformers used for the measurement of
voltage, current, power and energy.
As the name suggests, these transformers are used in conjunction
with the relevant instruments such as ammeters, voltmeters, watt
meters and energy meters.
Such transformers are of two types :
(i) Current Transformer (or Series Transformer)
(ii) Potential Transformer (or Parallel Transformer)
Current transformers are used when the magnitude of AC currents
exceeds the safe value of current of measuring instruments.
Potential transformers are used where the voltage of an AC circuit
exceeds 750 V as it is not possible to provide adequate insulation on
measuring instruments
14-Oct-20
11
Applications:
• Used mainly in measurement and protective equipment. Also
used to provide energy to protective relays.
• Current transformers (CTs) are used in the design of switch-
mode power supplies, capacitor discharge surge testing, the
development of motor controllers and electronic variable speed
drives, electromagnetic compatibility (EMC) testing, lightning
simulation tests for surge arrestors etc.
• Potential transformers (PTs) are used in electrical metering
systems, electrical protection systems, distance protection of
feeders, synchronizing generators with grid, impedance
protection of generators etc.
14-Oct-20
12
14-Oct-20
13
Burla, Odisha
Construction and Working of DC Generator

By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Illustrate the constructional details of a DC machine
Outline the functions of every individual part in a DC
machine
Outline the working principle of a DC generator
Explain the principle of operation of a DC generator
Outline the function of commutator in a DC generator
Outline the e.m.f. equation of a DC generator
14-Oct-20
2
Construction of a DC Machine
Figure (1.1): Schematic diagram of a 4-pole DC Machine

10/14/2020
3
DC machine consists the following main parts.
• Yoke or magnetic frame
• Armature core or stack
• Armature winding
• Pole consists of pole core and pole shoe
• Field winding
• Commutator
• Brushes and Brush holder
• Inter poles
• Shaft and Bearings
10/14/2020
4
(i) Magnetic Frame or Yoke
• Outermost protecting cover for the DC machine.
• Circular steel ring, provides protection to all parts of the
machine from moisture, dust etc.
• Provides mechanical support to the field poles and necessary
magnetic path between the poles.
• Made up of with cast iron, cast steel, silicon steel, rolled steel
etc.
10/14/2020 Figure (1.2): Magnetic Frame or Yoke

5
(ii) Armature core or Stack
• Rotating part (rotor) of the DC machine and is mounted on the
shaft.
• Cylindrical in shape with slots to carry armature winding.
• Made up of silicon steel laminations in order to reduce the
eddy current losses.
• Provided with air ducts for cooling purposes.
• Made up of with cast steel or cast iron.
10/14/2020
Figure (1.3): Armature Core
6
(iii) Armature winding
• Formed by placing copper coil/conductor in armature slots.
• Armature conductors are insulated from each other and also
from the armature core.
• Armature winding can be wound by one of the two methods;
lap winding or wave winding.
10/14/2020 Figure (1.4): Armature Winding

7
• It either generates or receives the voltage depending on
whether the unit is a generator or a motor.
• Made-up of with conducting materials like copper.
(iv) Poles and pole shoes
• Poles produce the magnetic flux when the field winding is
excited.
Figure (1.5): Field pole

10/14/2020
8
• Each pole is divided into two parts namely pole core and
pole shoe.
• Pole core is a part on which field winding is wound over.
• Pole shoe serves the following two functions:
(i) Distributes the magnetic flux uniformly in the air gap.
(ii) Supports the field winding.
• Poles are joined to the yoke with the help of bolts or
welding
• In modern design the pole is made-up of with thin
laminations of cast steel or cast iron.
(v) Field winding

• Field coils or field windings are located on the pole core
of the machine.
10/14/2020
9
• When the field winding excited, i.e. when the current is
passed through the field winding in a specific direction, it
sets up magnetic field (i.e. magnetize the poles) in the
machine.
• The field coils may be either shunt windings (in parallel
with the armature winding) or series windings (in series
with the armature winding) or a combination of both.
• Made up of with conducting materials like aluminum,
copper etc.
Figure (1.6): Field winding

10/14/2020
10
(vi) Commutator
• Commutator is a mechanical rectifier, which converts AC
voltage of the rotating conductors to DC voltage.
• Collects the current from the armature conductors and passes
it to the external load via brush.
• Cylindrical in structure and is made-up of copper or bronze.
Figure (1.7): Fully Assembled Commutator

10/14/2020
11
(vii) Brushes and brush holder
• Brushes conduct the current from the commutator to the
external circuit.
• Made-up of with material like carbon, graphite etc.
• A brush holder is usually a metal box that is rectangular in
shape.
• The brush holder has a spring that holds the brush in contact
with the commutator.
(viii) Inter poles

• Inter poles are similar to the main poles.
• These are connected between the yoke and main field poles.
• They have windings in series with the armature winding.
• Inter poles have the function of reducing the armature
reaction effect in the commutating zone.
10/14/2020
12
Figure (1.8): Cut View of DC Machine
10/14/2020
13
(ix) Shaft and Bearings
• Shaft is made of mild steel with a maximum breaking
strength.
• Shaft is used to transfer mechanical power from or to the
machine.
• These are normally lubricated by grease or oil.
• The armature is mounted on a steel shaft, which is supported
between the two bearings.
• The bearings are either ball or roller type and are fitted in the
end housings.
• The function of the bearings is to reduce friction between the
rotating and stationary parts of the machine.
• Mostly high carbon steel is used for the construction of
bearings.
10/14/2020
14
Working principle of a DC generator
• An electric generator is a machine which converts mechanical

energy into electrical energy.
• All the generators work on a principle of dynamically induced
e.m.f. i.e. Faraday’s law of electromagnetism induction.
• It states that, whenever a conductor cuts the magnetic flux,
an e.m.f. induced; which will cause a current to flow if the
conductor circuit is closed.
• The direction of induced e.m.f and hence current is given by
Fleming’s right hand rule.
• Therefore, the essential components of a generator are: (i) a
magnetic field, (ii) conductor or a group of conductors, and (iii)
motion of the conductor w.r.t. magnetic field.
• Figure (1.9) shows a single loop rectangular copper coil
(ABCD) rotating about its own axis in a magnetic field
provided by either permanent magnets or electromagnets.
10/14/2020
15
• The two ends of the coil are joined to two slip-rings which are
insulated from each other and from the central shaft.
• Two collecting brushes (carbon or copper) press against the
slip-rings; their function is to collect the current induced in
the coil to external load resistance.
• The rotating coil may be called armature and the magnets as
field system.
Figure (1.9)
10/14/2020
16
• Figure (1.10) shows a
single loop coil forming
two sides AB and CD able
to rotate between north
pole ‘N’ and south pole ‘S’
of a permanent magnet.
Assume this as the
starting point and fixing
the direction of rotation
as clock-wise.
• In this position the
conductor coil sides ‘AB’
and ‘CD’ are parallel to
the magnetic flux and
Figure (1.10): Conductor moving
therefore does not cut the
parallel to the direction of flux (00 magnetic flux and the
position) induced voltage at this
instant is zero
10/14/2020
17
• As the coil rotates from
the 00 position to 900 in
clockwise, the coil sides
begin to cut the magnetic
flux at a gradually
increasing rate and
conductor comes to the
position as shown in
figure (1.11).
• Hence the magnitude of

induced e.m.f. also
gradually increases and
becomes maximum when
Figure (1.11): Conductor moving the coil rotates by an
perpendicular to the direction of flux angle 900.
(900 position)
10/14/2020
18
• As the coil rotates from
the 900 position to 1800,
again the coil sides AB
and CD are parallel to the
flux lines as shown in
figure (1.12).
• Under this condition the

flux linkage is gradually
decreases and hence the
induced e.m.f. also
gradually decrease and
becomes zero at 1800.
• At this point, the coil has

Figure (1.12): Conductor moving gone through a half-
parallel to the direction of flux (1800 revolution.
position)
10/14/2020
19
• Again, as the coil rotates
from position 1800 to 2700
as shown in figure (1.13),
the induced e.m.f. starts
increasing from zero to
maximum and attains
maximum value at 2700,
but in opposite direction.
Figure (1.13): Conductor moving

perpendicular to the direction of flux
(2700 position)
10/14/2020
20
• As the coil again moves
from 2700 to 3600 as shown
in figure (1.14), the induced
e.m.f. starts decreasing
from its maximum value
and reaches to zero again.
• So it completes the second

half revolution.
• Thus, during the second

half-revolution, coil sides
cut flux in directions
opposite to that which they
did in the first half
Figure (1.14): Conductor moving revolution, hence, the
parallel to the direction of flux (3600 polarity of the induced
position) voltage reverses.
10/14/2020
21
• So from the above
discussion, it can be
concluded that the e.m.f.
induced in the armature
conductor of a DC generator
is alternating in nature as
shown in figure (1.15).
Figure (1.15): Sinusoidal wave

form of induced e.m.f. • It is seen that, the e.m.f.
induced in the conductors is
always sinusoidal and split
ring commutator converts
this sinusoidal e.m.f. into
unidirectional e.m.f. as
shown in fig.(1.16)
Figure (16): Wave form of unidirectional
current at the load
10/14/2020
22
Fleming's Right Hand Rule:
If the right hand is held with the thumb, fore finger and middle
finger mutually at right angles, as shown in the figure (1.17),
then
• The Thumb represents the direction of motion of the
conductor (F).
• The Fore finger represents the direction of Magnetic field (B).
• The Middle finger represents the direction of induced or
generated e.m.f/current (V or I).
Figure (1.17): Fleming’s right hand rule

10/14/2020
23
EMF Equation of a DC Generator
Let Ф = flux per pole in Weber
Z = total number of armature conductors
= number of slots × number of conductors per slot
N = speed of the armature in rpm
A = number of parallel paths in the armature winding
P = number of poles of the generator
According to Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction,
dΦ
average e.m.f. induced per conductor, e =
dt
Total Flux= Flux produced by each pole × No. of poles
dФ = Ф×P=PФ Webers
Time taken by a conductor for completing one revolution
dt =60/N sec
dΦ PΦ PΦ N
∴e =
14-Oct-20 = =
dt 60 / N 60 24
We know that here ‘Z’ conductors are distributed in ‘A’ parallel
paths. So effectively (Z/A) conductors need to be multiplied with
e.m.f induced in one conductor
Total e.m.f generated between the armature terminals is given by,
Eg = average e.m.f. generated per conductor × no. of conductors
in each parallel path = PΦN × Z = ΦZN ×  P 
60 A 60  A
Φ ZN  P 
∴ Eg = × 
60  A 
For lap winding, A=P

For wave winding, A=2
For a given DC generator, Z, P & A are constants and hence
generated e.m.f is
E ∝ ΦN = k ΦN ; where k is a const.
g
14-Oct-20
25
Solved Problem-1: A 4-pole DC generator having wave wound
armature winding has 51 slots, each slot containing 20
conductors. Find the generated voltage in the machine when
speed is 1500 rpm and flux per pole is 60 mWb.
No. of poles, P = 4, No. of slots = 51
No. of conductors/slot = 20
Total no. of conductors, Z = 51X 20 = 1020
Speed, N = 1500 rpm
Flux per pole, Ф=60 mWb
No. of parallel paths, A= 2 (for wave wound)
ΦZN  P  60 × 10−3 × 1020 × 1500 × 4
Eg = ×  = = 3060 V
60  A  60 × 2
14-Oct-20
26
⇒ Solved Problem-2: An 8-pole DC generator has per pole flux of 40
mWb and winding is connected in lap with 960 conductors.
Calculate the generated e.m.f on open circuit when it runs at 400
rpm. If the armature is wave wound, at what speed must the
machine be driven to generate the same voltage.
P=8, Φ=40mWb, Z =960, A=P =8 for lap wound, N= 400rpm
Generated e.m.f.,
 P  40 × 10 × 960 × 400 8
−3
Φ ZN
Eg = ×  = × = 256 V
60  A 60 8
If the armature is wave wound, A=2, P=8
ΦZN  P 
Eg = × 
60  A 
60 A 60 2
⇒ N = Eg × = 256 × −3
× = 100rpm
Φ ZP 40 × 10 × 960 8
14-Oct-20
27
⇒
Solved Problem-3: A DC generator has armature e.m.f. of 100V
when flux per pole is 20 mWb and speed is 900rpm. Calculate
e.m.f. generated when (i) speed is 1000 rpm with same flux, and
(ii) speed is 900 rpm but flux is 23 mWb
14-Oct-20
28
⇒
14-Oct-20
29
14-Oct-20
30
Burla, Odisha
Types of DC Generator
By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Outline the types DC generators
Explain DC Series Generator
Explain DC Shunt Generator
Explain Long Shunt Compound Generator
Explain Short Shunt Compound Generator
14-Oct-20
2
Types of DC Generators
DC generators are generally classified into the following types

according to the methods of their field excitation.
DC Generators
Separately Excited Self-Excited Generators

