19EES113A Compressed

Course Code: 18ESC107A
Course Title: Elements of Electrical Engineering
Course Leaders:
Dr. Deepthi Antony (deepthi.ee.et@msruas.ac.in)
Ms. Nikita.T (nikita.ee.et@msruas.ac.in)
Mr.Veerabhadra (veerabhadra.ee.et@msruas.ac.in)
Mr. T.Naveen Kumar (naveenkumar.ee.et@msruas.ac.in)
Course Notes Prepared By:

S. Nagaraj Rao (nagarajarao.ee.et@msruas.ac.in)
S. Sachin (sachin.ee.et@msruas.ac.in)
1
Faculty of Engineering & Technology © Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Course Details
• Course: B. Tech. in Electrical Engineering

• Department: Electrical Engineering
• Head of the Department: Dr. K. Manickavasagam
(hod.ee.et@msruas.ac.in)
• Faculty: Engineering & Technology
• Dean: Dr. M. Arulanantham (dean.et@msruas.ac.in)
2
Why this Course
• Refer to B. Tech. Electrical Engineering Course Specifications
The objectives of the course are:
1. To impart knowledge on electrical and electronic systems and their subsystems
2. To enhance the understanding of the underlying engineering principles of electrical

and electronic systems
3. To model, simulate and analyze the behaviour of electrical and electronic systems to
predict and improve their performance
4. To design and build models of electrical and electronic systems to meet the specific
needs
5. To impart training on instrumentation and testing of electrical and electronic

systems
3
Why this Course Contd..
6. To train on industry standard simulation tools for simulation and analysis of electrical
and electronic systems
7. To build and test electrical and electronic systems
8. To impart training on professional ethics, history, economics, social sciences and

interactive skills relevant to professional practice
9. To provide a general perspective and opportunities for a career in industry, business

and commerce .
The Subject is being delivered to meet the highlighted objective of the course to
meet the course aim.
4
Course Aim and Summary
• This course deals with basic principles and concepts of electric and
magnetic circuits. Students are taught construction, principle of
operation, working, characteristics of DC machines, transformers
and AC rotating machines. They are introduced to fractional‐kW
motors, special purpose machines and facilitated to understand
measuring instruments, domestic wiring and earthing techniques.
5
Course Intended Learning Outcomes
After undergoing this course students will be able to:
1. State and explain various laws of electric circuits, magnetic circuits and
their significance, phasor diagrams for electrical elements
2. Explain construction, principle of operation, working and
characteristics of DC machines, transformers, AC rotating machines
and their applications
3. Explain the working of fractional‐kW motors, special purpose electric
machines used in various engineering applications
4. Derive equations for electrical circuits, magnetic circuits and
performance of various AC and DC machines
5. Solve simple problems on electric circuits, magnetic circuits, DC
machines, transformers and AC rotating machines
6. Solve complex problems on electric circuits, magnetic circuits, DC
machines, transformers and AC rotating machines 6
Course Content
DC Circuit Analysis:
DC fundamentals: Circuit elements, voltage and current division, ohm’s law and
Kirchhoff’s laws, mesh analysis, nodal analysis, source transformations, star delta
transformation, Thevnin’s and Norton’s theorem, maximum power transfer theorem,
superposition theorem.
AC Circuit Analysis:
AC fundamentals: Sinusoidal voltage and currents, mathematical and graphical
representation, concept of cycle period, frequency, instantaneous, peak, average, rms
values, peak factor and form factor. Phasor diagrams for R, L and C. Simple RL, RC and
RLC circuits, phasor diagrams.
7
Course Content Contd..
Magnetic Circuits:
Magnetic effect of electrical current, cross and dot convention, right hand thumb rule
and cork screw rule, Fleming’s right hand rule, Fleming’s left hand rule, Faraday’s law
of electromagnetic induction, statically and dynamically induced emf’s, self and mutual
inductance, coefficient of coupling, concepts of mmf, flux, flux density, reluctance,
permeability, field strength. Simple series and parallel magnetic circuits. Basic analogy
between electric and magnetic circuits.
DC Machines:
Constructional details, working principle, methods of excitation for DC generator and
DC motor, emf equation of generator, relation between induced emf and terminal
voltage, back emf, torque equation of a DC motor. Speed torque characteristics and
speed control of DC motor, necessity of a starter for DC motor and applications.
8
Course Content Contd..
Transformers and AC rotating machines:
Single phase transformers: Necessity of transformer, constructional details (core and
shell types), principle of operation, ideal transformer, practical transformer, emf
equation, losses, OC and SC test, equivalent circuit model and circuit parameters,
efficiency, regulation calculations.
Three phase induction machine: Constructional details, principle of operation, slip,
rotor frequency and torque.
Introduction to fractional-kW motors, working of special purpose machines and
applications.
Measuring Instruments and Domestic Wiring:

Classification of instruments, essential features of indicating instrument, deflecting,
controlling and damping mechanisms, moving coil instrument, moving iron instrument,
induction type instruments.
Wiring materials, accessories, concealed wiring, earthing, two-way and three-way
control.
9
Method of Assessment Contd..
There are two components for assessment in this Course:
Component - 1: 50% weight (CE)
It has two sub components.
Part A: Term Test: 25% Weight
Part B: Assignment: 25% Weight
Two term tests will be conducted one during 6th week and the other during 12th week.
The average marks of two term tests will be the marks scored in term test (a maximum of
25 marks).
Every student is required to submit two word processed assignments as per the notified
schedule. Each assignment is set for 25 marks, the average of the two assignments will be
the marks scored in assignment (a maximum of 25 marks).
10
Method of Assessment
Component - 2 : 50% weight
A 3 hour duration semester end examination will be conducted for maximum marks of
100 and will be reduced to 50% weight.
The assessment questions are set to test the learning outcomes. In each component
certain learning outcomes are assessed. The following table illustrates the focus of
learning outcome in each component assessed:
Both components will be moderated by a second examiner.
11
References
a. Essential Reading
1. Class Notes
2. Edward Hughes, (2002) Electrical and Electronics Technology, ELBS, 6th edition
3. Del Toro V., (2008) Electrical Engineering Fundamentals; PHI
b. Recommended Reading
1. Mittle, V.N., (2007) Basic Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Tata McGraw Hill
Edition, New Delhi, (1st edition)
2. Delton Horn T., (1993 ) Abraham Pallas, Basic Electricity and Electronics, McGraw-
Hill Limited, Europe
c. Websites
1. Basic Electrical Technology (2013)
http://freevideolectures.com/Course/2335/Basic-Electrical-Technology/23
2. IITM Lectures (2013) http://www.nptel.iitm.ac.in/courses/108105017/
12
Course Delivery Schedule Contd..
Number of Subject Credits: 4 (3 Theory + 1 Tutorial)
Lecture Date Time Day Topic Delivered Additional
No. By Activity
1 Circuit elements
Node Analysis and
2 Mesh Analysis
3 Superposition Theorem
4 Tutorials
Tutorials
5
6 Thevnin Theorem
7 Norton Theorem
8 Circuit Element Impedance
9 Tutorials
Tutorials
10
11 RL and RC Circuits,
12 Phasor Relationship for R, L and C,

Tutorials
13
13
No. By Activity
Tutorials
14
Tutorials
15
16 Magnetic Effect of Electric Circuit
17 Law of Electromagnetic Induction

Tutorials
18
Tutorials
19
20 Classification of Induced EMF
21 Mutually Induced E.M.F
Tutorials
22
Tutorials / Video session
23
24 Magnetic Materials
Group Discussion
25
14
Lecture Date Time Day Topic Delivered By Additional
No. Activity
Principle of Operation of a Transformer
26
Ideal Transformer
27
Circuit model of a Transformer
28
Tutorials
29
Tutorials
30
OC and SC Test
30
Tutorials
31
Tutorials
32
15
No. By Activity
3-Phase Induction Motor
33
Equivalent Circuit of 3 - phase Induction Staff –Student
34 Motor Consultative
Committee Meeting
Tutorials
35
Tutorials
36
Tutorials
37
Tutorials
38
Video Demonstration on
39 Induction Motor
DC Machines – Principle and Construction
40
DC Generator (Types & Characteristics)
41
Tutorials
42
Tutorials
43
DC Motor (Types & Characteristics)
44
16
Lecture Date Time Day Topic Delivered By Additional

No. Activity
Tutorials
45
Tutorials
46
Stepper Motor Assignment 2
47
Submission
Measuring Instruments
48
PMMC
49
MI Instruments
50
Domestic Wiring
51
Discussion Obtaining Student
52 Feedback
Finalization of
Attendance and Class
Marks
Semester End Examination
17
Lecture 1
At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:
• Classify Circuit Elements
• Identify basic active and passive elements
• Define current, voltage, Resistance, Capacitance and inductance
• State and Illustrate Ohm’s law
• State and solve Kirchoff’s law
18
Lecture 2
• Perform source transformation, Voltage source to current source

and vice versa
• Analyse mesh circuits using KVL
• Analyse nodal circuits using KCL
19
Lecture 3
• Explain linearity property
• State and analyze superposition theorem for any complicated

linear bilateral network
• Reduce complicated network to simple network using star delta

conversions
20
Lecture 4
• Solve problems on KCL
• Solve problems on KVL,
• Solve problems on Mesh and Nodal analysis
21
Lecture 5
• Solve problems on KCL, KVL, Mesh and Nodal analysis
• Compute equivalent resistance in electrical circuits
22
Lecture 6
• State and implement Thevenin's theorem on any complicate

23
Lecture 7

24
Lecture 8
• State and compute Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
• Describe Sinusoidal Forcing Function
• Solve Complex Forcing Function
• Define Impedance and admittance
25
Lecture 9
• Solve problems on Superposition Theorem
26
Lecture 10
• Solve problems on Thevenin’s Theorem
27
Lecture 11
• Explain and analyze transient characteristics of RL and RC

circuits
28
Lecture 12
• Analyze phasor Relationship for R, L, and C Elements
• Define phasor voltage-current relations
• Define angular Frequency (ω)
29
Lecture 13
• Solve problems on Norton’s Theorem
• Solve problems on Source transformation
30
Lecture 14
• Solve problems on Voltage divider rule
• Solve problems on KCL and KVL
• Solve problems on Star-delta conversion
31
Lecture 15
• Solve problems on Superposition theorem
• Solve problems on circuit analysis
32
Lecture 16
•Define magnetic flux, flux density and reluctance