Generators
Series wound Shunt wound Compound wound

Generators Generators Generators
Long-shunt compound Short-shunt compound

Generators Generators
14-Oct-20
3
(1) Separately Excited Generators
Separately excited generators are those, whose field magnets are
energized from an external DC source as shown in figure (1.18).
Figure (1.18): Separately excited generator

Armature current, Ia = IL
Generated voltage, Eg= V+ IaRa+ BCD
Power developed in the armature, Pg= EgIa
Power delivered to load, PL= VIL
Note:
14-Oct-20 BCD= Brush contact drop, generally 1V per brush
4
(2) Self-excited Generators
Self-excited generators are those, whose field magnets are
energized by the current produced by the generators
themselves.
Self-excited generators are classified according to the type of
field connection they use. There are three general types of
field connections: series-wound, shunt-wound (parallel), and
compound-wound.
Compound-wound generators are further classified as long-
shunt compound and short-shunt compound.
14-Oct-20
5
(i) Series-wound Generator
In the series-wound generator, shown in figure (1.19), the field
windings are connected in series with the armature. .
Figure (1.19): Series wound generator

Armature current, Ia = Ise= IL
Generated voltage, Eg = V+IaRa+IseRse+BCD
Power developed in the armature, Pg= Eg Ia
14-Oct-20
6
(ii) Shunt-wound Generators
In a shunt-wound generator as shown in figure (1.20), the field
coils consist of many turns of small wire. They are connected
in parallel with the load. In other words, they are connected
across the output voltage of the armature.
Figure (1.20): Shunt wound generator

Armature current, Ia = Ish+IL
Generated voltage, Eg = V+IaRa+ BCD
14-Oct-20
7
(iii) Compound-Wound Generators
(a) Long-shunt Compound Generators
In which the shunt field winding is in parallel with both
armature and series field windings
Figure (1.21): Short-shunt compound wound generator

Armature current, Ia =Ise= Ish+ IL
Generated voltage, Eg= V+IaRa+ IseRse+BCD
14-Oct-20
8
(b) Short shunt Compound-wound Generators
In which only shunt field winding is in parallel with armature
winding.
Figure (1.22): Short-shunt compound wound generator

Armature current, Ia = Ish+ IL
Series field current, Ise= IL
Generated voltage,, Eg= V+IaRa+ IseRse+BCD
14-Oct-20
9
Solved Problem-4: A 4-pole DC shunt generator with wave
connect armature has armature and field resistance of 0.4Ω and
50Ω respectively and supplied to 50 lamps of 60W, 250V
each. Calculate the (i) armature current, (ii) current per path, and
(iii) generated e.m.f.
No. of poles, P =4
No. of parallel path , A =Z (wave wound)
14-Oct-20
10
Solved Problem-5: A series DC generator delivers a current of 150
A at 230V. Its armature and series field resistances are 0.2Ω and
0.06Ω respectively. Find (i) armature current, and
(ii) generated e.m.f.
14-Oct-20
11
Solved Problem-6: A long shunt compound generator delivers a
load current of 50A at 500V and has armature, series field and
shunt field resistances of 0.05Ω, 0.03Ω and 250 Ω respectively.
Calculate the generated voltage and the armature current? Allow
1V per brush for contact drop.
14-Oct-20
12
Solved Problem-7: A short shunt compound generator supplies a
current of 100A at a voltage of 250V. If the shunt, series and
armature resistance are 50Ω, 0.025Ω and 0.05Ω
respectively. Calculate the (a) Generated voltage, and
(b) Power delivered to load. Allow a brush drop of 1V per brush.
14-Oct-20
13
Solved Problem-8: A separately excited DC generator when
running at 1200 rpm supplies 200A at 125V to a circuit of
constant resistance. What will be the current when the speed is
dropped to 1000 rpm and the field current is reduced to 80%?
Armature resistance = 0.04Ω and total drop at brushes = 2V.
Ignore saturation and armature reaction.
14-Oct-20
14
14-Oct-20
15
14-Oct-20
16
14-Oct-20
17
Burla, Odisha
Armature Reaction in DC Generator

By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Define Armature Reaction
Define Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA)
Define Geometric Neutral Axis (GNA)
Explain the concept of armature reaction in a DC Generator
List the Effects of Armature Reaction
Outline the expression for demagnetizing ampere turns per pole
Outline the expression for cross-magnetizing ampere turns per
pole
14-Oct-20
2
Armature Reaction
In a DC generator, the armature current induces the armature
flux and the main poles induce the field flux. The effect of
armature flux on the main field flux is known as armature
reaction.
The armature reaction has two effects on the main field flux
(i) Demagnetizing effect (or) weakens the main flux
(ii) Cross magnetizing effect (or) distorts the main flux
Cross magnetizing effect causes the reduction in generated
voltage and the demagnetizing effect causes sparking at
the brushes.
Magnetic Neutral Axis (MNA) is defined as the axis along
which no e.m.f. is produced in the armature conductors;
because at that time they move parallel to the lines of flux.
14-Oct-20
3
The MNA is always perpendicular to the resultant flux.
The brushes and commutator are always placed along the
MNA and hence this axis ix called axis of commutation.
In armature conductors, reversal of current can takes place
across this axis.
Geometric Neutral Axis (GNA) is defined as the axis
perpendicular to the stator field axis or polar axis.
14-Oct-20
Figure (1.23): Schematic diagram showing GNA and MNA
4
Explanation of Armature Reaction
Case-(i): When no load is connected to the machine
When there is no load on the generator, the current in the
armature conductors is zero and hence the flux produced is
zero. So there is no armature reaction in the generator
Under this condition, there exists only the m.m.f of main

poles, which produces the main flux, ФM.
This flux is distributed symmetrically with respect to the

polar axis, i.e. the central line of the north and south poles.
In this case the MNA and GNA are coinciding as shown in

the figure (1.24).
14-Oct-20
5
Figure (1.24): Flux set-up by 2-pole DC generator
14-Oct-20
6
Case-(ii): The armature conductors carrying current and no
current flows in the field coils
Figure (1.25) shows the flux set up by the armature conductors
carrying current and the field coils are unexcited i.e. no current
in the field coils.
The direction of current in armature conductors may be
determined by Fleming’s Right Hand Rule and flux direction
may be determined by Cork Screw Rule.
The current direction is downwards in conductors under N-
poles (represented by cross marks) and upwards in conductors
under S–pole (represented by dots). These two current produces
m.m.f and hence fluxes (ФA) through the armature in the
downward direction.
14-Oct-20
7
Figure (1.25): The armature flux set-up by armature conductors
14-Oct-20
8
Case-(iii): Field current and armature current acting
simultaneously
Under actual load conditions, the armature flux and main field
flux exist simultaneously in the generator as shown in figure
(1.26).
The armature flux is produced by the current induces in the
armature conductors while the field pole flux is induced
because of the main field poles. These two flux combines and
gives the resultant flux ΦR
When the field flux enters into the armature, they may get
distorted. The distortion increases the density of the flux in the
upper pole tip of north-pole and the lower pole tip of the south-
pole. Similarly, the density of flux decreases in the lower pole
tip of the north-pole and the upper pole tip of the south-pole.
The resultant flux induces in the generator is shifted towards
the direction of the rotation of generator.
The magnetic neutral axis of poles is always perpendicular to
the axis of the resultant flux. So the MNA is continuously
shifted with the resultant flux
14-Oct-20
9
Figure (1.26): Resultant flux distortion
14-Oct-20
10
Effects of Armature Reaction:
The effect of total flux reduction in the armature reaction is
known as the demagnetizing effect.
The resultant flux lines are distorted and there is a shift in
the position of magnetic neutral axis. In case of generator,
the MNA moves in the direction of rotation of the generator
and opposite direction of rotation in the case of motor.
If brushes are not shifted to MNA, sparking at brush contacts
occur.
It reduces the e.m.f induced in the armature.
The efficiency of the generator decreases.
14-Oct-20
11
Demagnetizing ampere turns per pole (ATd):
It is sometimes desirable to neutralize the demagnetizing
ampere turns of armature reaction. This is achieved by adding
extra ampere turns to the main field winding. We shall now
calculate the demagnetizing ampere turns per pole.
14-Oct-20
12
Figure (1.27): Demagnetization and cross magnetization ampere turns
14-Oct-20
13
Cross magnetizing ampere turns per pole (ATc):
Consider the conductors on both sides of the MNA and falls
within the influence of the main pole flux. The conductors
which lie between angles AOD and BOC constitute distorting
field and called cross conductors. Their number is found as
follows:
14-Oct-20
14
14-Oct-20
15
Compensating Winding:
The function of compensating winding is to neutralize the
cross magnetizing m.m.f of the armature reaction.
A compensating winding is embedded in the pole faces parallel
to the armature and is arranged such that its ampere-turns
are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction to those of
the armature conductors which lie opposite to the pole faces
as shown in figure (1.28).
14-Oct-20
Figure (1.28): Compensating winding
16
Compensating winding must neutralize the cross magnetizing
ampere turns of the armature at all loads when it is connected
in series with the armature.
The no. of compensating windings to be used for a large
machine under one pole can be derived as follows:
14-Oct-20
17
Solved Problem-10: A 200 kW, 400 V, 4-pole DC generator has
640 lap wound conductors. It is given a brush lead of 2.5
angular mechanical degrees from the geometric neutral.
Calculate cross magnetizing turns per pole and demagnetizing
turns per pole. (Neglect shunt field current)
14-Oct-20
18
Solved Problem-11: A 400 V, 800 A, lap wound DC generator
has 8 poles, 720 armature conductors. Calculate the number of
ampere turns in the pole face to give full compensation if the
pole face covers 70% of pole spam.
14-Oct-20
19
Solved Problem-12: A 6-pole, 120kW, 500V, wave wound DC
shunt generator has 756 armature conductors. The shunt filed
resistance 50 Ω when delivering full load the brushes are
displaced from the geometrical neutral axis by 24 electrical
degrees. Find the demagnetizing ampere turns/pole and cross
magnetizing ampere turns/pole. Also determine the number of
additional shunt field turns required to neutralize the
demagnetizing effect.
14-Oct-20
20
14-Oct-20
21
Solved Problem-13: A 4-pole, 100 kW, 500 V, lap wound DC
series generator has 756 armature conductors. The brushes are
given an actual lead of 6 mechanical degrees at full load.
Calculate demagnetizing ampere turns/pole and cross
magnetizing ampere turns/pole. Also determine the number of
additional series turns required to neutralize the demagnetizing
effect. (Assume leakage coefficient = 0.9).
14-Oct-20
22
14-Oct-20 23
14-Oct-20 24
14-Oct-20
25
Commutation in a DC Generator
By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Define commutation
Explain the process of commutation in a DC generator
List the methods of improving commutation
Explain resistance commutation
Explain E.M.F commutation
Explain commutation using compensating winding
14-Oct-20
2
Commutation
The currents induced in the armature conductors of a DC