•Explain Right hand thumb Rule and cork screw rule
•Analyze Series Magnetic Circuits
•Derive relation between the magnetic and electric circuits
33
Faculty
©M. S. of Engineering
Ramaiah & Technology
University of Applied Sciences © Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Lecture 17
At the end of this lecture, student will be able to :
•Describe Parallel Magnetic Circuits

•Explain Magnetic leakage and Fringing
•State Law of Electromagnetic Induction and apply to electrical
circuits
•State Lenz Law and apply to electrical circuits
34
Faculty
Lecture 18
•- Solve problems on Magnetic Circuits
35
Lecture 19
• Solve Problems on series magnetic circuits
• Solve problems on Parallel magnetic circuits
36
Lecture 20
•Classify and analyze the effect of induced E.M.F’s in electrical

circuit
•Derive Self-Inductance for a given circuit
37
Faculty
Lecture 21
• Explain Mutual Induced E.M.F
• Derive and explain mutual inductance
• Analyze the coupling coefficient for coupled magnetic circuits
• Explain dot convention and dot rules
38
Lecture 22
• Solve Self inductance

• Solve Mutual Inductance
• Solve B-H curve
39
Lecture 23
• Explain Diamagnetic and Paramagnetic Materials
• Analyze Magnetism and Diamagnetism
• Describe Ferro Magnetic Materials
• Analyze Eddy Current
• Solve B-H Curve
40
Lecture 24
•Describe the coupling effect for magnetic circuits

•Solve circuits involving coupled coils using Dot Rule
•Classify and explain properties of Magnetic Materials
•Analyze loss mechanism in the Magnetic Materials
41
Faculty
Lecture 25
• State the meaning of "Transformer action”
• Describe physical characteristics of a transformer, including the

basic parts, main core types and winding types
• Name the source and load windings of a transformer
• Explain the principle of operation of a transformer
• Classify the transformer based on turns ratio
42
Lecture 26
• Derive the EMF equation of Transformer and use it in calculations
• Identify the transformer ratings based on its name plate details

• Describe the properties of Ideal transformer
• Differentiate the Ideal and practical transformers
• Solve for primary voltage, secondary voltage, primary current and

number of turns in the secondary given various transformer values
43
Lecture 27
• State the meaning of a "no-load condition" and “on-load condition"
relative to a transformer
• Describe the operation of ideal transformer under on-load

condition
• Construct a transformer on-load phasor diagram for different loads
• Derive the equivalent resistance and reactance referred to the

primary and secondary side of a transformer
44
Lecture 28

• Solve the problems on the transformer principle of operation
• Solve the problems on the no-load phasor diagram
45
Lecture 29
• Solve the problems on the transformer E.M.F. equation
• Solve the problems on the on-load phasor diagram
• Solve the problem on the equivalent circuit of a transformer
46
Lecture 30
• Explain the need of Open Circuit (OC) and Short Circuit (SC) tests
• Conduct Open Circuit (OC) and Short Circuit (SC) tests
• Compute parameters of equivalent circuit and voltage regulation

from the tests results
47
Lecture 31
• Solve the problems on the transformer tests
48
Lecture 32
•Solve the problems on the voltage regulation
•Solve the problems on the transformer efficiency
49
Lecture 33
• Explain electromagnetic phenomena in the Electrical Machines
• Discuss the constructional details of Induction Motor
• Describe the principle of operation of 3-phase Induction Motor
• Derive the expressions for Slip, Slip Speed, Voltage and Frequency
Induced in the Rotor
50
Lecture 34
• Develop the equivalent circuit of 3 - phase Induction Motor
• Describe the torque-speed characteristics of 3 - phase Induction

Motor
• Derive the Torque equation of 3 - phase Induction Motor
• Describe the power flow of 3 - phase Induction Motor
51
Lecture 35
• Solve the problems on the 3 – phase Induction Motors
52
Lecture 36
• Solve the problems on 3 – phase Induction Motors
53
Lecture 37
• Observe the Video Demonstration on Induction Motor and
Transformers
54
Lecture 38

• Explain the basic principle of induced E.M.F. and
electromagnetic torque
• Discuss the need for commutator
• Identify different parts of a DC machine and understand their

function
55
Lecture 39

• Derive an expression for induced E.M.F.
• Classify DC Generators based upon methods of excitation
• Discuss Open Circuit and Load characteristics of DC Generators
• Explain the losses associated with DC machines
56
Lecture 40

• Solve problems on induced E.M.F.
57
Lecture 41

• Solve problems on DC generators
58
Lecture 42

• Classify DC Motors based upon methods of excitation
• Derive an expression for torque developed in a DC Motor
• Discuss Speed-Torque characteristics of DC Motors
• Explain methods of Speed Control
59
Lecture 43

• Solve problems on electromagnetic torque
60
Lecture 44

• Solve problems on speed control of DC motors
61
Lecture 45

• Differentiate Stepper Motor from conventional motors
• Classify Stepper Motors based on construction
• Explain the Stepper Motor Principle of Operation
62
Lecture 46
•Define and classify measuring Instruments along with examples

•Demonstrate different types of measuring instruments and their
usage
•Describe the torques required for the Indicating Instruments
63
Lecture 47
• Describe the damping systems required for the Indicating Instruments
• Discuss the construction and working of PMMC instrument
• State advantages and disadvantages of Moving coil instruments
• Discuss the applications of MC instruments
64
Lecture 48
• Classify types of moving iron instruments
• Explain the construction and principle of operation of the moving iron

attraction type and repulsion type instruments
65
Lecture 49
•Classify the types of Wiring

•Describe the advantages and disadvantages of different types of
wiring
•Identify the wiring tools and materials
•Explain principles of earthing
66
DC Circuit Analysis
1
Faculty of Engineering & Technology ©Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Lecture 1
Circuit Elements
Lecture delivered by:

Dr. Deepthi Antony
Ms. Nikita.T
Mr.Veerabhadra
Mr. T.Naveen Kumar
2
Topics
• Circuit elements
• Active elements
• Passive elements
• Voltage and current
• Resistance, capacitance and inductance
• Ohm’s law
• Kirchoff’s laws
3
Objectives
• Classify Circuit Elements

• Identify basic active and passive elements
• Define current, voltage, Resistance, Capacitance and inductance
• State and Illustrate Ohm’s law
• State and solve Kirchoff’s law
4
Introduction
• Circuit analysis is used to predict the behavior of the
electrical circuits and play an important role in the design
process.
5
Introduction
Why Study Electrical Engineering?
• To operate and maintain electrical systems

• To communicate with electrical engineering
consultants
• To distribute and convert energy between various
forms
• To design projects in your own field
6
What Do You Infer From This Figures?
cave Hut Building
7
What Do You Infer From This Figures?
Candle Bulb CFL
8
What do you infer from this figures?
Bike
Walking man Airplane
Car
9
Application Example: Headlight Circuit
10
Basic Circuit Elements
• Circuit elements mainly consists of active and passive
elements and categorized as shown
Circuit
Elements
Active Passive
Elements elements
Independent Dependent Resistors Inductors Capacitors
Voltage Current Voltage Current
11
Circuit Elements
• Active elements are capable of generating electrical
energy
• Passive elements are incapable of generating electrical
energy
• Electrical source is a device that is capable of converting
non-electrical energy into electrical energy
Example: Battery
Generator
12
Active Element
• Sources is categorized as
 Independent sources where generated voltage or
current does not depend on the other circuit
elements
 Dependent Sources where the generated voltage or
current depends on another circuit voltage or current
13
Active Element
• Independent voltage source provides a specified voltage
• Independent voltage source (or current source), the terminal
voltage (or current) would depend only on the loading and
the internal source quantity
• But not on any other circuit variable
• The circle is used as the circuit symbol for independent
sources are as shown
+ The circuit symbols for (a) an ideal

Vs is independent voltage source and
-
(b) an ideal independent current
source
(a) (b) 14
Active Element
• Dependent source is a voltage or current generator
whose source quantity depends on another circuit
variable (current or voltage)
• There are a total of four variations of dependent sources
– VCVS, VCCS, CCVS, CCCS
• Dependent sources are also called controlled sources
15
Active Element
• Diamond is used to represent a dependent source
The circuit symbols for (a) voltage-controlled voltage source, (b) current-controlled
voltage source, (c) voltage-controlled current source, and (d) current-controlled
current source.
16
What is Voltage?
V = “Electrical pressure” - measured in volts.
H2O
High Pressure Low Pressure
17
What Produces Voltage?
V = “Electrical pressure”
Lab Power Supply
A Battery
9V Solar Cell
1.5 V Electric Power Plant
A few
Volts
Nerve Cell A few millivolts

13,500 V when activated by
a synapse 18
• Other Symbols Used for Specific Voltage Sources
+
+
_
_
~
Battery Time-varying Solar Cell
source
. Generator These are all…

(power plant)
Voltage Sources
19
What is Current?
• Current is the flow of charge from a voltage source
• 1 Ampere (“Amp”) = Flow of 1 Coulomb/sec
+++
20
How Does Current Flow?
Current can only flow through conductors
Metal wires (conductors)
+++
Current
flow
21
When Does Current NOT Flow?
Current cannot flow through insulators
Plastic material (insulators)
+++
No current
flow
22
What is Current?
• Electricity flows when electrons travel through a conductor.
• We call this flow “current.”
• Only some materials have free electrons inside.
glass
silver
YES! Conductors: rubber
oil
copper
gold
NO! asphalt
fiberglass
aluminium porcelain
iron Insulators: ceramic
steel quartz
brass (dry) cotton
bronze No free electrons = No current (dry) paper
mercury (dry) wood
graphite plastic
dirty water air
concrete diamond
pure water
23
Current and Voltage
Current Voltage
Potential difference between

Definition Rate of flow of electric charge
two points in the circuit
Symbol I V
Units A or Amps V or Volts
Measuring Instrument Ammeter Voltmeter
Field created Magnetic Field Electrostatic Field