generator are alternating and a commutator is used to convert
alternating current into unidirectional current.
The reversal of current takes place along the MNA or brushes

axis.
Whenever a brush spans two commutator segments, the

winding element (or the coil undergoing reversal of current)
connected to those segments is short circuited.
The process of reversal of current in a short circuited coil is

known as commutation
14-Oct-20
3
The time during which the coil remains short circuited is
known as commutation period and generally it is around
0.0005 to 0.002 seconds.
If the current reversal i.e. changes from +Ic to zero and then to
−Ic is completed by the end of short circuit or commutation
period (Tc), then the commutation is ideal or smooth.
If current reversal is not completed by that time, then sparking

is produced between the brush and the commutator which
results in progressive damage to both.
14-Oct-20
4
Explanation of Commutation
Assumptions:
Armature winding is of lap wound with 2 poles, so that
number parallel paths for current are 2.
Width of the commutator segment is equal to the width of
the brush
Current density at the surface of the brush is constant
Commutator is moving from left to right and then the brush
will move from right to left.
The current from each armature coil to commutator
segment is IC.
The output current from commutator segments to brush
and hence load is 2IC, which is always constant
14-Oct-20
5
To explain commutation process, let us consider the
following 5 positions:
Position-1:
• At first position, the brush is in contact with commutator segment '2'

as shown in figure (a).
• As the width of the commutator segment is equal to the width of the
brush, in this position the total areas of commutator and brush are in
contact with each other. So current Ic will flow from each coils B and C.
• Therefore, the total current conducted by the commutator segment into
the brush at this position will be 2IC.
14-Oct-20
6
Position-2:
• When the armature starts to move right then the brush moves left
makes contact with commutator segment ‘2’ and just touches
commutator segment ‘1’, creating a partial short circuit across coil ‘B’
as shown in figure(b).
• At this position the contact area of segment 1 is ¼ and segment-2 is
¾ of the total brush contact area.
• As the area of contact of the brush is more with segment ‘2’ than with
segment ‘1’, so segment ‘2’ receives 3/2 Ic from coils ‘B’ and ‘C’
whereas segment ‘1’ receives ½Ic from coil ‘A’, the total current
collected by the brush remain same, i.e., 2Ic.
14-Oct-20
7
Position-3:
• At this position half of the brush surface is in contact with segment

‘1’ and the other half is with segment ‘2’ as shown in figure(c). So, the
brush contact areas with the two segments ‘2’ and ‘1’ are equal.
• It is seen that the coil ‘B’ is completely short circuited/bypassed
causing the current through it reduced to zero.
• The two currents of Ic each, passes to the brush directly from coil ‘A’
and ‘C’ as shown in figure, the total current collected by the brush
remain same, i.e., 2Ic.
14-Oct-20
8
Position-4:
• In this position, the brush contact area with segment ‘2’ is decreasing
rapidly whereas that with segment ‘1’ is increasing, i.e. the contact
area of segment ‘2’ is ¼ and segment ‘1’ is ¾ of the total brush contact
area.
• Coil B now carries ½ Ic in the reverse direction which combines with Ic
supplied by coil ‘A’ to make up 3/2 Ic that passes from segment ‘1’ to
the brush. The other ½ Ic is supplied by coil ‘C’ and passes from
segment ‘2’ to the brush, again giving a total current of 2Ic at the
brush.
14-Oct-20
9
Position-5:
• Figure(e) depicts the moment when coil ‘B’ is almost at the end of
commutation or short circuit period.
• When the brush is totally under contact with commutator segment ‘1’
as shown in figure and disconnected with commutator segment ‘2’
then current ‘Ic’ flows through the coil 'B' in anti-clockwise direction
and short circuit is removed.
• In this way the reversal of current in coil ‘B’ or the process of
commutation is done. At this position segment ‘1’ receives, the two
currents of Ic each, passes to the brush directly from coil ‘A’ and ‘B’,
the total current collected by the brush remain same, i.e., 2Ic.
14-Oct-20
10
Now the coil ‘B’ is commutated i.e. the current flowing
through the coil is reversed. If we move further right, then the
coil ‘C’ is commutated. So the same process is repeated to all
the coils if you keep on moving to the right.
If the commutation process or the reversal of current is

completed by the end of the short circuit time or the
commutation period the commutation is called ideal
commutation or Linear commutation.
If the reversal of current is not completed during the short

circuit time then there is sparking occurs at the brush
contacts and the commutator surface is damaged due to
overheating and the commutation is called non ideal
commutation or poor commutation
14-Oct-20 11
Figure (1.26): Resultant flux distortion
14-Oct-20
12
Why we go for methods of Improving
Commutation
The commutation is called ideal if the commutation process
or the reversal of current is completed by the end of the short
circuit time or the commutation period.
If the reversal current is not completed in the commutation
period then it causes sparking at the brushes and it is called
as non-ideal commutation or poor-commutation.
Due to this the commutation surface may damage because
of overheating.
In these cases we go for methods of improving commutation
to protect the machine from damage.
Generally the following methods are used for improving
commutation in a DC generator.
14-Oct-20 13
Methods of Improving Commutation
14-Oct-20
14
Reactance Voltage
The coils undergoes commutation are self inductive in nature,
this inductive nature of the coil gives us the EMF which is
known as reactance voltage, which opposes the reversal of
current.
Due to this reactance voltage of the coils, instead of reversal
of total current some of the current only reverse and remining
will causes the sparking at the brushes.
Since the current in the coil has to change from +Ic to -Ic, the
total current change is 2Ic. If Tc is the time of short circuit
and L is the inductance of the coil, then the average value of
the self-induced voltage is L di = L × 2 I c = 2 LI c
dt Tc Tc
2 LI c
∴ Reactance voltage =
14-Oct-20
Tc
15
Resistance Commutation
In this method of commutation, we use high electrical
resistance brushes for getting spark less commutation. This
can be obtained by replacing low resistance copper brushes
with high resistance carbon brushes.
As shown in figure, the current IC from the coil C may reach to

the brush in two ways in the commutation period. One path is
direct through the commutator segment ‘2’ and to the brush
and the 2nd path is first through the short-circuit coil ‘B’ and
then through the commutator segment ‘1’ and to the brush.
When the brush resistance is low, then the current IC from

coil C will follow the shortest path, i.e. the 1st path as its
electrical resistance is comparatively low because it is shorter
than the 2nd path.
When high resistance brushes are used, then as the brush

moves towards the commutator segments, the contact area of
the brush with segment ‘2’ decreases and with segment ‘1’
increases
14-Oct-20 16
Now, as the electrical resistance is inversely proportional to
the contact area, then the resistance (R=ρl/A) R2 will increase
and R1 will decrease as the brush moves. Then the current
will prefer the 2nd path to reach to the brush.
Thus, by this method of improving commutation, the quick

reversal of current will occur in the desired direction.
14-Oct-20 17
E.M.F. Commutation
In this method, an arrangement is made to neutralize the
reactance voltage by producing a reversal voltage in the coil
undergoing commutation. Reactance voltage is defined as the
voltage rise in the short circuit coil due to inductive property
of the coil, which opposes the current reversal in it during the
commutation period.
Reactance voltage=(coefficient of self-inductance)×(rate of
change of current)
The reversal voltage can be archived by two ways:

14-Oct-20 18
(a) By shifting of brushes
In this method of improving commutation, the brushes are
shifted forward direction for the DC generator and in backward
direction for the DC motor for producing the sufficient
reversing e.m.f. for eliminating the reactance voltage.
When the brushes are given the forward or backward lead then
it brings the short circuit coil under the influence of the next
pole which is of the opposite polarity. Then the sides of the coil
will cut the necessary flux form the main poles of opposite
polarity for producing the sufficient reversing e.m.f.
14-Oct-20 19
In this method we have to consider two things:
(i)Brush shift should be in such a way that sides of coil should
cut the sufficient flux to give sufficient emf.
(ii)Direction of the emf should be same to the direction of the

reversal current.
Drawbacks:
For every variation of load we have to do this brush shift and it
is a difficult task all the time.
The Greater shift will causes the demagnetizing ampere turns

that will reduce the Main field flux there by it reduces the
torque.
14-Oct-20 20
(b) By using Inter-poles
In this method of commutation, some small poles are fixed to
the yoke and placed between the main poles. These poles are
called inter-poles.
Their polarity is same as the main poles situated next to it for
the generator and for the motor the polarity is same as the
main pole situated before it.
The inter-poles induce an e.m.f in the short circuit coil during
the commutation period which opposes reactance voltage and
give spark-less commutation.
14-Oct-20 21
Compensating Windings
This is the most effective mean of eliminating the problem of
armature reaction and flash over by balancing the armature
m.m.f.
Compensating windings are placed in the slots provided in pole

faces parallel to the rotor (armature) conductors.
Advantages:
Sparkless commutation.
It will neutralize the armature mmf.
Uniform flux distribution under the main field poles.
Drawbacks:
Compensating windings are costly.
Mainly used for large machines subject to heavy overloads or
plugging
14-Oct-20 22
14-Oct-20
23
Characteristics of a DC Generator
By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Define characteristics of a DC generator
List various characteristics of a DC generator
Explain the Characteristics of a Separately Excited DC Generator
Explain Voltage Build-up in a Self-excited Shunt Generator
Define Critical Field Resistance and Critical Speed
Explain Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator
Explain Characteristics of DC Series Generator
Explain Characteristics of DC Compound Generator
List the applications of DC generators

14-Oct-20
2
Characteristics of a DC generator
The graphs or curves which show the performance of the
generator under different operating conditions are known as
characteristics.
The operating characteristics of DC generators present
graphically, the relationship between the basic quantities
(terminal voltage V, armature current Ia, excitation current If and
speed N) relevant to generator operation.
Following are the three important characteristics of a DC
generator.
(i) Open Circuit or magnetization characteristic
(ii) Internal or Total Characteristic and
(iii) External Characteristic
Open Circuit Characteristic (OCC): Drawn b/n the generated
e.m.f. at no-load (E0) and the field current (If) at constant speed
Internal or Total Characteristic: Drawn b/n the generated
e.m.f. on load (E) and the armature current (Ia)
External Characteristics: Drawn b/n the terminal voltage (V)
and load current (IL)
14-Oct-20
3
Characteristics of a Separately Excited
DC Generator
Figure (1.23): Separately excited DC generator

(i) Open Circuit Characteristics (OCC)
The data for OCC curve is obtained by operating the generator
at no load and keeping a constant speed.
The plot of this curve is practically same for all types of

generators, whether they are separately excited or self-excited.
The field current (If) is increased from zero in steps and the
corresponding values of generated e.m.f.(E0) is recorded across
the armature terminals.
14-Oct-20
4
Figure (1.24): OCC of a Separately excited DC generator
14-Oct-20
5
On plotting the relation between E0 and If, we get the OCC as
shown in figure (1.24).
From the e.m.f. equation of a DC generator, Eg=kФ. Hence, the

generated e.m.f. should be directly proportional to field flux i.e.
field current. So AB is a straight line
In the fig., even when the If is zero, some amount of e.m.f. (OA)
is generated. This e.m.f is induced due to residual magnetism
presented in the field poles.
However, at some value of field current, the magnetic circuit

(i.e. poles)gets saturated. So any further increase in If (beyond
point C in figure 1.24) will not increase the flux. So, the
generated voltage will remain almost constant with the
increase in field current. That is why the upper portion of the
curve is almost flat.
14-Oct-20
6
(ii) Internal and external or Load characteristics
Let us consider the generator giving its no load voltage, E0 for
a constant field current, If.
If there is no armature reaction and armature voltage drop in

the machine then the voltage will remain constant. So, the plot
b/n rated voltage and IL is a straight line (AB) parallel to x-axis
as shown in figure (1.25). Here, line AB indicating the no load
voltage (E0).
When the generator is loaded, the voltage falls due to armature

reaction and armature voltage drop, thereby giving slightly
dropping characteristics.
If we subtract voltage drops due to armature reaction for

different loads from ‘E0’, then we get the value of ‘E’. So the
curve AC is plotted in this way is known as internal
characteristic.
14-Oct-20
7
External characteristic (AD) lies below the internal
characteristic because it takes into account the voltage drop
due to armature circuit resistance (IaRa), i.e. V=E-IaRa
Figure (1.25): Load characteristics of separately-excited DC Generator

14-Oct-20
8
Voltage Build-up in a Self-excited Shunt
Generator
Figure (1.26): Voltage build-up of in DC shunt generator

14-Oct-20
9
If the shunt generator is runs at a constant speed, some e.m.f.
will be generated due to residual magnetism in the main poles.
This small e.m.f. circulates a field current, which in turn

produces additional flux to reinforce the original residual flux.
When flux is increased, generated e.m.f. is increased (Eg=kФ)

which further increases the flux and so on.
The plot between the generated e.m.f. and the shunt field
current is as shown in figure (1.26). In the plot, the line OA
represents the shunt field resistance line.
As shown in figure (1.26), e1 is the induced e.m.f. due to

residual magnetism which appears across the field circuit and
causes a field current i1 to flow. The flux due to this current
aids residual flux and hence generates, a larger induced e.m.f.
e 2.
14-Oct-20
10
In turn, this increased e.m.f. e2 causes an even larger current
i2 which creates more flux for a still larger e.m.f. e3 and so on.
This process of voltage build-up will continue until that point

where the field resistance line crosses the magnetization curve,
that is, point P in the figure (1.26). Here the process stops.
(i) Conditions for voltage build-up in a DC shunt generator

There should be some residual magnetism in the poles.
For the given direction of rotation, the shunt field coils should
be properly connected. That is, the coils should be connected
such that the flux generated by the field current aids the
residual flux.
When excited at no load, the shunt field resistance should be
less than the critical resistance.
When excited on load, the shunt field resistance should be
more than a certain minimum value of resistance
14-Oct-20 11
(ii) Critical Field Resistance
The voltage build-up in a generator depends upon field circuit
resistance. If the field circuit resistance is R1 (line OA), then
generator will build-up a voltage E01 as shown in figure (1.27).
Figure (1.27): Determination of critical field resistance

14-Oct-20 12
If the field circuit resistance is increased to R2 (line OB), the
generator will build up a voltage E02, slightly less than E01
When the field resistance line becomes tangent (line OC) to

OCC, the generator would just excite.
If the field circuit resistance is increased beyond this point (say

line OD), the generator will fail to excite.
The field circuit resistance represented by line OC (tangent to

OCC) is called critical field resistance, RC for the generator. So
the critical field resistance is defined as the maximum field
circuit resistance for a given speed at which the shunt
generator would excite.
It should be noted that generator will build up voltage only if

field circuit resistance is less than critical field resistance.
14-Oct-20
13
(iii) Critical Speed
The critical speed is defined as the minimum speed of the
armature which is required to build-up e.m.f. by the generator.
In other words, the speed at which the machine just excites for
the given field circuit resistance is called the critical speed of a
shunt generator
Figure (1.28): Determination of critical speed

14-Oct-20 14
The speed for which the given field resistance acts as critical
resistance is called the critical speed, denoted as NC. Thus if the
line is drawn representing given Rsh then OCC drawn for such a
speed to which this line is tangential to the initial portion, is
nothing but the critical speed NC.
Graphically critical speed can be obtained for given Rsh as
follows:
14-Oct-20
15
Characteristics of DC Shunt Generator
Figure (1.29): OCC of a DC shunt generator

The OCC for self-excited generators whether shunt or series
connected, are obtained in a similar way.
The field current (If) is varied rheostatically and the
corresponding generator e.m.f on no-load, E0 is measured at
constant speed.
On plotting the relation between If and E0 a curve of the form
shown in figure 1.29(b) is obtained.
14-Oct-20
16
(ii) Internal and external characteristics or Load characteristics
Figure (1.30): Load characteristics of DC shunt generator
14-Oct-20
17
If there were no armature reaction and armature voltage
drop, then the voltage would have remained constant as
shown in the figure (1.30) by the horizontal line AD.
But the main filed flux pattern gets distorted due to the
armature reaction and hence, lesser flux gets linked with the
armature conductors. This reduces the induced e.m.f, so
curve AB shows internal characteristic of a DC generator.
External characteristic lies below the internal characteristic

(i.e. curve AC) because it takes into account the armature
resistance drop i.e. IaRa drop. The values of V are obtained by
subtracting IaRa from corresponding values of E i.e. V=E-IaRa.
14-Oct-20
18
Characteristics of a DC Series Generator
Figure (1.31): OCC of a DC series generator

The OCC curve for a self-excited generators whether shunt or
series wound is shown in above figure (1.31).
Due to the residual magnetism in the poles, some e.m.f (=OA)
is generated even when If =0. Hence, the curve starts a little
way up.
14-Oct-20
19
(ii) Internal and external characteristics or Load characteristics
Figure (1.32): Characteristics of a DC series generator

14-Oct-20
20
In the series generator, load connected across the armature
terminals. As load current increase, series field current
increases and hence flux is also increase. Therefore, induced
e.m.f. E also increases.
The internal characteristics (i.e. OC) is obtained by

subtracting the drop due to the demagnetizing effect of
armature reaction from the no load voltage. So, the induced
e.m.f. (E) will be less than the no load voltage (E0). Hence, the
curve OC is slightly dropping from the open circuit
characteristic curve AB as shown in figure (1.32).
For series generator V=E-Ia(Ra+Rse)by neglecting other drops.

As load current IL increases, armature current Ia increases.
Thus the Ia(Ra+Rse)drop increases and terminal voltage
decreases. So the curve OD drawn b/n V and IL is called
external characteristics.
14-Oct-20
21
Characteristics of a DC Compound Generator
Figure (1.33): Characteristics of DC compound generator

The compound wound generator has both shunt and series
field windings.
14-Oct-20 22
If the magnetic flux produced by the series winding assists the
flux produced by the shunt winding, then the machine is said
to be cumulative compounded. If the series field flux opposes
the shunt field flux, then the machine is called the
differentially compounded.
In differential compound generator the net flux, Ф=Фsh-Фse

decreases as the load increases. Therefore the terminal voltage
is decreases very quickly as the load current increases.
The cumulatively compound generator depending on the

number of series field turns may be classified into (i) Over
compound, (ii)flat or level compound, and (iii) under
compound. The characteristic of DC compound wound
generator are as shown in figure (1.33).
14-Oct-20
23
(i)Over compound generator: In this case the number of
series field turns are greater than the number of shunt field
turns, so the net flux and hence the terminal voltage increases
as the load current increases.
(ii)Level or flat compound generator: In this case the

number of series field turns are equal to the number of shunt
field turns. So, the terminal voltage remains constant for any
value of load current; which is within the limits.
(iii) Under compound generator: In this case the number of

series field turns are less than the number of shunt field
turns. So, the net flux decreases as the load current increases
and hence the terminal voltage decreases.
14-Oct-20
24
Solved Problem-13: The magnetization curve of a DC generator
has the following data at a speed of 1000 rpm.
Field current, A 0.5 1 1.25 1.5
E.M.F, V 100 200 230 250
Determine the following: (a) If the field current is adjusted at 1.25
A, what must be speed to generate 250 V? (b) What is the field
current to generate 200 V at speed 1000 rpm on no-load?
Solution: From the given table
14-Oct-20
25
Solved Problem-14: The following is the magnetization
characteristics of a DC shunt generator driven at 1000 rpm.
If in A 1 2 4 6 8 10
E0 in V 160 260 390 472 522 550
Determine: (i) The voltage to which it will excite on open circuit.

(ii) The approximate value of the critical resistance of the shunt
circuit. Take the armature and field resistance are 0.4 Ω and 60
Ω respectively
Solution: From the given table we can draw OCC
14-Oct-20 26
14-Oct-20
27
Solved Problem-15: The following table gives the OCC data of a
DC shunt generator at 300 rpm.
Field amperes 0 2 3 4 5 6 7
Armature volt 7.5 92 132 162 183 190 212
(i) Plot the OCC for 375 rpm and determine the voltage to which
the machine will excite if field circuit resistance is 40 Ω.
(ii) Determine the load current supplied by the generator, when
its terminal voltage is 200 V. Take armature resistance 0.3 Ω.
Assume speed to constant and armature reaction may be
ignored.
(iii) What additional resistance would have to be inserted in the
field circuit to reduce the voltage to 200 V at 375 rpm (no-load).
Solution: Speed of the armature, N = 300 rpm
14-Oct-20 28
14-Oct-20
29
14-Oct-20
30
Solved Problem-16: A separately excited generator the
magnetization characteristics at 1500 rpm is as follows:
If (Amp) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
E0 (Volt) 72.5 117.5 165 206.5 241 266 285 297.5
Determine the no-load terminal voltage of the machine when
runs at 1000 rpm with 30 Ω field circuit resistance.
14-Oct-20 31
14-Oct-20
32
14-Oct-20
33
Solved Problem-17: The OCC data of a 6 pole, 200 V shunt
generator having 720 lap connected armature conductors
running at 1000 rpm is as follows:
If (Amp) 0 0.5 1 2 3 4 5
E0 (Volt) 20 60 120 195 240 260 285
Calculate (i) Critical filed resistance, (ii) Critical speed for field
circuit resistance 80Ω, and (iii) Residual flux/pole.
14-Oct-20 34
14-Oct-20
35
14-Oct-20
36
Applications of DC Generators
S.No Type of Applications Examples

generator
1. Separately Used for speed control of DC Ward-Lenord system of
excited motors over a wide range. speed control, electro plating
generator Widely used where wide range
of terminal voltage is required.
2. Shunt Used as exciters for supplying Battery charging, excitation
generators the current required to excite of alternators, in the process
the field of AC generators. of electro-plating etc.
3. Series Used as boosters to Series arc lighting, series

generator compensate drop in the DC incandescent lighting, DC
distribution systems. locomotives etc.
4. Compound Flat compound generators are Railway circuits, arc welding
generator used where constant voltage is sets, elevator motors,
required for different loading incandescent lamps etc.
conditions.
Over compound generators are
used to compensate drop in
feeders.
14-Oct-20
37
14-Oct-20
38
Parallel Operation of DC Generator
By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
List the reasons for parallel operation of DC generators
Outline the requirements for parallel operation of DC
generators
Explain the parallel operation of DC shunt generators
Explain the Load Sharing between two DC generators
14-Oct-20
2
Reasons for parallel operation of DC generators
Continuity of power supply: In case of breakdown of

generator, the supply of power will not get disturbed. If
something goes wrong in one generator, the continuity of
power can maintained by other healthy units.
Higher efficiency: The performance and efficiency of a DC

generator is high at rated load conditions. The load on the
system is non-uniform, i.e., sometimes maximum and
sometimes minimum. During period of light load, one or more
units may be shut down, and those remaining operate at their
rated capacity; there by efficiency increases.
Easy repair and maintenance: For routine maintenance and

inspection at the power stations, a unit must be shut down for
a certain period. So repairing and overhauling (maintenance)
is convenient. Consequently the cost of standby unit is much
less when several units are installed.
14-Oct-20
3
Easy to increase plant capacity: The growing need of
electricity for increasing population shows the future need of
excess generation. The plant capacity can be increased by
connecting more generators in parallel.
Non-availability of single large unit: In many situations, a

single unit of desired large capacity may not be available. In
that case a number of smaller units can be operated in
parallel to meet the load requirement. Generally a single large
unit is more expensive.
Economy of power generation: The operating cost and cost

of energy generated are reduced when several generators
operate in parallel.
14-Oct-20
4
Requirements for parallel operation of DC
generators
Voltages of both the machines should be same: The no load
voltages of both generators should be adjusted to the same
value; otherwise, current will circulate through the two
machines that will cause additional losses.
Polarities of both the generators must be identical: The
polarity of the voltages of two generators must be same;
otherwise, large current will circulate in the armature
windings of the generators which will damage the windings.
Generators should have identical external characteristics:
The external characteristic curve of the two generators should
be identical; otherwise, the generator will not share the load
properly.
Generators should have an equalizer connection: For the
case of compound generators in parallel there must be an
“equalizer” connection to make the operation stable, otherwise,
there will be motorization, i.e. one of the generator will act as a
motor.
14-Oct-20
5
Parallel operation of DC shunt generators
Consider a bus-bar and two generators are to be connected in
parallel as shown in figure (1.40). The generator, G1 is already
connected to bus-bar and generator G2 has to be connected in
parallel with G1 for increase in load demand. The procedure is
as follows:
14-Oct-20 Figure (1.40): Two shunt generators connected in parallel 6