Current is same through all Voltage over components
In series connection components connected in series connected in series gets
distributed
Current gets distributed over Voltage is same over all the
In parallel connection components when connected in components when connected in
parallel parallel
24
Characteristics of Sources
Valid circuit Invalid circuit
25
Solve
•For the circuit shown,
a) What value of vg is required in order
for the interconnection to be valid?
b) For this value of vg, find the power

associated with the 8 A source
•For the circuit shown,

a) What value of α is required in order for
the interconnection to be valid?
b) For the value of α calculated in part

(a), find the power associated with the
25 V source
26
Passive Components
Component Symbol Basic Measure (Unit)
27
Resistance
• Resistor is an electrical component that reduces the
electric current.
• Resistor's ability to reduce the current is called resistance
• Unit of resistance is ohms (symbol: Ω)
28
Equivalent Resistance
• Resistors in parallel
• Total resistance or equivalent resistance is given by
29
Equivalent Resistance
• Resistors in series
• Total resistance or
equivalent resistance
is given by
• Value of resistance increases when connected in series
30
Resistor color code
• The resistance of the resistor and its tolerance are marked
on the resistor with color code bands that denotes the
resistance value.
• There are 3 types of color codes:
I. 4 bands: digit, digit , multiplier, tolerance.
II. 5 bands: digit, digit, digit , multiplier, tolerance.
III. 6 bands: digit, digit, digit , multiplier, tolerance,
temperature coefficient.
31
Resistor color code
• Resistance calculation of 4 band resistor is given by
• Resistance calculation of 5 band and 6 band resistor is

given by
32
Resistor Color Code Table
33
How to remember Color Codes ?
B B R O Y of Great Britain has Very Gorgeous Wife
Green Blue
Violet
Yellow
Orange Gray
Red White
Brown
Black
34
Inductance
• Inductor is a passive electronic component that stores
energy in the form of a magnetic field.
• In its simplest form, an inductor consists of a wire loop or
coil.
• Inductance is directly proportional to the number of turns
in the coil.
• Inductance also depends on the radius of the coil and on
the type of material around which the coil is wound.
35
Passive Element
• When a voltage is applied across a capacitor, a
positive charge is deposited on one plate and a
negative charge on the other and the capacitor is said
to store a charge
• The charge stored is directly proportional to the
applied voltage
q= C . V
36
Circuit Elements
37
Pictorial Representation of Ohms Law
38
Conductance
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance

Symbol: G
Units: Siemens (S) or mho (Ʊ)
Example:
Consider a 10 W resistor. What is its conductance?
39
Power Calculation for a Resistor
•To calculate power across the resistor
P  V * i  (iR) * i  i R
2
•Other method of expressing the power at the

terminals of a resistor is in terms of the voltage and
resistance.
2
V
P
R
40
Calculating Voltage, Current, and
Power for a Simple Resistive Circuit
• Calculate the values of

v and i.
• Determine the power

dissipated in each
resistor
41
Kirchoff
• In 1845, German
physicist Gustav Robert
Kirchoff first described
two laws that became
central to electrical
engineering. The laws
were generalized from
the work of Georg Ohm.
The laws can also be
derived from Maxwell’s
equations
42
Kirchoff's laws
•Kirchoff's First Law(Current Law)
In any network of wires carrying

currents, the algebraic sum of all he
currents at a Point is zero.
•Kirchoff's Second Law(Voltage Law)
In any closed circuit or mesh, the

algebraic sum of EMF’s plus voltage
drops the algebraic sum of product of
current and resistance in the circuit is
zero
43
Kirchhoff’s Current Law
• The sum of currents flowing into a node
must be balanced by the sum of currents
flowing out of the node.
node
i1
i2 i3
Gustav Kirchoff
was an 18th century
German
mathematician
i  0
i1 flows into the node
i2 flows out of the node
i3 flows out of the node
i1 = i2 + i3 44
Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
i1 = i2 + i3
• This equation can also be written in the following form:

i1 – i2 – i 3 = 0
i1 node
i2 i3
A formal statement of Kirchhoff’s Current Law:
The sum of all the currents entering a node is zero.
(i2 and i3 leave the node, hence currents –i2 and –i3 enter the node.) 45
Sometimes Kirchhoff’s Current Law is abbreviated
just by
KCL
Review: Different ways to state KCL:
 The sum of all currents entering a node must be zero.
 The net current entering a node must be zero.
46
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law
•The voltage measured between any two nodes does not depend of the
path taken.
voltage
+ v2 – voltage
+ + +
v1 + voltage v3 v4
_ – –
–
Example of KVL: v1 = v2 + v3
Similarly: v1 = v2 + v4
and: v3 = v4
47
Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
v1 = v2 + v3
–v1 + v2 + v3 = 0
+ v2 –
+ + +
v1 +
_ v3 v4
– – –
A formal statement of Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law:
The sum of voltages around a closed loop is zero.
48
Summary
• Circuit elements are classified active and passive elements
• Active elements are capable of generating electrical energy
• Passive elements are incapable of generating electrical energy
• Basic active elements are voltage and current sources and passive circuit elements are
the resistance, inductance and capacitance
• Ohms law states that “Voltage V across a resistor is directly proportional to the current
I flowing through the resistor”
• Kirchoff's First Law States that “In any network of wires carrying currents, the algebraic
sum of all he currents at a Point is zero”
• Kirchoff's Second Law states that “Algebraic sum of the voltages across any set of
branches in a closed loop is zero”
49
DC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 2
Mesh and Node Analysis
2
Topics
• Source transformation
• Mesh analysis
• Node analysis
3
Objectives
• Perform source transformation, Voltage source to current source

and vice versa
• Analyse mesh circuits using KVL
• Analyse nodal circuits using KCL
4
Source Transformation
• Source transformation is the process of replacing a
voltage source vs in series with a resistor R by a current
source is in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.
vs
vs  is R or is 
R 5
Vs  Rs I s Vs
Is 
Rs
6
• Equivalent sources can be used to simplify the analysis of
some circuits
• Voltage source in series with a resistor is transformed into a

current source in parallel with a resistor
• Current source in parallel with a resistor is transformed into

a voltage source in series with a resistor
7
Example
• Use source transformation to find vo in the circuit in Fig.
8
Example Cont..
Use current division in Fig.(c) to get

2
i (2)  0.4A and vo  8i  8(0.4)  3.2V
28
9
Mesh Analysis
• Mesh analysis method a current is assigned to each window
of the network such that the currents complete a closed loop
• They are also referred to as loop currents
• Each element and branch therefore will have an independent
current
• If a branch has two of the mesh currents, the actual current is
given by their algebraic sum
• The assigned mesh currents may have either clockwise or
counterclockwise directions
10
Mesh Analysis
Analysis using KVL to solve for the currents around
each closed loop of the network.
Mesh analysis procedure:
1. Assign currents to each closed loop of the network.
2. Apply KVL around each closed loop of the network.
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equation for
the loop currents.
11
Mesh Analysis: Basic Concepts:
 In formulating mesh analysis we assign a mesh

current to each mesh.
I1 I2 I3
12
Mesh Analysis: Example 1
Write the mesh equations and solve for the currents I1 and I2.
4 2
7
6
10V + I1 I2
_
2V +_ _
20V
+
Circuit for Example 1
Mesh 1 4I1 + 6(I1 – I2) = 10 - 2 Eq (1)
Mesh 2 Eq (2)
6(I2 – I1) + 2I2 + 7I2 = 2 + 20
13
Mesh Analysis: Example 1, continued.
Simplifying Eq (1) and (2) gives,
10I1 – 6I2 = 8 Eq (3)
-6I1 + 15I2 = 22 Eq (4)
I1 = 2.2105 A
I2 = 2.3509 A
14
Mesh Analysis: Example 2
• Obtain the current in each branch of the network using
the mesh current method
• The currents I1 and I2 are chosen as shown on the circuit

diagram. Applying KVL around the left loop, starting at
point α
15
Mesh Analysis
• Now around the right loop, starting at point β,
• Rearranging terms in both the equations
• Solving simultaneously we get I1 =2A and I2= 1A

• The current in the center branch, shown dotted, is I1 - I2 =
1 A.
16
Node Analysis
• Node voltage method, one principal nodes is selected
as the reference and equations based on KCL are
written at the other principal nodes
• At each other principal nodes, a voltage is assigned,
where it is understood that this is a voltage with
respect to the reference node
• These voltages are the unknowns and, when
determined by a suitable method
17
Nodal Analysis
Analysis using KCL to solve for voltages at each common
node of the network
Nodal analysis procedure:
1. Determine the number of common nodes and reference
node within the network.
2. Apply KCL at each of the common nodes in the network
3. Solve the resulting simultaneous linear equation for the
nodal voltages.
18
Circuit Analysis
Nodal Analysis:
For the given circuit

2A
Find V1 and V2.
v1  v2

5
10  20  4A
19
Circuit Analysis
Nodal Analysis:
2A
v1  v2

5
10  20  4A
At v1:
V1 V1  V2
 2 Eq 1
10 5
At v2:
V2  V1 V2 Eq 2
  6
5 20 20
Circuit Analysis
Nodal Analysis: Clearing Equations;
From Eq 1:
V1 + 2V1 – 2V2 = 20
or
3V1 – 2V2 = 20 Eq 3
From Eq 2:
4V2 – 4V1 + V2 = -120

or
-4V1 + 5V2 = -120 Eq 4
Solution: V1 = -20 V, V2 = -40 V

21
Node Analysis
• Example, The network shown in Fig contains five nodes,
where 4 and 5 are simple nodes and 1, 2, and 3 are
principal nodes
• This can be redrawn as shown
22
Node Analysis
• The network is redrawn and node 3 selected as the
reference for voltages V1 and V2. KCL requires that the
total current out of node 1 be zero
• Similarly, the total current out of node 2 must be zero
23
Node Analysis
• Put two equations for V1 and V2 in matrix form and solve
24
Summary
• Source transformation simplifies the analysis of some
circuits
• Voltage source in series with a resistor is transformed into
a current source in parallel with a resistor and vice versa
• Mesh analysis is a systematic technique to evaluate all
voltages and currents in a circuit based on Kirchoff's
Voltage Law and Ohm's Law.
• Nodal Analysis is a step-by-step approach to solve circuits,
It is based on Kirchoff's Current Law
25
DC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 3
Superposition Theorem
2
Topics
• Linearity property
• Introduction to theorems
• Superposition theorem
• Steps to apply superposition principle
• Star delta conversion
• Delta to star transformation
• Star to delta transformation
3
Objectives
• Explain linearity property