Generator G1 is connected to bus bars i.e., S1 is closed, S3 is
closed, CB-1 is closed. Generator G2 is initially not connected
to the bus bars i.e., S2 is open, S4 is open and CB-2 is open.
Generator G2 is brought to rated speed by prime mover and

now the switch S4 and circuit breaker CB-2 are closed. The
excitation generator G2 is adjusted such that the voltage in
voltmeter V2 is equal to the bus bar voltage.
Generator G2 can now be connected in parallel with generator

G1 by closing the switch S2. However, this generator G2 is said
to be floating generator, since the generated e.m.f. in this
generator is equal to bus bar voltage, hence cannot supply any
load.
To supply load from generator G2, the induced e.m.f. is

increased by giving the additional amount of excitation from
the field. So that, the field current increases and it can deliver
some current.
14-Oct-20
7
The load can be shifted from one generator to other generator
by adjusting the field excitation. The total load can be shifted
on to one generator by shutting down the other generator.
To shut-down a generator, the load current is made zero which

is indicated in the corresponding ammeter, then the related
switches S and CB are made open.
14-Oct-20
8
Load Sharing between two generators
The load sharing between shunt generators connected in
parallel can be easily regulated because of their drooping
characteristics. Let us discuss the load sharing of two
generators which have unequal no-load voltages as shown in
the figure (1.41).
Figure (1.41): Load sharing between two generators
14-Oct-20 9
14-Oct-20 10
Using the eqns. (8) & (9), the load shared by each generator
operating in parallel can be determined.
14-Oct-20 11
Solved Problem-16: Two shunt generators operating in parallel
deliver a total current of 250 A. One of the generators is rated
50 kW and the other 100 kW. The voltage rating of both
machine is 500 V and have regulations of 6% (smaller one) and
4%. Assuming linear characteristics, determine the (i) current
delivered by each machine, and (b) terminal voltage.
14-Oct-20
12
14-Oct-20
13
Solved Problem-17: Three DC generators are connected to the
common load. Generator 'A' has a constant e.m.f. of 400V and
internal resistance of 0.2 Ω. Generator 'B' has a constant e.m.f.
of 420V and internal resistance of 0.4 Ω. Generator 'C' has a
constant e.m.f. of 440V and internal resistance of 0.6 Ω.
Determine current and power output from each generator when
the load voltage is 380 V.
14-Oct-20
14
14-Oct-20
15
Solved Problem-18: Two DC generators each having linear
external characteristics operate in parallel and supply a total
load current of 180 A. The terminal potential difference of one
machine falls from 240 V on no-load to 210 V when its current
output is 120 A. The terminal potential difference of other
machine falls from 240 V to 206 V when its armature current is
90 A. Determine current supplied by each machine and terminal
voltage.
14-Oct-20
16
14-Oct-20 17
14-Oct-20 18
14-Oct-20
19
Losses in a DC Machine
By
Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
List the types of losses in a DC machine
Explain various losses in a DC machine
Illustrate the power flow diagram of a DC generator
Illustrate the power flow diagram of a DC motor
Derive the condition for maximum efficiency of a DC machine
14-Oct-20
2
Losses in a DC Machine
A DC generator converts mechanical power into electrical
power and a DC motor converts electrical power into
mechanical power.
Thus, for a DC generator, input power is in the form of

mechanical and the output power is in the form of electrical.
On the other hand, for a DC motor, input power is in the form
of electrical and output power is in the form of mechanical.
In a practical machine, whole of the input power cannot be

converted into output power as some power is lost in the
conversion process. This causes the efficiency of the machine
to be reduced.
Efficiency is the ratio of output power to the input power.
Thus, in order to design rotating DC machines with higher

efficiency, it is important to study the losses occurring in
them.
14-Oct-20
3
Various losses in a rotating DC machine (generator or motor)
can be characterized as follows:
All these losses appear as heat and thus raise the temperature
of the machine and also lower the efficiency of the machine.
14-Oct-20
4
(i) Copper Losses
The power lost in the form of heat in the windings of a DC
machine is known as copper loss.
These losses occur due to currents in the various windings of
the machine.
Copper loss is an I2R loss, which increases as current
increases.
The various copper losses in a DC machine are
(a) Armature copper losses= Ia2 Ra
(b) Shunt field copper losses= Ish2 Rsh
(c) Series field copper losses= Ise2 Rse
Copper losses are minimized in armature windings by using
large diameter wire.
14-Oct-20
5
(ii) Iron losses or core losses
These losses occur in the armature of a DC machine and are
due to the rotation of armature in the magnetic field of the
poles.
Iron losses consists of
(a) Hysteresis losses
(b) Eddy current losses
(a) Hysteresis losses (Wh)
Hysteresis loss is a heat loss caused by the magnetic
properties of the armature.
This loss is due to the reversal of magnetization of the
armature core. When the core passes under one pair of poles,
it undergoes one complete cycle of magnetic reversal.
14-Oct-20
6
Hysteresis losses are given by
Wh = ηBmax1.6 fV watts
Where η=Steinmetz hysteresis coefficient
V=volume of the core material in ‘m3’
Bmax= maximum flux density in ‘Wb/m2’ or ‘Tesla’
f= frequency of magnetic reversals in ‘Hz’
In order to reduce the hysteresis losses in a DC machine,
armature core is made up of heat-treated silicon steel
laminations.
(b) Eddy Current Losses (We)
When the armature core rotates in the magnetic field, an emf
is also induced in the core according to the Faraday's law of
electromagnetic induction. Though this induced emf is small,
it causes a large current to flow in the body due to the low
resistance of the core. These currents that are induced in the
armature core are called eddy currents.
The power dissipated in the form of heat, as a result of the
eddy currents, is called as eddy current loss.
14-Oct-20
7
Eddy current losses are given by
We=KBmax2 f2 V2t2 watts
Where Bmax=maximum flux density in ‘Wb/m2’ or ‘Tesla’
K=proportional constant
t= thickness of each lamination in ‘m’
V=volume of the core material in ‘m3’
f= frequency of magnetic reversals in ‘Hz’
In order to reduce these losses, the armature core is built up
of thin laminations insulated from each other by a thin layer
of varnish.
(iii) Mechanical losses
The losses associated with mechanical friction of the machine
are called mechanical losses.
These losses occur due to friction in the moving parts of the
machine like bearing, brushes etc. and windage losses occur
due to the air inside the rotating coil of the machine.
(a) Friction losses: E.g bearing friction and brush friction
(b) Windage losses: E.g air friction of rotating armature
14-Oct-20
8
Stray losses
Magnetic and mechanical losses are collectively known as
stray losses.
i.e., stray losses = magnetic losses + mechanical losses
Constant Losses (Wc)
For shunt and compound generators field copper losses are
constant and stray losses are also constant. Hence field copper
losses and stray losses combinely called as constant losses.
i.e., constant losses = Field copper losses + stray losses
Therefore for shunt and compound generators
Total losses = Wc + armature copper losses
14-Oct-20
9
Power flow diagram of a DC machine
Case-(i): For DC generator
14-Oct-20
10
Case-(ii): For DC motor
B Driving power in the armature Eb I a

ηe = = =
A Electrical input power VI
C Mechanical power output BHP × 735.5

ηm = = =
B Driving power in the armature Eb I a
C Mechanical power output BHP × 735.5

ηc = = = = η m ×η e
A Electrical power input VI
14-Oct-20
11
Condition for maximum efficiency
Condition for maximum efficiency for DC generator or DC
motor is same. For DC generator the condition for maximum
efficiency is derived as follows:
Generator output = VIL
Generator input = Generator output + total losses

=VIL+WC+Ia2Ra
For shunt generator Ia = IL + ISh = IL = I
Efficiency is the ratio of output power to the input power.
To get the maximum efficiency, the denominator should be

minimum.
14-Oct-20 12
Hence, the efficiency of a DC machine is maximum, when the
variable losses are equal to constant losses.
The load current corresponding to maximum efficiency is given

by
14-Oct-20 13
Solved Problem-19: A 230V DC shunt generator has a full load
current of 150A. Its armature and field resistances are 0.1Ω
and 230 Ω respectively. The stray losses are 1500W. Find the
(i) prime mover output in kW, when the generator is on full
load, (ii) full load efficiency, and (iii) load current at which
generator efficiency is maximum.

Terminal voltage, V = 230V
14-Oct-20
14
14-Oct-20
15
Solved Problem-20: A 20 kW, 440V short shunt compound DC
generator has armature, shunt, and series field winding
resistances are 0.4Ω , 240 Ω and 0.25 Ω respectively. The stray
losses are 725W. Calculate the full load efficiency of the generator.
Terminal voltage = 440 V
14-Oct-20
16
14-Oct-20
17
Solved Problem-21: A 100 kW, 460V, DC shunt generator has
armature resistance of 0.11Ω and shunt field resistance of 170
Ω. The iron, friction and windage losses equal to 3260W.
Calculate the efficiency of the generator at half full load.
14-Oct-20 18
14-Oct-20
19
Solved Problem-22: A 500 V DC shunt motor has armature
and shunt field resistance are 0.5Ω and 250 Ω respectively. Its
magnetic and mechanical losses amount to be 900W. Find the
efficiency of the motor when taking 20 A from the supply.
14-Oct-20 20
14-Oct-20
21
14-Oct-20
22
Auto-Transformer

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Define auto-transformer
List the types of auto-transformers
Outline the transformation ratio of an auto-transformer
Outline the copper saving in an auto-transformer
Outline the kVA rating of an auto-transformer
Explain the conversion of two-winding transformer into an
auto-transformer
List the advantages and disadvantages of auto-transformers
List the applications of auto-transformers

25-Jan-21
2
Introduction
A transformer, in which a part of the winding is common to

25-Jan-21
both primary and secondary circuits is called an auto-

transformer.
So, in an auto-transformer both the primary and secondary

are electrically connected unlike the two winding
transformers.
But its theory and operation are similar to the two-winding

transformer.
Because of one winding, it uses less copper and hence is

cheaper.
25-Jan-21
3
Types of Auto-transformers
An auto-transformer may step-down or step-up the voltage.

Auto-transformers are divided into (i) step-down auto-
transformer, and (ii) step-up auto-transformer
(i) Step-down auto-transformer: In this case, the complete

winding acts as primary while the tapped section of this
winding works as secondary as shown in figure 1(a).
The current in section CB is vector difference of I2 and I1.
(ii) Step-up auto-transformer: In this case, the whole winding

works as a secondary and its tapped portion performs the
function of primary as shown in figure 1(b).
The current in section CB is vector difference of I1 and I2.

25-Jan-21
4
Fig. (1): Auto-transformer
25-Jan-21
Transformation ratio of an auto-transformer
Neglecting the losses, leakage reactance and magnetizing
current, the transformation ratio of an auto transformer can be
obtained as
V2 I N
K= = 1 = 2
V1 I 2 N1
Fig. (2): Step-down auto-transformer

25-Jan-21
Figure 2(a) shows an ideal step-down auto-transformer on
load. Here winding A-B having N1 turns is the primary while
winding B-C having N2 turns is the secondary.
The input current is I1 while the output or load current is I2.
Note that portion A-C of the winding has (N1-N2) turns and
voltage across this portion of the winding is (V1-V2). The
current through the common portion of the winding is (I2-I1).
Figure 2(b) shows the equivalent circuit of the auto-
transformer. From this equivalent circuit, we have,
V2 N2
=
V1 − V2 N 1 − N 2
V2 ( N 1 − N 2 ) = N 2 (V1 − V2 )
⇒ V2 N 1 = N 2V1
V2 N 2
⇒ = =K − − − (1)
V1 N1
25-Jan-21
Also
I1 (V1 − V2 ) = ( I 2 − I1 )V2
⇒ −V2 I1 + V1 I1 = V2 I 2 − V2 I1
⇒ V1 I1 = V2 I 2
V I
⇒ 2 = 1 − − − (2)
V1 I 2
From equations (1) & (2), we get
V2 I N
= 1 = 2 =K
V1 I 2 N1
Also, V2 I2 = V1 I1
i.e., Input apparent power = Output apparent power
25-Jan-21
Power transfer in an auto-transformer
The primary and secondary windings of an auto-transformer are
connected magnetically as well as electrically, so the power from
the primary is transferred to the secondary inductively
(transformer action) as well as conductively (i.e., directly as
windings are electrically connected).
Output apparent power= V2I2
Apparent power transferred inductively = V2(I2-I1) = V2(I2-K I2)
= V2I2(1-K) = V1I1(1-K)
Therefore, Power transferred inductively = input×(1-K)
Power transferred conductively=input- input×(1-K) = K × input
Example: Suppose the input power to an ideal autotransformer
is 1000 W and its voltage transformation ratio K= 1/4. Then,
25-Jan-21
Copper saving in an auto-transformer
For the same output and voltage transformation ratio
K(=N2/N1), an auto-transformer requires less copper than an
ordinary two winding transformer.
Figure 3(a) shows an ordinary two winding transformer
whereas figure 3(b) shows an auto-transformer having the
same output and voltage transformation ratio (K).
The length of copper required in a winding is proportional to
the number of turns and the area of cross-section of the
winding wire is proportional to the current rating. Therefore,
the volume and hence weight of copper required in a winding is
proportional to current× turns i.e.,
Two winding transformer:
25-Jan-21
Auto-transformer:
Fig. (3): 2-winding and auto-transformers

25-Jan-21
Weight of Cu in Auto-transformer= (1-K) ×Weight of Cu in 2-
winding transformer.
Thus, if K=0.1, the saving of copper is only 10% but if K=0.9,

saving of copper is 90%. Therefore, the value of K of auto-
transformer is nearer to 1, the saving of the copper is more.
25-Jan-21
kVA rating of an auto-transformer
Let us compare the kVA rating of the two winding transformer

when connected as an auto-transformer.
For an auto-transformer, the transformation ratio, neglecting
the losses is
V2 I1 N2
= = =K
V1 I 2 N1
The kVA rating of an auto-transformer, (kVA)auto=V1 I1=V2 I2

If the same transformer as shown in fig.3(b) is used as a two-
winding transformer such that winding AC acts as the primary
and winding BC as the secondary, then its kVA rating can be
obtained as
(kVA)2-wdg=(V1- V2) I1=V2 (I2- I1)
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Advantages and disadvantages of auto-
transformers
Advantages:
• It requires less conducting material (i.e. copper) than the
two-winding transformer.
• Its efficiency is higher compared to the two-winding
transformer as losses are less.
• The size and hence cost are less compared to the two-
winding transformer.
• It has better voltage regulation than the two-winding
transformer of the same rating.
• A smooth and continuous variation of voltage is possible.
Disadvantages:
• The two windings are not electrically separated, so in case of
failure of insulation between the two, either a severe shock
may be felt on the low voltage side.
• The use of auto-transformer is more economical only when
transformation ratio K is nearer to unity.
25-Jan-21
Applications of auto-transformers
Generally used for starting of Induction motors.

These are used to compensate for voltage drops in
transmission and distribution lines. When used for this
purpose, they known as booster transformers.
These are used for continuously variable supply.
These are used in control equipment for 1-phase and 3-phase
electrical locomotives.
These are used as interconnecting transformers in
132 kV/330 kV system.
25-Jan-21
Comparison b/n 2-winding & auto-transformers
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-1: An auto-transformer supplies a load of 3 kW at
115V at a unity power factor. If the applied primary voltage is 230V,
calculate (i)transformation ratio, (ii) secondary current, (iii) primary
current, (iv)no. of turns in the secondary if total number of turns is
500, (v)power transformed, and (vi) power conducted directly from the
supply mains to the load
V1=230V, V2=115V
output=3kW
(i)Transformation ratio, K= V2/V1=115/230=0.5
25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-2: A 2200/220V, 20kVA, two winding transformer is
connected as an auto-transformer to transform 2200V to 2420V. Find
the (a)transformation ratio of an auto-transformer, (b)kVA rating of an
auto-transformer, (c)currents in various parts of winding, and (d)
efficiency at full load, 0.8 p.f. if the core losses are 150W and full-load
copper losses are 275W. Compare it with the two-winding transformer.
Voltage rating of two winding transformer=2200/220V
kVA rating=20
As K>1, it is used as step-up transformer

(b) The part AB acts as secondary, while part BC acts as primary. The
current through part AC=I2=90.9A, as it is fully loaded. The voltage
across AC=V2-V1=2420-2200=220V, secondary winding of a 2-winding
transformer.
25-Jan-21
It can be seen that auto-transformer gives more efficiency on full load
as compared to 2-winding transformer, with same excitation voltage
and winding currents.
25-Jan-21
connected as an auto-transformer to supply a 400V circuit from 500V
source. When tested as a 2-winding transformer at rated load of 0.8 p.f.
lagging, its efficiency is 96%. Determine its kVA rating and efficiency as
an auto-transformer
kVA rating=10
25-Jan-21
connected as an auto-transformer, with constant source voltage of
2300V. At full load of unity power factor, calculate (a) the power output,
(b) power transferred and conducted, and (c) if the efficiency of the two-
winding transformer, at 0.8 p.f. is 95%, find the auto- transformer
efficiency at the same p.f.
kVA rating=20
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25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-5: A 11000/2200V, 100kVA, 1-phase two winding
transformer is connected as an auto-transformer by connecting the two
windings in series. Give the possible values of voltage ratios and kVA
outputs.
kVA rating=100
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25-Jan-21
27
Three-Phase Transformers

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Explain the constructional details of a 3-phase transformer
Explain the operating principle of a 3-phase transformer
Classify 3-phase transformers based on primary and
secondary winding connections
List the applications of 3-phase transformers
25-Jan-21 2
Introduction
The generation of electrical power at various generating

stations is usually 3-phase and the voltages are in the range of
25-Jan-21
13.2kV or 22kV.
To step-up the generated voltages for transmission purposes,
and to step-down the transmission voltages for distribution
purposes, it is necessary to transform the 3-phase voltage
system to a higher or lower value.
In order to reduce the power loss to the distribution end, the
power is transmitted at somewhat higher voltages like 132kV
or 400kV. Hence, for transmission of the power at higher
voltages, 3-phase step-up transformer is used.
Also, at the end of the transmission or distribution, these high
voltages are step-down to low voltages such as 6600V, 400V,
230V etc. For this purpose, a 3-phase step-down transformer
is used.
25-Jan-21 3
3-phase circuits are the most economical for AC power
25-Jan-21
transmission and distribution. As a consequence, 3-phase

transformers are the most widely used in power systems.
A 3-phase transformer may be a single unit (all windings
wound around the same core, immersed in one tank) or it may
be made up of three single-phase units.
In practice the choice between one or another type is governed
mainly by economical reasons, transportation, future
expansion and reliability etc. In either case, the windings may
be connected in Y-Y, ∆-∆, Y-∆ or ∆-Y.
25-Jan-21 4
Applications
Three-phase transformers are used in power supply such as

25-Jan-21
Power station generator, Machine transformer, Network

transformer, Distribution transformer, Substation
transformer etc.
Power stations and substations use 3-phase transformers to
step-up or step-down the voltages.
Laboratories use 3-phase variacs i.e. 3-phase auto
transformers to supply power to induction and synchronous
motors.
Three phase transformers are used in buck-boost converters.
Three phase transformers provide electrostatic shielding for
transient noise protection.
25-Jan-21 5
Construction of 3-phase Transformers
A 3-phase transformer can be constructed by using common

25-Jan-21
magnetic core for both primary and secondary windings.

As we discussed in the case of single-phase transformers,
construction of 3-phase transformer can be core type as well
as shell type.
(i) Core Type Construction
25-Jan-21 6
In core type 3-phase transformer, core is made up of three
limbs or legs and two yokes and the magnetic path is formed
25-Jan-21
between these yokes and limbs.

As usual, the core is made up of thin laminated sheets to
reduce eddy current losses.
Each limb has primary and secondary windings in cylindrical
shape arranged concentrically.
In this type of construction, the cross-sectional area of the
limbs is same as the cross-sectional area of the yokes.
(ii) Shell Type Construction
In shell type construction, the three phases are more
independent because each phase has independent magnetic
circuit compared with core type transformer.
The construction is similar to that of three single phase shell
type transformers kept on the top of each other.
The magnetic circuits of this type of transformer are in
parallel.
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25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21 8
THREE PHASE TRANSFORMATION
The transfer of 3-phase voltage from one level to another level is
known as 3-phase transformation. The 3-phase voltage
transformation can be obtained by the following two methods
• Using bank of three single phase transformers.
• Using single 3-phase transformer.
(i) Bank of three single phase transformers
• Three single-phase transformers, are connected in the form of a
transformer bank.
• The primary windings of three identical single-phase transformers
can usually be connected either in star or in delta to form a three-
phase system.
• Similarly, the secondary windings can also be connected in star
or delta.
• We have, therefore, four methods of interconnection of
primary/secondary, viz., star/star, star/delta, delta/star and
delta/delta.
• The primary and secondary windings shown parallel to each other
belong to the same single-phase transformer.
Figure (1): Bank of three single phase transformers in star-delta
Advantages:
• A bank of three single-phase transformers is used in
underground work, such as in mines, for easy transport of
these units.
• When one unit becomes defective, the faulty unit is simply
disconnected and continuity of supply can be maintained
by operating the bank in open delta at 57.7% of the
original power capacity till the faulty single phase unit is
replaced.
Disadvantages:
• A bank of three single phase transformers costs around
20% more than single 3-phase transformer unit for the
same rating.
• It occupies more space when compared to single 3- phase
transformer unit.
25-Jan-21 12
(ii) A single unit of three-phase transformer
• Instead of a bank of three separate single-phase

transformers, each having its own separate iron core; a
single transformer can be designed to serve the same
function. Such a single unit, called a three-phase
transformer, has three primary windings and three
secondary windings.
• The primary and secondary windings can be connected in

star or in delta.
• Such a transformer differs from the single-phase

transformers in the design of the iron-core.
25-Jan-21 13
(a) Schematic Diagram
25-Jan-21 14
Figure (2): Bank of three single phase transformers in star-delta
Advantages:
• It occupies less space for same rating, compared to a bank of three
single-phase transformers.
• It weighs and cost is also less.
• Since only one unit is required to be handled, it is easy for the
operator.
• It can be transported very easily.
• The core is of smaller size and hence less material is required.
Because of these advantages, 3-phase transformers are in common
use, especially for large power transformations.
Disadvantages:
• In a three-phase transformer unit, when one phase becomes
defective, the entire three-phase unit must be removed from
service.
• It is difficult to transport single unit of large 3-phase transformer to
the site.
25-Jan-21 16
Thank You
25-Jan-21 17
Three-Phase Transformer Connections