• State and analyze superposition theorem for any complicated
• Reduce complicated network to simple network using star delta
conversions
4
Linearity Property
A linear element or circuit satisfies the properties of
• Additivity: requires that the response to a sum of inputs is

the sum of the responses to each input applied separately.
If v1 = i1R and v2 = i2R
then applying (i1 + i2)
v = (i1 + i2) R = i1R + i2R = v1 + v2
5
Linearity Property
• Homogeneity: If you multiply the input (i.e. current) by some

constant K, then the output response (voltage) is scaled by
the same constant.
If v1 = i1R
then K v1 =K i1R
Note: Linear circuits obey both the properties of homogeneity (scaling)

and additivity.
6
Linearity Property
• A linear circuit is one whose output is linearly related (or

directly proportional) to its input.
I R3
I3 R2
I2
R1
I1
0 V1 V2 V3
V
Suppose vs = 10 V gives I = 2 A. According to the linearity
principle, vs = 5 V will give I = 1 A.
7
Linearity Property
Example: A resistance of 10Ω is connected across a supply of 100
volts which varies in steps of 10 volt from 0 to 100 volts. Calculate
the corresponding current for each step of voltage and also draw
the graph by assuming voltage on x-axis and current on y-axis.
The arrangement is shown in figure R = 10Ω
Applying Ohm’s Law,

0-100 V
8
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of Applied Sciences ©Ramaiah University of Applied Sciences
Linearity Property
V (volt) R (Ohms) I = V / R (Amps)
0 10 0
10 10 1
20 10 2
30 10 3
40 10 4
50 10 5
60 10 6
70 10 7
80 10 8
90 10 9
100 10 10 9
Faculty
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Linearity Property
Graph between voltage and current from the above values.
Current
Voltage
10
Introduction To Theorems
A large Simplify
complex circuits circuit analysis
Circuit Theorems
‧Thevenin’s theorem ‧ Norton theorem
‧Circuit linearity ‧ Superposition
‧source transformation ‧ max. power transfer
11
• The superposition principle states that the voltage across
(or current through) an element in a linear circuit is the
algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents through)
that element due to each independent source acting
alone.
12
Steps to apply superposition principle
1. Turn off all independent sources except one source.
Find the output (voltage or current) due to that active
source using nodal or mesh analysis.
• Turn off voltages sources = short voltage sources
make it equal to zero voltage
• Turn off current sources = open current sources
make it equal to zero current
2. Repeat step 1 for each of the other independent
sources.
3. Find the total contribution by adding algebraically all
the contributions due to the independent sources.
13
Turning sources off
Current source:
a
i  is Replace it by a current is  0
is source where
b An open-circuit
Voltage source:
+ i
Replace it by a
vs  0
DC
vs v  vs voltage source
-
An short-circuit
14
Example: In the circuit below, find the current i by
superposition
Turn off the 3A & 12V sources
 24V
 24V
DC
DC
i2
 
 
DC
12V
 i3 
3A O.C.
i i3
15
Faculty
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48 4 4   i2   24 
 24V
 i    
DC
 4 4  3  3   0 
i2
16i2  4i3  24
 
i3 
4i2  7i3  0
O.C.
7
i2  i3 i3  28  4   24
i3
4
i3  1
16
Faculty
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 24V
DC
 
DC
12V
i  i1  i2  i3  1A  2A  1A  2A

3A


 24V
i1 DC
i2
 v1 
v2  
 
12V
 DC
12V
3A
i2 
O.C. i3 
i1 O.C.
i2
i3
i1  1 i2  2 i3  1
17
Faculty
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Star Delta Conversion
• Same type of connections
R1 R2
a b a b
R1
R2
R3
R3
c c
c
(a) Wye (b) Tee
18
Delta/Pi Circuit
• Same type of Connections

Rc Rc
a b a b
Rb Rb Ra
Ra
c c
c
(a) Delta (b) Pi
19
Delta – Star / Star - Delta Transformation
A A
Ra
R2 R3
Rc Rb
C R1 B C B
20
Delta To Star Transformation
•From delta cct , impedance sees from AB R R3 R1  R2 

R1  R2  R3
AB
•From star cct , impedance sees from AB RAB  Ra  Rb

R1 R3  R1 R2 (a)
•Thus equating R  R 
R1  R2  R3
a b
R1 R2  R1 R3
•Similarly from BC Rb  Rc  (b)
R1  R2  R3
•From AC R1 R2  R2 R3 (c)
Ra  Rc 
R1  R2  R3
(b) – (c) R2 R3  R1 R2 (d)

Ra  Rc 
R1  R2  R3
21
Delta To Star Transformation
By adding (a) and (d) ; (b) and (d) ;and (c) and (d) and then
divided by two yield
R2 R3
Ra  (e)
R1  R2  R3
R3 R1
Rb  (f)
R1  R2  R3
R1R2
Rc  (g)
R1  R2  R3
22
Delta to star transformation
•Dividing (e) by (f) Ra R2
 (i)
Rb R1
R1Ra
Therefore R2  (j)
Rb
Ra R3
• Similarly, dividing (e) by (g)  (j)
Rc R1
R1 Ra
R3  (k)
Rc
23
Delta to star transformation
•Substitute R2 and R3 into (e)
Similarly Rb Rc (l)
R1  Rb  Rc 
Ra
Rc Ra
R2  Rc  Ra  (m)
Rb
Ra Rb
R3  Ra  Rb  (n)
Rc
24
Star -> Delta

R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Ra 
R1
R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rb 
R2
R1 R2  R2 R3  R3 R1
Rc 
R3
25
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Delta -> Star

Rb Rc
R1 
( Ra  Rb  Rc )
Rc Ra
R2 
( Ra  Rb  Rc )
Ra Rb
R3 
( Ra  Rb  Rc )
26
Faculty
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Special Case of -Y Transformation
• Special case occur when R1 = R2 = R3 = RY or Ra = Rb = Rc
=R under which the both networks are said to be
balanced.
• Hence the transformation formulas will become:
RY = R/3 or R = 3RY
• By applying Delta/Wye transformations, we may find that
this final process leads to series/parallel connections in
some parts of the circuit.
27
Example
A
•Find the effective resistance at R1 R3
terminal between A and B of the 16 6
R5
network on the right side C D
20
R2 R4
8 12
Solution B
R5
C D
20 Ra
R2 R4 Rb
8 12
1 3
B B' Rc
R = R2 + R4 + R5 = 40 
Ra = R2 x R5/R = 4  2 4
Rb = R4 x R5/R = 6 
Rc = R2 x R4/R = 2.4  28
Example
Substitute R2, R5 and R4 with Ra, Rb dan Rc:
A
A
R1 16 R3 6 R1+Ra 20 12 R3+Rb
Ra Rb
4 6
Rc 2.4 Rc 2.4
B B
RAB = [(20x12)/(20+12)] + 2.4 = 9.9 
29
xample
How to combine R1 to R7 ?
30
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Example
Y  transformation
Star delta transformation
31
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xample
Y  transformation
Star delta transformation
32
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Summary
• Linearity is the behavior of a circuit,, in which the output
signal varies in direct proportion to the input signal
• The superposition principle states that “The voltage
across (or current through) an element in a linear circuit is
the algebraic sum of the voltages across (or currents
through) that element due to each independent source
acting alone”.
• Star Delta Transformations allows to convert impedances
connected together from one type of connection to
another. Thus making simple series, parallel or bridge
type resistive networks which can be solved using KCL and
KVL
33
DC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 4
Tutorial
2
Objectives
• Solve problems on KCL

• Solve problems on KVL,
• Solve problems on Mesh and Nodal analysis
3
Problems
Problem 1
The current and voltage characteristic of a semiconductor diode in the
forward direction is measured and recorded in the following table:
• In the reverse direction (i.e., when v < 0), i = 4 *10^15 A.

• Using the values given in the table, calculate the static and
dynamic resistances (R and r) of the diode when it operates at 30
mA, and
• Find its power consumption p.
4
Problem 2 Problems
An inductance of 3.0mH has a voltage that is described as follows:
For 0 > t > 2 ms, V = 15.0V and, for 2 > t > 4 ms, V = 30.0 V.
Obtain the corresponding current and sketch VL and I for the given
intervals.
Problem 3
Find the current I for the circuit shown in Fig
5
Problem 4
Problems
Find all branch currents in the network
Problem 5
Solve by the mesh current method
6
Problems
Problem 6
Write the mesh current matrix equation for the network of Fig by inspection,
and solve for Currents.
Problem 7
Solve Problem by the node voltage method
7
Summary
• Problems are solved on KCL
• Problems are solved on KVL
• Problems are solved on mesh and node analysis
8
DC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 5
Tutorial
2
Objectives
• Solve problems on KCL, KVL, Mesh and Nodal analysis

• Compute equivalent resistance in electrical circuits
3
Problem 8
Problems
For the network shown in Fig, find Vs which makes I0 = 7.5 mA.
Problem 9
In the network shown, find the current in the 10Ώ resistor.
4
Problem 10
Problems
Find the voltage Vab in the network shown in Fig.
Problem 11
In the ladder network of Fig, obtain the transfer resistance as expressed by the
ratio of Vin to I4.
5
Problems
Problem 12
Find the maximum power that can be delivered
to the resistor of circuit shown in figure
Problem 13
Find the power supplied by the 3A current
source to the circuit shown in figure. Use either
mesh analysis or nodal analysis
6
Problems
Problem 14
Find IL(0) and VC(0) for the circuit shown in
figure
Problem 15
Find the equivalent Resistance across A and B
7
Summary
• Problems are solved on KCL

• Problems are solved on KVL
• Problems are solved on meh and node analysis
• Arrive at equivalent resistance
8
DC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 6
Thevenin Theorem
2
Topics
• Thevnin's Theorem
• Computing Thevenin Equivalent
• Networks to Illustrate Thevenin Theorem
3
Objectives

4
Thevenin’s Theorem
• Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any circuit with sources

(dependent or independent) and resistors can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a single
voltage source and a single resistor”.
• Thevenin’s theorem implies that we can replace arbitrarily

complicated networks with simple networks for purposes
of analysis.
5
Independent Sources (Thevenin)
•Any network with two open terminals can be replaced by
a single voltage source (VTH) and a series resistance (RTH)
connected to the open terminals.
• A component can be removed to produce the open
terminals.
RTh
Voc +
–
Circuit with Thevenin equivalent

independent sources circuit 6
Steps to Determine VTh and RTh
1. Identify the load, which may be a resistor or a part of
the circuit.
2. Replace the load with an open circuit .
3. Calculate VOC. This is VTh.
4. Turn off all independent voltage and currents
sources in the linear 2-terminal circuit.
5. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
This is RTh.
 Draw the equivalent network and compute current
through the load.
7
Networks (a)to Illustrate Thevenin Theorem
(b)
A A
R2 R2
V V
R3 R R3 Vth
R1 R1
B B
(d)
(c) A
A
R2
Vth
Rth R
R3
R1 Rth
B B
8
Computing Thevenin Equivalent
Refer to network (b), in R2 there is not V
I R3  (1)
complete circuit, thus no current, thus R1  R3
current in R3
VR3
And p.d across R3 is VR 3  (2)
R1  R3
VR3
Since no current in R2, thus Vth  (3)
R1  R3
R1 R3
Refer to network (c) the resistance at AB Rth  R2  (4)
R1  R3
Vth
Thus current in R (refer network (d)) I (5)
Rth  R
9
Thevnin's Theorem C
Example 1
E1=6V E2=4V
Calculate the current through R3 A B
Solution R3=10
R1=2 R2=3
With R3 disconnected as in figure below
64
D
2
I1    0.4 A
R1  R2 2  3 I1 C
p.d across CD is E1-I1R1 E1=6V E2=4V

A B
V
V  6  0.4  2  5.2V
R1=2 R2=3
10
Continued..
To determine the internal resistance we C
remove the e.m.f s

23
A B r
r  1.2  R1=2
23 R2=3
Replace the network with V=5.2V I C

and r=1.2, then the at terminal
V=5.2V
CD, R3, thus the current
R3=10
5.2
I  0.46 A r=1.2
1.2  10
D
11
Thevnin's Theorem
Example 2
What is the Thevenin voltage for the circuit? 8.76 V

What is the Thevenin resistance for the circuit? 7.30 k
Output terminals
R1
VS 10 k Remember, the load
resistor has no affect
12 V R2 RL on the Thevenin
27 k 68 k parameters.
12
Summary
• Thevnin's Theorem states that “Any circuit with sources
(dependent or independent) and resistors can be
replaced by an equivalent circuit containing a single
voltage source and a single resistor”.
13
DC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 7
Norton Theorem
2
Topics
• Norton’s Theorem Computing
• Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
• To Find IN
• To Find RN
3
Objectives

4
Norton’s Theorem
Statement:
• “Any two terminal active network when viewed from its load
terminals, can be replaced by a single current source in parallel
with a single resistance.”
• That single current source is called Norton’s current source

(IN)
• Resistance is called Norton’s resistance (RN)
5
Norton’s Equivalent Circuit
Fig.1 Two terminal circuit Fig.2 Norton’s equivalent circuit
6
Steps to Determine IN and RN
1. Identify the load, which may be a resistor or a part of
the circuit.
2. Replace the load with a short circuit .
3. Calculate ISC. This is IN.
4. Turn off all independent voltage and currents
sources in the linear 2-terminal circuit.
5. Calculate the equivalent resistance of the circuit.
This is RN.
 The current through and voltage across the load in parallel
with IN and RN is the load’s actual current and voltage in
the original circuit.
7
To Find IN
• Remove the load resistance & put a short there
• Then find the current flowing through the short

circuited terminals
• I N = I SC
8
To Find RN
• Replace the voltage source (battery) with its internal
resistance
• Calculate the resistance of the circuit as viewed by the

open circuited load terminals. (i.e. terminals A & B as
shown in Fig.1)
• RN=Ri (internal resistance)
9
Problem
Ω
• Using Norton’s theorem,
calculate current through
15 Ω resistor in the circuit Ω Ω
shown in Fig.3
Fig.3
10
Solution
Step 1: To find out IN : Ω
• Remove the load resistance

• Short circuit the load
terminals as shown in Fig.4 Ω
• Find the current flowing

through the short
• 12 Ω resistor is in parallel
with the short as shown in Fig.4
Fig.4
11
Solution
• So,12 Ω resistor will also be short circuited
• Therefore the
circuit will be as
Ω
shown in Fig.5
• IN = 24 / (3+1)
= 6A
Fig.5
12
Solution
Step 2 : To find out RN :
• Replace the battery
Ω
with its internal
resistance
• Open circuit load Ω
Ω
terminals as shown in
Fig.6
• Calculate the resistance of Fig.6
the circuit as viewed from the
open circuited load terminals
13
Solution
• Replace the given network
with Norton’s equivalent
circuit as shown in Fig.8
• IL= IN*RN
( R N + R L)
Ω
= 6 * 3 / (3 + 15)
= 18 / 18
=1A Fig.8
14
Summary
• Norton’s theorem stares that, “Any two terminal active

network when viewed from its load terminals, can be
replaced by a single current source in parallel with a
single resistance”
15
AC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 8
Circuit Element Impedances
2
Topics
• Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
• Sinusoidal Forcing Function
• Advantages of Sinusoidal Forcing Function
• Complex Numbers
• Complex Forcing Function
• Impedance and admittance
• Circuit element impedances
3
Objectives
• State and compute Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

• Describe Sinusoidal Forcing Function
• Solve Complex Forcing Function
• Define Impedance and admittance
4
Maximum Power Theorem
• Maximum Power Theorem states that, “The maximum

amount of power will be dissipated by a load resistance
when that load resistance is equal to the source
resistance of the network supplying the power. If the load
resistance is lower or higher than the source resistance of
the source network, its dissipated power will be less than
maximum”
5
Maximum Power Theorem
• Considering Thevenin equivalent example circuit, and

verify Maximum Power Transfer Theorem considering
three cases
 Load resistance equal to source resistance
 Load resistance is greater than source resistance
 Load resistance is less than source resistance
6
Load Resistance Equal To Source
Resistance
• When RL =Rs = 0.8Ώ
7
Load Resistance Is Greater Than Source
Resistance
• When RL = 1.1 Ώ Rs = 0.8Ώ
8
Load Resistance Is Less Than Source
Resistance
• When RL = 0.5 Ώ Rs = 0.8Ώ
9
AC Dynamo
• AC Dynamo is based on the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction. That is, when the relative
orientation between the coil and the magnetic field
changes, the flux linked with the coil changes and this
induces a current in the coil, Sinusoidal wave is
generated.
10
Working of AC Dynamo
• http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WXPvysew69Y
11
Generation of Alternating E.M.F
12
Rotating Vector Description
The coordinate of the emf at any instant is the value of Emax sin q. Observe for
incremental angles in steps of 450. Same is true for i.
E E = Emax sin q
q 1800 2700 3600

450 900 1350
Radius = Emax
13
Simple Loop Generator
14
Sinusoidal Forcing Function
• Sinusoidal forcing function is a signal that has the form of
the sine or cosine function
XM XM
x(t) x(t)
3
2 2  t
  t
0 0  3 2
2 2 2
x(t )  X M sin t x(t )  X M cos t

 
period T  2  sin 1 cos
2
0
2
15
Advantages of Sinusoidal Forcing Function
• A sinusoidal current or voltage is usually referred to as an
alternating current or voltage and circuits excited by sinusoids
are called ac circuits
•Sinusoids are important for several reasons
I. Nature itself is characteristically sinusoidal
II. A sinusoidal current or voltage is easy to generate.
III. Through Fourier Analysis, any practical periodic signal can be
represented by a sum of sinusoids.
IV. A sinusoid is easy to handle mathematically; its derivative and integral
are also sinusoids.
V. When a sinusoidal source is applied to a linear circuit, the steady-state
response is also sinusoidal, and we call the response the sinusoidal
steady-state response.
16
Complex Forcing Function
• Consider a sinusoidal forcing function given as a complex function:
X m exp( j (t  q ))  X m cos(t  q )  jX m sin(t  q )
What is the solution of

X2 = -1
X   1   j j  1 j 2  1
Complex Plane Imaginary

j Note:
1 j j
  2 j
j jj j
-1 1 Real
-j 17
Complex Numbers
• Following mathematical operations are important
Addition Subtraction Multiplication

z1  z2   x1  x2   j  y1  y2  z1  z2   x1  x2   j  y1  y2  z1 z2  r1r2  1  2 
Division Reciprocal Square Root
z1 r1 1 1
  1  2       z  r   / 2 
z2 r2 z r
Complex Conjugate
z *  x  jy  r     re  j
18
Complex Numbers
Example
• Evaluate the following complex numbers:
a. [(5  j2)(1  j4)  5 60o ]
10  j5  340o
b.  10 30o
 3  j4
Solution:
a. –15.5 + j13.67
b. 8.293 + j2.2
19
Impedance
• Define the impedance , Zof a circuit as:
V
Z V  IZ
I
• Notes:
• Impedance defines the relationship between the
voltage and current Phasor's
• The above equations are identical in form to Ohm’s
Law
• Units of impedance are ohms ()
20
Impedance
• Impedance is a complex number
Z  R  jX
• Where
• R is called the resistance
• X is called the reactance
21
Circuit element impedances
• Our phasor circuit element voltage-current relations can
all be written in terms of impedances
1
ZR  R Z L  jL ZC 
j C 22
Admittance
• Admittance is the inverse of impedance
1
Y
Z
• Admittance is a complex number Y  G  jB
• Where
• G is called the conductance
• B is called the susceptance
23
Why are impedance and admittance useful?
• The analysis techniques we used for time domain analysis
of resistive networks are applicable to phasor circuits
• E.g. KVL, KCL, circuit reduction, nodal analysis, mesh
analysis, Thevnin's and Norton’s Theorems…
• To apply these methods:

• Impedances are substituted for resistance
• Phasor voltages, currents are used in place of time
domain voltages and currents
24
Summary
• Maximum power transfer theorem is discussed
• Sinusoidal forcing function is a signal that has the form of
the sine or cosine function
• Advantages of Sinusoidal Forcing Function is discussed
• A Complex Number is a combination of a Real Number
and an Imaginary Number
• Impedance defines the relationship between the voltage
and current Phasor's, admittance is reciprocal of
impedance
25
DC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 9
Tutorial
2
Objectives
3
Problem 1:
Calculate the current flowing through 2 Ω resistor in the given circuit
by applying Superposition theorem.
4
Example 2:
Calculate the current flowing through 2 Ω resistor in the given circuit by
applying Superposition theorem.
5
Problem 3:
6
Problem 4:
7
Summary
• Problems are solved on superposition theorem
8
DC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 10
Tutorial
2
Objectives