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
• At the end of this lecture, the student will be able to
List different 3-phase transformer connections
Explain 3-phase star-star transformer connection
Explain 3-phase star-delta transformer connection
Explain 3-phase delta-delta transformer connection
Explain 3-phase delta-star transformer connection
2
THREE-PHASE TRANSFORMER CONNECTIONS
• A three-phase transformer can be built by suitably
connecting a bank of three single-phase transformers or by
one three-phase transformer.
• The primary or secondary windings may be connected in
either star (Y) or delta (∆) arrangement. The four most
common connections are (i) Y-Y (ii) ∆-∆ (iii) Y-∆ and (iv) ∆-Y.
(i) Star-star (Y-Y) Connection:

• This connection is used for small current, high voltage
transformers.
• Because of star connection, number of required turns/phase
is reduced (as phase voltage in star connection is 1/√3 times
of line voltage only). Thus, the amount of insulation required
is also reduced.
27-Jan-21 3
27-Jan-21 4
• The phase current is equal to line current and they are in-
phase.
• The line voltage is √3 times the phase voltage and there is a
phase separation of 300 between the line and phase voltages
on both primary and secondary side.
• This connection can be used only if the connected load is
balanced.
27-Jan-21 5
Figure (3): Star-star connection
27-Jan-21 6
Advantages:
• Both primary and secondary circuits are in phase
• Due to star connection, phase voltage is 1/√3 times of line
voltage, hence needs lesser winding turns.
• Level of insulation can be reduced.
• It can be used as an auto-transformer
• As the neutral is available, it is suitable for 3-phase 4-wire
system
Disadvantages:
• If the neutral is not provided, the phase voltages tend to become
severely unbalanced, when the load is unbalanced. Therefore,
star-star connection is not satisfactory for unbalanced loads in
absence of neutral connection.
• Problems may arise due to presence of harmonics that tend to
heat up the core more, resulting in a lower efficiency.
27-Jan-21 7
(ii) Delta-delta (∆-∆) Connection:
• This connection is used for large current, low voltage
transformers. Number of required phase/turns is relatively
greater than that for star-star connection.
• The phase voltage is equal to line voltage and they are in
phase. The line current is √3 times phase current and there is
a phase separation of 300 between the line and phase currents
on both primary and secondary side.
27-Jan-21 8
27-Jan-21 9
Figure (4): Delta-delta (∆ -∆) Connection
27-Jan-21 10
Advantages:
• This connection is satisfactory for both balanced and
unbalanced loading.
• If a third harmonic is present, it circulates in a closed
path and therefore does not appear in the output voltage
wave.
• If one transformer gets damaged or is removed from
service, the remaining two can be operated in open-delta
or V-V connection.
Disadvantages:
• As the neutral is not available, it is not suitable for 3-
phase 4-wire system.
• More insulation is required due to more number of turns
per phase when compared to star-star connection
27-Jan-21 11
(iii) Star-delta (Y-∆) Connection:
• This connection is commonly used for stepping down the
voltage from high level to low level at the substation end of
transmission line.
• In primary, phase current is equal to line current and they

are in phase. The line voltage is √3 times phase voltage
and there is a phase separation of 300 between the line
and phase voltages.
• In secondary, phase voltage is equal to line voltage and

they are in phase. The line current is √3 times phase
current and there is a phase separation of 300 between the
line and phase currents.
27-Jan-21 12
27-Jan-21 13
Figure (5): Star-delta (Y-∆) Connection
27-Jan-21 14
Advantages:
• The primary is star connected. Hence less number of turns is
required. This makes the connection economical for large high
voltage step-down power transformers.
• The neutral is available on the primary can be earthed to avoid
distortion.
• Large unbalanced loads can be handled satisfactorily.
Disadvantages:
• In this connection, the secondary voltage is not in phase with
primary. i.e. 300 phase shift between the primary and the secondary
voltages. Hence this connection cannot be paralled with star-star or
delta-delta connected transformers.
27-Jan-21 15
(iv) Delta-Star (∆-Y) Connection:
• This connection is used for stepping up the voltage from
low level to high level at the beginning of transmission
line.
• In primary, phase voltage is equal to line voltage and they

are in phase. The line current is √3 times phase current
and there is a phase separation of 300 between the line
and phase currents.
• In secondary, phase current is equal to line current and

they are in phase. The line voltage is √3 times phase
voltage and there is a phase separation of 300 between the
line and phase voltages.
27-Jan-21 16
27-Jan-21 17
Figure (6): Delta-Star (∆-Y) Connection
27-Jan-21 18
Advantages:
• In primary side due to delta connection, winding cross-section
required is less.
• In secondary side neutral is available, due to which it can be used for
3-phase, 4-wire supply system.
• There is no distortion due to third harmonic components.
Disadvantages:
• In this connection, the secondary voltage is not in phase with
primary. i.e. 300 phase shift between the primary and the secondary
voltages. Hence this connection cannot be paralled with star-star or
delta-delta connected transformers.
27-Jan-21 19
In summary the voltage and current relationships for different types of
transformer connections is given in the following table:
27-Jan-21 20
Solved Problem-1: A 3-phase step-down transformer is
connected to 6600V mains and it takes 20A. Calculate the
secondary line voltage, line current and output for the following
connections.
(i) Y-Y (ii) ∆-∆ (iii) Y-∆ (iv) ∆-Y. Turns ratio per phase is 10
27-Jan-21 21
27-Jan-21 22
27-Jan-21 23
27-Jan-21 24
Solved Problem-2: A 11000/440V, 50Hz, 3-phase transformer is delta
connected on the HV side and star connected on the LV side. There are
to be 12V per turn and the flux density is not exceeded 1.2 Tesla.
Calculate the number of turns per phase on each winding and the net
cross-sectional area of the core.
27-Jan-21 25
Solved Problem-2: A 11000/440V, 50Hz, 3-phase transformer is delta
connected on the HV side and star connected on the LV side. There are
to be 12V per turn and the flux density is not exceeded 1.2 Tesla.
Calculate the nber of turns per phase on each winding and the net
cross-sectional area of the core.
27-Jan-21 26
27-Jan-21 27
Solved Problem-4: It is proposed to transmit the power generated by a
200 MVA, 11 kV, 50 Hz, 3-phase generator to a three-phase 220 kV
transmission line using a bank of three single-phase transformers. Find
the turns ratio and the voltage and current ratings for each single-phase
transformer when the connections are (i)star/star (ii)star/delta
(iii)delta/star, and (iv)delta/delta
27-Jan-21 28
Thank You
27-Jan-21 29
Open delta or V-V Transformer Connection

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Define open delta connected transformers
Explain open delta or V-V connection
List the advantages of open delta connection
List the disadvantages of open delta connection
List the applications of open delta connection
25-Jan-21
2
Open Delta or V-V Connection
When one transformer of a ∆-∆ system is damaged or accidently
opened, the system will continue to supply 3-phase power at
25-Jan-21
reduced capacity.
This defective transformer is disconnected or removed for repair
and the remaining two transformers continue to function as an
open delta or V-V system to provide supply with reduced
capacity, i.e., about 57.7% as that of original ∆-∆ bank.
In ∆-∆ connection as shown in figure 1(a), if the secondary phase
current is Iph, then the full load secondary line current IL=√3 Iph
and if Vph is the phase voltage, then the line voltage VL=Vph.
Therefore, kVA rating of the bank of three single phase
transformers is
( kVA )∆−∆ = 3VL I L = 3V ph ( 3I ph ) = 3V ph I ph
Now, if one transformer (winding) is removed from the bank, then ∆-

∆ bank becomes V-V bank [shown in figure 1(b)], the secondary line
current IL becomes equal to secondary phase current Iph
25-Jan-21
3
∴ ( kVA )V −V = 3VL I L = 3V ph I ph
25-Jan-21
Figure (1): Open delta connection
( kVA )V −V 3V ph I ph 1
= = = 0.577 or 57.7%
( kVA )∆−∆ 3V ph I ph 3
Thus, the total load carried by V-V bank is only is 57.7% of the
capacity of original ∆-∆ bank, but not two-third (66.67%) of the
∆-∆ bank.
Also, in open delta system,

kVA per transformer V ph I ph 1
= = = 0.577 or 57.7%
Total load in V − V 3V ph I ph 3
Thus, the kVA supplied by each transformer in a V-V system is not

half (50%) of the total kVA, but it is 57.7%
Transformer Utility Factor (TUF): The ratio of actual kVA
available to the total kVA possible in open delta connection is
known as the transformer utility factor (TUF).
25-Jan-21
Actual kVA available 3V ph I ph 3
TUF = = = = 0.866
Total kVA possible 2V ph I ph 2
(i) Power supplied by V-V bank

When V-V circuit is delivering 3-phase power, the power factor of
the two transformers is not the same (except at unity p.f.).
Therefore, the voltage regulation of the two transformers will not
be the same.
If the load power factor angle is ф, then one transformer operates
at cos(300-ф) and the other at cos(300+ф). Thus, the powers
supplied by two transformers are
P1 = VL I L × cos(30° − φ ) = kVA × cos(30° − φ )
P2 = VL I L × cos(30° + φ ) = kVA × cos(30° + φ )
25-Jan-21
Total power supplied by the two transformers
P = P1 + P2 = VL I L × cos(30° − φ ) + VL I L × cos(30° + φ )
= 2VL I L × cos 30° cos φ
= 3VL I L cos φ
At unity power factor load i.e., p.f. = 1, ф= 0
Power supplied by each transformer is
3
P1 = P2 = 3VL I L cos 30° =
VL I L
2
(i) When ф = 0 i.e. load p.f. = 1
Each transformer will have a p.f. = cos 300 = 0.866
(ii) When ф = 300 i.e. load p.f. = 0.866.

In this case, one transformer has a p.f. of cos (300-300) =1 and
the other of cos(300 + 300)= 0.5
25-Jan-21
(iii)When ф= 600 i.e. load p.f. = 0.5
In this case, one transformer will have a p.f. = cos(300-600) =
cos(-300) = 0.866 and the other of cos(300+600) = 0. It means
that one of the transformers will not supply any load whereas
the other having a p.f.= 0.866 will supply the entire load.
(ii) Advantages, disadvantages and applications

Advantages:
• It is used when one of the transformers in a ∆-∆ bank fails,
so that continuity of supply may be maintained with reduced
capacity.
• It is employed when the 3-phase load is small, so that
installation does not warrant a 3-phase transformer bank.
Disadvantages:
• Voltage become unbalanced at the secondary terminal
• Power handling capacity of the transformer will be reduced.
Reduction is approximately 15.5%
25-Jan-21
• The two transformers in V-V bank operated at different power
factors except for a balanced unity power factor load.
Applications:
• As a temporary measure when one of the transformers in a ∆-
∆ system is damaged, so that service is continued although at
reduced capacity, till the faulty transformer is repaired or a
new one is substituted.
• It is extensively used in distribution systems, for instance
during the initial stages (it is used as V-V bank) of rural
electrification when the load is small but it is expected to
grow later on (it is used as ∆-∆ bank).
25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-5: Three single-phase transformers connected in
delta-delta, supply a balanced 3-phase load of 1500kW at 4400V at 0.8
p.f lagging. The transformers are supplied from 3-phase mains at
11000V. Find the currents in the windings of each transformer. If one
transformer is found faulty and the other two are connected in V-V
fashion, determine the currents in the windings of each transformer
and its p.f.
∆-∆ connection:
Load, PL=1500kW
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-6: Three single-phase transformers connected in
delta-delta, supply a balanced 3-phase load of 1500kW at 4400V at 0.8
p.f lagging. The transformers are supplied from 3-phase mains at
11000V. Find the currents in the windings of each transformer. If one
transformer is found faulty and the other two are connected in V-V
fashion, determine the currents in the windings of each transformer
and its p.f.
∆-∆ connection:
Load, PL=1500kW
25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-7: Two 40kVA single phase transformers are
connected in open- delta to supply a 230V balanced 3-phase load. (i)
What is the total load that can be supplied without overloading either
transformer? (ii) When the open delta is closed by the addition of a
third 40kVA transformer, what total load can be supplied? (iii)
Percentages increase in load.
V=230V, Rating=40kVA
(ii) When the open delta is closed by the addition of a third 40kVA
transformer, the ∆-∆ bank will operate at full capacity of the individual
transformers. Therefore, the load kVA supplied by the ∆-∆ bank is
25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-8: A ∆-∆ consisting of three 40kVA, 2300/230V, 50Hz
transformers supplies a load of 80kVA. If one transformer is removed,
find for the resultant V-V connection (i) kVA load carried by each
transformer, (ii) percentage of rated load carried by each transformer,
(iii) total kVA rating of V-V connected bank of transformers, (iv)ratio of
V-V bank to ∆-∆ bank of transformer ratings, and (v)percentage
increase in load on each transformer when bank is converted into V-V
bank.
Load=80kVA, f=50Hz, Rating=40kVA
25-Jan-21
Solved Problem-9: Two transformers connected in open delta, supply a
400 kVA balanced load operating at 0.866 p.f. lagging. The load voltage
is 440 V. Determine the kVA and kW supplied by each transformer
Load kVA=400, p.f=0.866, V=440V
We know that the ratio of operating capacity to available capacity in
an open delta is 0.866. Hence, kVA of each transformer is one-half
of the total kVA load divided by 0.866.
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
25-Jan-21
17
Vector Group in 3-Phase Transformers

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Illustrate labeling of transformer terminals
Define vector groups
Explain the significance of vector groups
Explain vector groups in 3-phase transformers
25-Jan-21
2
Labeling of Transformer Terminals
In a single-phase transformer, we have only two coils namely
primary and secondary. Primary is energized with single phase
25-Jan-21
supply and load is connected across the secondary.