3
Problem 5:
Obtain the load current through RL using Thevenin’s theorem.
4
Example 6:
Obtain the load current I using Thevenin’s theorem.
5
Problem 7:
Find the load current through RL = 6 , 16 and 36Ω using Thevenin’s theorem
for the given circuit.
6
Norton’s Theorem
Problem 8:
Obtain the load current I using Norton’s theorem.
7
Summary
• Problems are solved on Thevenin’s theorem
• Problems are solved on Norton’s theorem
8
AC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 11
RL and RC Circuit
2
Topics
• RL Circuit
• Phasor representation of RL Circuit
• RC Circuit
• Phasor representation of RC Circuit
• RLC Circuit
• Phasor representation of RLC Circuit
3
Objectives
• Explain and analyze the phasor diagrams of RL, RC and RLC

circuits
4
R-L Series circuit
5
R-L Series circuit
6
R-L Series circuit
Average power
7
R-C Series circuit
8
R-C Series circuit
9
R-L-C Series circuit
10
R-L-C Series circuit
11
Summary of R, L and C
12
Summary of RL, RC and RLC
13
AC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 12
Phasor Relationship for R, L and C
Elements
2
Topics
• Phasor Relationship for R, L and C Elements
• Resistor Phasor
• Inductor Phasor
• Capacitor Phasor
• Phasor voltage-current relations
• Angular Frequency (ω)
3
Objectives
• Analyze phasor Relationship for R, L, and C Elements

• Define phasor voltage-current relations
• Define angular Frequency (ω)
4
Phasor Relationship for R, L and C Elements
Resistor phasor
Time domain
v  Ri
Frequency domain
V
V  RI or I
R
Voltage and current are in phase 5

Inductor Phasor
Time domain Frequency domain
di V
vL V  j LI or I
dt j L
Voltage leads current by 90
6
Capacitor Phasor
Time domain Frequency domain
dv I
iC I  j CV or V
dt j C
Voltage lags current by 90

7
Phasor Voltage-Current Relations of
Resistor
8
Phasor Voltage-current Relations Of
Inductor
9
Phasor voltage-current relations of
capacitor
10
Circuit Element Phasor Relations
Element V/I Phasor Phase
Relation Relation
Capacitor I = C dV/dt I = j ω C V I leads V
= ωCV 90° by 90º
Inductor V = L dI/dt V = j ω L I V leads I
= ωLI 90° by 90º
Resistor V = I R V=RI In-phase
= R I 0°
11
Series RLC Resonance
• Series RLC circuit there becomes a frequency point were
the inductive reactance of the inductor becomes equal in
value to the capacitive reactance of the capacitor
• In other words, XL = XC The point at which this occurs is
called the Resonant Frequency point, ( ƒr ) of the circuit
12
Series RLC Resonance
• Resonant Frequency Hz
• Lower cut-off Frequency Hz
• Upper cut-off Frequency Hz
• Band-width Hz
• Quality Factor
13
Parallel RLC Resonance
• In many ways a parallel resonance circuit is exactly the
same as the series resonance circuit
• Both are 3-element networks that contain two reactive
components making them a second-order circuit
• Both are influenced by variations in the supply frequency
and have a frequency point where their two reactive
components cancel each other
14
• Parallel resonance circuit is influenced by the currents
flowing through each parallel branch within the parallel
LC tank circuit
15
• Resonant Frequency Hz
• Lower cut-off Frequency Hz
• Upper cut-off Frequency Hz
• Band-width Hz
• Quality Factor
16
Angular Frequency(ω)
• Angular Frequency is the number of orbits an object
makes around another object is a certain time
• This formula represents angular frequency for an

oscillation with period equal T, in this case we deal with
one revolution which is equal to 2 Pi radians
17
Summary
• Phasor Relationship for R, L and C Elements is been

discussed
• Phasor voltage-current relations
 Voltage and current are in phase for resistive circuit
 Voltage leads current by 90ᵒ for inductive circuit
 Voltage lags current by 90ᵒ for capacitive circuit
• Angular Frequency is the number of orbits an object
makes around another object is a certain time
18
DC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 13
Tutorial
2
Objectives

• Solve problems on Norton’s Theorem
• Solve problems on Source transformation
3
Norton Problems
Problem 1:
Obtain the Norton equivalent circuit for the given network.
4
Problems
Problem 2:
Obtain the Thevenin and Norton equivalent circuits for the given network.
5
Problems
Problem 3:
Find the total (equivalent) resistance RAB in the circuit shown in figure
6
Source transformation
Problem 4:
Use source transformation to find VO in the given circuit.
7
Summary
• Problems are solved on Thevenin’s theorem
• Problems are solved on Norton’s theorem
• Problem is solved on Source transformation
8
DC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 14
Tutorial
2
Objectives
• Solve problems on Voltage divider rule

• Solve problems on KCL and KVL
3
Voltage Divider Rule
Problem 5:
Use the voltage divider rule to determine the voltage across each of the
resistors in the circuit shown in figure. And show that the summation of
voltage drops is equal to the applied voltage rise in the circuit..
4
Kirchhoff’s current law
Problem 6:
Determine the magnitude and correct direction of the currents I3 and I5 for the
network of figure.
5
Problem 7:
Find the current in each branch in the given circuit .
6
Problem 8:
Find the magnitudes of the unknown currents for for the given network.
7
Star/ Delta Transformation
Problem 28:
Find the total resistance RT and total current I for the circuit shown in figure.
Ans: RT = 11.09 ohms and I = 2.706 A
8
Problem 9:
Using ∆-Y or Y- ∆ conversion, find the current I for the given circuit.
9
Summary
• Problems are solved on Voltage divider rule
• Problems are solved on KCL and KVL
• Problem is solved on Star-delta conversion
10
DC Circuit Analysis
1
Lecture 15
Tutorial
2
Objectives

• Solve problems on Superposition theorem
• Solve problems on R, L and C circuits
3
Problem 10:
Use ∆-Y conversion to find the resistance between the terminals ‘AB’ of the
circuit shown in figure.
4
Problems
Problem 11:
In the circuit of Fig. find current through 1-Ω resistor using both THEVENIN’s
theorem and SUPERPOSITION theorem
5
Problem on R-L Series Circuit
Problem 12:
A coil having a resistance of 7 and an inductance of
31.8mH is connected to 230V, 50Hz supply. Calculate
(i) the circuit current
(ii) phase angle
(iii)power factor
(iv)power consumed
Ans: (i) 18.85 A (ii) 55 degrees lag (iii) 0.573 lag (iv) 2484.24 Watts
6
Problem on R-C Series Circuit
Problem 13:
• A Capacitor of capacitance 79.5μF is connected in series with a
non inductive resistance of 30 across a 100V, 50Hz supply. Find
(i) impedance
(ii) current
(iii) phase angle
(iv)Equation for the instantaneous value of current
Ans: (i) 50 ohms (ii) 2 A (iii) 53 degrees lead (iv) 2.828 sin (314t+53)
7
Problem on R-L-C Series Circuit
Problem 14:
• A 230 V, 50 Hz ac supply is applied to a coil of 0.06 H
inductance and 2.5 resistance connected in series with a 6.8
μF capacitor. Calculate
(i) Impedance
(ii) Current
(iii) Phase angle between current and voltage
(iv) power factor
(v) power consumed

Ans: (i) 449.2 ohms (ii) 0.512 A (iii) 89.7 degrees lead (iv) 0.0056 lead (v) 0.66 W 8
Summary
• Problem is solved on Star-delta conversion
• Problems are solved on Superposition theorem
• Problems are solved on R, L and C ciruits
9
Lecture -16
Magnetic Effect of Electric Circuit
Lecture Delivered by:
1
Topics
• Magnetic flux
• Flux density
• Reluctance
• Permeance
• Magnetic effect of electric circuit
2
Objectives
•Define magnetic flux, flux density and reluctance

•Explain Right hand thumb Rule and cork screw rule
•Analyze Series Magnetic Circuits
•Derive relation between the magnetic and electric circuits
3
Magnetic Flux
• Total number of lines of force existing in a magnetic field is called
magnetic flux. The unit of flux is called weber and flux is denoted by
(Ø).
1 weber = 10^8 lines of force
• Magnetic flux (Φm), is the amount of magnetic field (also called
"magnetic flux density") passing through a surface (such as a
conducting coil).
SI Unit - weber (Wb)
CGS unit - maxwell.
4
Parameters for Magnetic Circuits
Parameters Symbols Formulas Units
Magnetic Flux 
B B Wb/m^2 or tesla
Density A
Magnetic Field
H H
NI AT/m
Strength l
Absolute
µ 
B H/m
Permeability H
Permeability of 7
 - 410
Free Space 0
Relative
   0 r H/m
Permeability  r
Magnetomotive
F NI Ampere-turns
Force (M.M.F)
l
S 
Reluctance R a AT/Wb or A/Wb
NI
S 

Permeance P P=1/R Wb/AT or Wb/A 5
Magnetic Effect of an Electric Current
(Electromagnets)
• When a coil or a conductor carries current, it produces the magnetic
flux around it. Then it starts behaving as a magnet. Such a current
carrying conductor is called an electromagnet
Electromagnets
Electromagnet due to straight Electromagnet due to

Current Carrying Conductor Circular Current Carrying Conductor
6
Magnetic Field due to Straight Conductor
• When a straight conductor carries a current, it produces
a magnetic field all along its length. The lines of force
are in the form of concentric circle in the planes right
angles to the conductor.
• When current is going into the plane of the paper - ‘cross’

• Current is coming out of the plane of the paper - ‘dot’
7
Magnetic Circuits
𝑁𝐼
𝜑=
𝑙
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑎
𝑴.𝑴.𝑭 𝑭
Φ= =
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑺
where, NI = Magetomotive Force m.m.f in AT

𝑙
S= = Reluctance offered by the magnetic path
𝜇0 𝜇𝑟 𝑎
• The expression of the flux is very much similar to expression for current
𝑬.𝑴.𝑭
in electric circuit. 𝑰=
𝑹𝒆𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
so that Current is analogous to Flux
E.M.F is analogous to M.M.F
Resistance is analogous to Reluctance
8
Series Magnetic Circuit
• Magnetic circuit is composed of various magnetic materials of different
permeability's of different lengths and of different cross sectional area.
Such a circuit is called composite magnetic circuit
• When such parts are connected one after the other the circuit is called
series magnetic circuit
9
Series Magnetic Circuit
𝑙1 𝑙2 𝑙3
Total ST= S1+S2+S3 = + +
𝜇1 𝑎1 𝜇2 𝑎2 𝜇3 𝑎3
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑚.𝑚.𝑓 𝑁𝐼 𝑁𝐼
Total φ = = =
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑢𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑆𝑇 𝑆1 +𝑆2 +𝑆3
𝑁𝐼 = 𝑆𝑇 ∅ = 𝑆1 + 𝑆2 + 𝑆3 φ
𝑁𝐼 = 𝑆1 ∅ + 𝑆2 ∅ + 𝑆3 ∅
(m.m.f)T= (m.m.f)1 + (m.m.f)2 +

(m.m.f)3
The total m.m.f can be expressed as
𝑚. 𝑚. 𝑓 𝑇 = 𝐻1 𝑙1 + 𝐻2 𝑙2 + 𝐻3 𝑙3
𝐵1 𝐵2 𝐵3
Where 𝐻1 = , 𝐻2 = , 𝐻3 =
𝜇1 𝜇2 𝜇3 10
Magnetic circuit with 2 different materials
l1 l2
SA  and SB 
1a1  2a 2
l1 l2
S  SA  SB  
1a1  2a 2
For A: area of cross-section = a1

mean length = l1
absolute permeability = 1
ForB: area of cross-section = a2
mean length = l2
absolute permeability = 2
11
mmf for 2 materials in series
total mmf = HAlA + HBlB
HA =magnetic strength in material A
lA=mean length of material A
HB =magnetic strength in material B
lB=mean length of material B
In general
(m.m.f) = Hl
12
Series Magnetic Circuit with Air Gap
• Total m.m.f = NI AT
• Total Reluctance ST = Si+Sg
Where Si = Reluctance of iron path
Sg= Reluctance of air gap
𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑖 + 𝑆𝑔
𝑆𝑖 = Reluctance of iron path
𝑙𝑖
𝑆𝑖 =
𝜇𝑎𝑖
𝑙𝑔
𝑆𝑔 =
𝜇0 𝑎𝑖
Total m.m.f = m.m.f for iron + m.m.f for air gap
𝑵𝑰 = 𝑺𝒊 ∅ + 𝑺𝒈 ∅ AT for ring
13
Series Magnetic Circuits
Points to Remember
14
Summary
• The total number of lines of force existing in a magnetic field is called
magnetic flux. The unit of flux is called weber and flux is denoted by
(Ø)
• When a coil or a conductor carries current, it produces the magnetic
flux around it. Then it starts behaving as a magnet. Such a current
carrying conductor is called an electromagnet
• Current is going into the plane of the paper - ‘cross’
•Current is coming out of the plane of the paper - ‘dot’
𝑴.𝑴.𝑭 𝑭
•Φ= =
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝑺
• Composite magnetic circuits are connected one after the other is called
series magnetic circuit
15
Lecture -17
Law of Electromagnetic Induction
Lecture Delivered
1
Topics
• Parallel Magnetic Circuits

• Law of Electro Magnetic Induction
• Lenz Law
2
Objectives
At the end of this lecture, student will be able to :
•Describe Parallel Magnetic Circuits

•Explain Magnetic leakage and Fringing
•State Law of Electromagnetic Induction and apply to electrical
circuits
•State Lenz Law and apply to electrical circuits
3
Parallel Magnetic Circuits
• Magnetic circuit which has more than one path for the flux is
known as a parallel magnetic circuit.
• At point A, the total flux ∅, divides into two parts ∅1 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ∅2 .
∅ = ∅1 + ∅2
4
• The mean length of the path ABCD = 𝑙1 𝑚
• The mean length of the path AFED = 𝑙2 m
• The mean length of the path AD= 𝑙𝑐 𝑚
• The reluctance of the path ABCD=𝑆1
• The Reluctance of path AFED = 𝑆2
• The Reluctance of path AD = 𝑆𝑐
• The total m.m.f produced = NI AT
𝑴. 𝑴. 𝑭
𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒙 =
𝑹𝒆𝒍𝒖𝒄𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
So, M.M.F = ∅ × 𝑺
For path ABCDA, NI = ∅1 𝑆1 + ∅𝑆𝑐
𝑙 𝑙 𝑙
Where 𝑆1 = 1 , 𝑆2 = 2 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑆𝑐 = 𝑐
𝜇𝑎1 𝜇𝑎2 𝜇𝑎𝑐
Generally 𝑎1 = 𝑎2 = 𝑎𝑐 = area of cross –section
5
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑀. 𝑀. 𝐹
= 𝑀. 𝑀. 𝐹 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏 + 𝑀. 𝑀. 𝐹 𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑟𝑒𝑑 𝑏𝑦 𝑎𝑛𝑦 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑓
𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝑙𝑖𝑚𝑏𝑠
𝑁𝐼 = (𝑁𝐼)𝐴𝐷 +(𝑁𝐼)𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑜𝑟 𝑁𝐼 𝐴𝐹𝐸𝐷
𝑁𝐼 = ∅𝑆𝑐 + [∅1 𝑆1 𝑜𝑟 ∅2 𝑆2 ]
• Thus same m.m.f produces different fluxes in two parallel branches. For
such parallel branches,
∅1 𝑆1 = ∅2 𝑆2
6
Parallel Magnetic Circuits with air gap
• Path GD= iron path = 𝐼𝑐
• Path GA= Air gap = 𝐼𝑔
• The total flux produced is ∅.
It gets divided at A into ∅1 and ∅2 .
∅ = ∅1 +∅2
• The reluctance of central limb is now,
𝑙𝑐 𝑙𝑔
𝑆𝑐 = 𝑆𝑖 +𝑆𝑔 = +
𝜇𝑎𝑐 𝜇𝑎𝑐
• Hence m.m.f of central limb is now,
(𝑚. 𝑚. 𝑓)𝐴𝐷 = (𝑚. 𝑚. 𝑓)𝐺𝐷 +(𝑚. 𝑚. 𝑓)𝐺𝐴
• Hence the total m.m.f can be expressed as

(𝑁𝐼)𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 = (𝑁𝐼)𝐺𝐷 +(𝑁𝐼)𝐺𝐴 +(𝑁𝐼)𝐴𝐵𝐶𝐷 𝑜𝑟(𝑁𝐼)𝐴𝐹𝐸𝐷
7
Magnetic Leakage
• Flux which leaks and completes its path through surrounding air or
medium instead of the desired path is called the leakage flux
• The ratio of the total flux (∅ 𝑇 ) to the useful flux (∅𝑢 ) is defined as the
leakage coefficient of Hopkinson’s coefficient or leakage factor of that
∅𝑇
magnetic circuit ℵ=
∅𝑢
8
Leakages and fringing of flux
leakage
fringing
Magnetic circuit with air-gap Leakages and fringing of flux
Some fluxes are leakage via paths a, b and c . Path d is

shown to be expanded due to fringing. Thus the usable flux
is less than the total flux produced, hence
total flux
Leakage factor 
usable flux
9
Magnetic fringing
• Tendency of flux to bulge out at the edges of the air gap is called
magnetic fringing
It has two effects
• It increases the effective cross sectional area of the air gap
• It reduces the flux density in the air gap 10
Magnetic Fringing
• Tendency of flux to bulge out at the edges of the air gap is called
magnetic fringing
It has two effects

• It increases the effective cross sectional area of the air gap
• It reduces the flux density in the air gap
11
Video on Oestered Experiment
12
Faraday’s Experiment
• Michael Faraday, was an english

scientist who contributed to the fields
of electromagnetism and
electrochemistry. His main discoveries
include those of electro magnetic
induction ,diamagnetism and
electrolysis
Michael Faraday
(22 September 1791- 25 August 1867)
13
Video on Law of Electromagnetic
Induction
14
First Law
Whenever the number of magnetic lines of force (flux) linking with a

coil or circuit changes, an E.M.F gets induced in that coil or circuit
Second Law
The magnitude of the induced E.M.F is directly proportional to the rate
of change of flux linkages .
𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒙 𝒍𝒊𝒏𝒌𝒂𝒈𝒆𝒔 = 𝑭𝒍𝒖𝒙 × 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒕𝒖𝒓𝒏𝒔 𝒐𝒇 𝒄𝒐𝒊𝒍
15
Faraday’s Laws
• The initial flux linking with a coil is ∅1 − Initial flux linkages = N∅1
• In time interval t, the flux linkage with the coil changes from ∅1 𝑡𝑜 ∅2 .
final Flux Linkages = N∅2
𝑁∅2 −𝑁∅1
Therefore, Rate of change of flux linkages =
𝑡
𝑵∅𝟐 − 𝑵∅𝟏 𝑵∅𝟐 − 𝑵∅𝟏 𝒅∅