However, in a 3-phase transformer there will be three numbers of
primary coils and three numbers of secondary coils. So, these three
primary and secondary coils are to be properly connected so that
the voltage level of a balanced 3-phase supply may be changed to
another 3-phase balanced system of different voltage level.
The labelling of transformer banks is necessary to facilitate proper
connection of the 3-phase banks either in Y or ∆. The terminals on
the primary/HV side of each phase are labelled as A, B, C (capital
letters) while those on the secondary/LV side are labelled as a, b, c
(small letters).
Let us consider three identical transformers T1, T2 and T3. For
transformer-T1, primary terminals are marked as A1A2 and the
secondary terminals are marked as a1a2. The markings are done in
such a way that A1 and a1 represent the dot (•) terminals.
25-Jan-21
3
Similarly, terminals for T2 and T3 transformers are marked and shown
in figure.
25-Jan-21
It may be noted that individually each transformer will work following

the rules of single-phase transformer i.e., induced voltage in a1a2 will
be in phase with applied voltage across A1A2 and the ratio of
magnitude of voltages and currents will be as usual decided by K
where K=N2/N1. This will be true for other transformers T2 and T3 as
well.
25-Jan-21
4
Vector Groups
A vector group is the International Electrotechnical Commission
(IEC) method of categorizing the high voltage (HV) windings and low
voltage (LV) winding configurations of 3-phase transformers. The
vector group designation indicates the windings configurations and
the difference in phase angle between them.
There are many combinations in which the HV and LV windings of
transformers employed in 3-phase system may be connected.
Therefore, a uniform method of grouping is necessary.
Three-phase transformers are divided into four groups according to
the phase difference between the corresponding line voltages on the
HV and LV sides. The phase difference is the angle by which the LV
line voltage lags the HV line voltage and is measured in units of 300
in clockwise direction.
These groups are
Group No.1: No phase displacement
Group No.2: 1800 phase displacement
Group No.3: -300 phase displacement
Group No.4: +300 phase displacement
25-Jan-21
The phasor differences can also be measured by using the clock
methods as shown in figure.
25-Jan-21
Consider the minute hand of the clock shown the high voltage
and always shown to occupy the position 12 and the low voltage
winding is represented by the hour hand.
The angle of 30° is the angle between two adjacent figures on

the clock dial and is taken as the unit of dial shift.
When the hour hand of the clock is at 12, then the phase
displacement is zero. When the hour hand is at 1 then the
phase shift -30° degree. At 6 the phase shift is 6 ×30º = 180º.
Similarly, when the hour hand is at 11 the phase shift
is 11×30º=330º= +30º.
The number 0, 6, 1, and 11 in the group reference number

indicates the primary to secondary phase shift regarding the
hours of the clock.
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Transformer winding connections for various vector groups
While drawing the transformer winding connections for various
vector group, the following conventions should be followed:
(i) HV and LV phasors always represents line to neutral voltage
(ii) Always take HV phasor as reference and fixed at 12 ‘O’ clock
position and rotate LV phasor n space.
(iii)Line to neutral voltage primary and secondary must be either
in same phase or in opposite phase
(iv)In the clock representation, minute hand represents HV
phasor and hour hand represents LV phasor.
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Case-(i): Vector Groups Yy0 and Yy6
(a)Yy0 vector group
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9
(b)Yy6 vector group
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10
Case-(ii): Vector Groups Dd0 and Dd6
(a) Dd0 vector group
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11
(b) Dd6 vector group
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12
Case-(iii): Vector Groups Yd11 and Yd5
(a) Yd11 vector group
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13
(b) Yd5 vector group
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14
Case-(iv): Vector Groups Yd1 and Yd7
(a) Yd1 vector group
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(b) Yd7 vector group
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Case-(v): Vector Groups Dy11 and Dy5
(a) Dy11 vector group
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(b) Dy5 vector group
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19
Scott connection or T- connection Transformer

Professor
1
Learning Outcomes
Explain the need of Scott connection
Design the Scott connected transformer
Analyze the Scott connected transformer
List the advantages of Scott connection
List the disadvantages of Scott connection
List the applications of Scott connection
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2
Purpose of Scott Connection
A Scott-connection or T-connection is a type of circuit used to

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produce two-phase electric power (2-ф, 900 phase rotation) from

a three-phase (3-ф, 1200 phase rotation) source, or vice versa,
which was proposed by C. F. Scott.
Since 2-phase generators are not available, the conversion from
two phases to three phases is not a practical application.
This connection evenly distributes a balanced load between the
phases of the source, which uses two transformers with different
ratings.
But identical transformers with suitable tapping may also be
used for the interchangeability and provision of spares.
One of the transformers having 50% taping is called as main or
center tapped transformer and other one having 86.67% tapping
is called as teaser or auxiliary transformer.
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3
Design of Scott Connection
By using Scott connection, we are converting 3-phase balanced
system into 2-phase balanced system.
Generally, in 2-phase system all the voltages or currents are 900
apart from each other and also their magnitudes are equal. So, for
converting 3-phase balanced system of voltages to 2-phase
balanced system of voltages, the requirements are as follows:
(i) Voltage phasors must be 900 to each other
(ii) Magnitude of the voltages should be same
The design circuit diagram for Scott connection is as shown in fig.
(1). In this connection, the two transformers are electrically
connected and magnetically isolated.
The main transformer, which has center tapped primary with N1
turns and the other teaser transformer with N turns in the
primary. The secondaries of both the transformers each with N2
turns. The mid-point, M of the main transformer primary is
connected to teaser transformer primary. In this circuit we are
providing 3-phase supply across the terminals A, B and C as
shown in the fig.1(a).
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Figure (1): Scott connection design circuit
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Also, in order to get 2-phase balanced system, the magnitude of
the voltages must be same.
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If the primary of the teaser transformer is having 0.867 times turns of
the primary of the main transformer (N1), and secondaries of the
teaser and main transformer have equal number of turns i.e. N2, then
secondary terminal voltage of the two transformers (Va & Vb) will be
equal in magnitude and in quadrature (since VAM and VBC are in
quadrature) as shown in figure 1(b). Therefore, when the primary
voltage on the 3-phase side is balanced, the voltage obtained on the 2-
phase side is also balanced.
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Analysis of Scott Connection
Figure (2): Scott connection analysis circuit

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By neglecting the magnetizing current, according to MMF balanced
method
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11
As secondary load currents Ia and Ib are equal in magnitude and
in phase quadrature, the line currents are equal in magnitude.
i.e. IA=IB=IC=1.15KIa and displaced from each other by 1200.
Thus, when the load on one side is balanced, the input currents
on the other side are also balanced.
Advantages:
• If desired, a three phase, two phase, or single-phase load may be

supplied simultaneously.
• The neutral points can be available for grounding or loading
purposes.
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12
Disadvantages:
• The full rating of the transformer is not utilized

• The teaser transformer operates at only 0.867 of its rated
voltage.
Applications:
• Used in an electric furnace installation where it is needed to

operate two single-phase furnaces together and draw a balanced
load from the three-phase supply.
• Used to supply electric tracks in electric traction so as to keep
the load on 3-phase system as nearly balanced as possible.
• Used for giving power to 2-phase control motors.
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13
Solved Problem-10: Two transformers are required for a Scott
connection operating from a 440V, 3-phase supply for supplying two
single-phase furnaces at 220V on the two-phase side. If the total
output is 200 kVA, calculate the secondary to primary turn ratio and
the winding currents of each transformer.
Primary voltage=440V
Secondary voltage=220V
Total kVA output=200kVA
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Solved Problem-11: Two single-phase furnaces working at 200V are
connected to 3300V, 3-phase mains through Scott-connected
transformers. Calculate the current in each line of the 3-phase mains
when the power taken by each furnace is 500kW at a power factor of
0.8 lagging. Neglect losses in the transformers.
Primary voltage=3300V
Secondary voltage=200V
Output of each furnace=500kW
p.f=0.8 lagging
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16
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17

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Construction & Working Principles of

DR. RABINDRA KUMAR SAHU

Department of EEE, VSSUT, Burla

At the end of this lecture, the student will be able to

Explain the constructional details of a transformer

Explain the operating principle of a transformer

Explain Core Type Transformers

Explain Shell Type Transformers

Compare Core and Shell Type Transformers

easily transferable from low voltage to high voltage and high

Alternating voltages can be raised or lowered as per the

A transformer is static electric device, which transfers

The transformer used to increase the voltage is called step-

In a transformer, electrical energy is transferred from one

25-Jan-21 Fig. (1): Arrangement of a simple transformer

The main parts of the transformer as shown in fig.3 are

A transformer cannot operate on DC supply.

Fig.(5): Shell type Transformer

Both the windings are wound on the center limb.

As the winding is surrounded by the core, the natural cooling

For removing any winding for maintenance, large numbers of

The coils used are generally multilayer disc type or sandwich

These types of transformers are generally preferred for high

02 Windings are wound around Windings are wound on the

DR. RABINDRA KUMAR SAHU

Department of EEE, VSSUT, Burla

At the end of this lecture, the student will be able to

Define ideal transformer

Explain the operation of an ideal transformer

Outline the E.M.F. Equation of a Transformer

Define Voltage Transformation Ratio

Define Current Transformation Ratio

(i) no winding resistance.

Figure (6): Ideal Transformer

25-Jan-21 Fig. (7): Sinusoidal flux

In an ideal transformer, the voltage drops in primary and

The ratio of secondary voltage to primary voltage is same as

i.e., primary and secondary currents are inversely proportional to

DR. RABINDRA KUMAR SAHU

Department of EEE, VSSUT, Burla

At the end of this lecture, the student will be able to

Explain practical transformer on no-load

Explain practical transformer on load

Explain transformer with winding resistance

Explain transformer with winding resistance and leakage

A practical transformer differs from the ideal transformer in

many aspects. The practical transformer has

Figure (1): Practical Transformer

So while considering practical transformer, we need to

Figure (2): Transformer on no-load

No load input power of the transformer is W0 = V1I0 cosφ0

From the pharos diagram I0 has two components

(ii) Magnetizing or Wattless component, Im. This component is

Here I2’ is known as load component of primary current. This

Figure (4): Phasor

Fig. (5): Transformer with winding resistance

Fig. (7): Transformer with winding resistance and reactance

Fig. (8): Phasor diagram of a transformer

DR. RABINDRA KUMAR SAHU