𝒆∝ ;𝒆 = 𝑲 ;𝒆 = 𝑵
𝒕 𝒕 𝒅𝒕
Where K as unity to get units of e as volts, 𝑑∅ is change in flux and 𝑑𝑡 is
change in time hence (𝑑∅ൗ𝑑𝑡) is rate of change of flux.
𝒅∅
𝒆 = −𝑵 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝒅𝒕 16
Lenz Law
• The Direction of an induced e.m.f produced by the electromagnetic
induction is such that it sets up a current which always opposes the
cause that is responsible for inducing the e.m.f.
• Therefore, the induced e.m.f always opposes the cause producing it,
which is represented by a negative sign, mathematically
𝒅∅
𝒆 = −𝑵
𝒅𝒕
17
Block Diagram of Lenz Law
18
Summary
• A magnetic circuit which has more than one path for the flux is
known as a parallel magnetic circuit
• Whenever the number of magnetic lines of force (flux) linking with
a coil or circuit changes, an E.M.F gets induced in that coil or circuit
• The magnitude of the induced E.M.F is directly proportional to the
rate of change of flux linkages
• The self induced e.m.f lasts till the current in the coil is changing
The direction of such induced e.m.f can be obtained by Lenz’s law
19
Lecture-18
Tutorial
1
Objectives
•- Solve problems on Magnetic Circuits
2
Problem No 1
• Iron Ring of circular cross-sectional area of 3cm^2 and mean diameter

of 20 cm is wound with 500 turns of wire and carries a current of
2.09A to produce magnetic flux of 0.5mWb in the ring. Determine the
permeability of the material.
3
Problem No 2
• An iron ring 8 cm mean diameter is made up of round iron of diameter
1 cm and permeability of 900,has an air gap of 2mm wide. It Consists
of winding with 400 turns carrying current of 3.5 A. Determine
 M.M.F
 Total Reluctance
 The flux
 Flux Density in ring
4
Problem No 3 & 4
• Flux density is 1.2T and the area is 0.25in^2, determine the flux
through the core ?
• A steel ring of 25 cm mean diameter has circular cross section of 3
cm diameter has a air gap 0f 1.5mm length. It is wound uniformly
with 70 turns of wire carrying a current of 2 A. Calculate
1)M.M.F 2) Flux density
3) Magnetic Flux 4) Reluctance
5)𝜇𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖𝑟𝑜𝑛
Assume that iron path tales 30% of total m.m.f
5
Problem No 5
• A flux density of 1.2 Wb/m^2 is required in the 2 mm air gap of an

electro magnet having an iron path of 1.5m. Calculate the ampere-
turns required ,assuming a relative permeability of 1000 for the iron
6
Problem No 6
• A coil is uniformly wound with 300 turns over a steel ring of relative
permeability 900 and mean diameter of 20 cm. The steel ring is made up of
bar having cross-section diameter of 20cm.If a coil has resistance of 50Ω
and connected to 250V DC supply, calculate
 M.M.F
 Field Intensity
 Reluctance
 Total Flux
7
Lecture-19
Tutorial
1
Objectives
• Solve Problems on series magnetic circuits
• Solve problems on Parallel magnetic circuits
2
Problem No 1
• A ring has a mean diameter of 21 cm and cross sectional area of 20
cm^2. The ring is made up of semicircular sections of cast iron and cast
steel with each joint having reluctance equal to an air gap of 0.2mm.
Find the ampere –turns required to produce a flux of 0.8mWb. Relative
permeability's of cast steel and cast iron are 800 and 166 respectively.
Neglect fringing and Leakage effects.
3
Problem No 2
• Determine magnetic flux through the air gap in the geometry shown
below. The structure is assumed to have a square cross section of
area 10-6 m^2, a core with 𝜇𝑟 = 1000, and dimensions l1 = 1cm, l3
= 3 cm and l4 = 2cm
4
Problem No 3
• Iron ring of 8 cm mean diameter is made up of round iron of
diameter 1 cm and permeability of 900, has an air gap of 2 mm
wide. It consists of winding with 400 turns carrying a current of
3.5A. Determine
a) M.M.F
b) Total reluctance
c) The flux and d) Flux density in the ring
5
Problem No 4
• A cast steel structure is made of a rod of square section
2.5cm*2.5cm as shown in the Figure. What is the current that
should be passed in a 500 turn coil on the left limb so that a flux of
2.5 mWb is made to pass in the right limb. Assume Permeability as
750 and neglect leakage.
6
Problem No 5
• Two circuits have a mutual inductance of 0.2 H. A current of 3 A in

the primary is reversed in 200 ms. Determine the e.m.f. induced in
the secondary, assuming the current changes at a uniform rate
7
Problem No 6
• A coil, x, has 1500 turns and a coil, y, situated close to x has 900
turns. When a current of 1 A flows in coil x a flux of 0.2 mWb links
with x and 65% of this flux links coil y. Determine
(a) the self inductance of coil x, and
(b) the mutual inductance between the coils.
8
Lecture -21
Mutually Induced E.M.F
1
Topics
• Mutually Induced E.M.F

• Mutual Inductance
• Coupling Coefficient
2
Objectives
• Explain Mutual Induced E.M.F
• Derive and explain mutual inductance
• Analyze the coupling coefficient for coupled magnetic circuits
• Explain dot convention and dot rules
3
Video
4
• The flux produced by one coil is getting linked with another coil and due
to change in this flux produced by the first coil, there is induced e.m.f in
the second coil, then such an e.m.f is called mutually induced e.m.f.
Magnitude of Mutually Induced E.M.F
N1 = Number of turns in coil A

N2 = Number of turns in coil B
I1= Current flowing through coil A
φ1= Flux Produced due to current I1 in W
Φ2 = Flux linking with coil B
From Faraday’s Law, the induced e.m.f in coil B is,
𝑑∅2
𝑒2 = −𝑁2
𝑑𝑡
5
∅1
Now ∅2 = × 𝐼1
𝐼1
• If permeability of the surroundings is assumed constant then ∅2 ∝ 𝐼1 and
∅2
hence is constant
𝐼1
∅2
• Rate of change of ∅2 = × Rate of change of current 𝐼1
𝐼1
𝑑∅2 ∅2 𝑑𝐼1
=
𝑑𝑡 𝐼1 𝑑𝑡
∅2 𝑑𝐼1
𝑒2 = −𝑁2 × ×
𝐼1 𝑑𝑡
𝑵 ∅
Here M = 𝟐 𝟐 is called coefficient of mutual inductance .
𝑰𝟏
𝒅𝑰𝟏
𝒆𝟐 = −𝑴 𝒗𝒐𝒍𝒕𝒔
𝒅𝒕
• Coefficient of mutual inductance is defined as the property by which e.m.f gets
induced in the second coil because of change in current through first coil. It is
measured in henries.
6
Mutual Inductance
• When two coils are brought close to each other, part of the
flux produced by one coil links with the other and vice-
versa
• Induced e.m.f in the coil due to change in the current of
other coil also called as mutually induced e.m.f, and the
coils are said to be mutually coupled
7
Mutual Inductance
A pair of coupled coils showing self Circuit symbol for two coils
and mutually linking flux with coupling
8
Coupling co-efficient
• Two coils which are coupled together
ɸ11-leakage flux
ɸ12-linking flux
• E.M.F induced in coil 2 due to i1
9
• Also, as the coupling is bilateral,
• The coupling coefficient, k, is defined as the ratio of linking flux to

total flux:
10
• k depends only on the geometry of the system,
11
or
where
• Energy stored in the coupled inductor
12
Dot Convention
• Sign of the induced E.M.F depends on the winding sense

• Dot convention is used as showing detailed winding diagram is
difficult
• Coils are marked with dots at the terminals which are
instantaneously of the same polarity.
13
Dot Convention
• Select a current direction in one coil and place a dot at the terminal
where this current enters the winding
• Place a dot at the terminal of the second winding where the natural
current leaves the winding
14
Dot Rule
• When the assumed currents both enter or both leave a pair of

coupled coils by the dotted terminals, the signs on the M-terms will
be the same as the signs on the L-terms
• If one current enters by a dotted terminal while the other leaves by a
dotted terminal, the signs on the M-terms will be opposite to the
signs on the L-terms.
15
Coupled Inductors in Series (Case-1)
• Both currents are entering at the dotted terminal so M is +ve
and
and
16
• For equivalent inductance,
17
• Here the current is entering coil 1 and leaving coil 2 through

dotted terminals, hence M is -ve
18
19
Summary
• The flux produced by one coil is getting linked with another coil and
due to change in this flux produced by the first coil, there is induced
e.m.f in the second coil, then such an e.m.f is called mutually induced
e.m.f
• Induced e.m.f in the coil due to change in the current of other coil also
called as mutually induced e.m.f
• Coupling coefficient (k) is defined as the ratio of linking flux to total
flux
• Dot Convention is used for sign of induced e.m.f
20
Lecture-22
Tutorial
1
Objectives
• Solve Self inductance

• Solve Mutual Inductance
• Solve B-H curve
2
Problem No 1
• A D.C supply of 200 V is applied across two mutually coupled coils in

series, A and B. Coil A has a resistance of 2Ω and a self inductance
of 0.5 H; coil B has a resistance of 8Ω and a self inductance of 2 H.
At a certain instant after the circuit is switched on, the current is 10
A and increasing a at rate of 25 A/s. Determine
(a) the mutual inductance between the coils, and
(b) the coefficient of coupling.
3
Problem No 2
• Two coils are connected in series and their total inductance is

measured as 0.12 H, and when the connection to one coil is
reversed, the total inductance is measured as 0.04 H. If the
coefficient of coupling is 0.8, determine
(a) the self inductance of each coil, and
(b) the mutual inductance between the coils
4
Problem No 3
• A hysteresis loop is plotted to scales of 1cm = 0.004T and 1cm = 10AT/m

and has an area of 200cm2. If the ferromagnetic circuit for the loop has
a volume of 0.02m3 and operates at 60Hz frequency. Determine the
hysteresis loss for the ferromagnetic specimen
5
Problem No 4
• Results of a test used to separate the hysteresis and eddy current

loses in the core of a transformer winding gave the following results
If the flux density is held constant throughout the test, determine the
values of the hysteresis and eddy current losses at 50Hz.
6
Problem No 5
• Find LAB
7
Problem No 6
• Impedance Z as shown in fig is
8
Lecture-23
Tutorials and Videos
1
Objectives
• Explain Diamagnetic and Paramagnetic Materials
• Analyze Magnetism and Diamagnetism
• Describe Ferro Magnetic Materials
• Analyze Eddy Current
• Solve B-H Curve
2
Video on Diamagnetic and
Paramagnetic Materials
3
Video on Magnetism and
Diamagnetism
4
Video on Ferro Magnetic Materials
5
Video on Eddy Current
6
Problem No 1
• A circular ring of mean circumference of 63 cm and cross sectional
area of 6 cm^2 is uniformly wound with a coil of 500 turns.
Calculate
a) The current required to produce a flux of 0.45mWb in the steel ring
b) The current required for the same amount of flux when a saw cut of
0.1 cm width is made in the ring.
7
Lecture -24
Magnetic Materials
1
Session Topics
• Inductance in Series
• Inductance in Parallel
• Magnetic Materials
2
Topics
• Inductance in Parallel
• Magnetic Materials
• B-H Curve
3
Objectives
•Describe the coupling effect for magnetic circuits

•Solve circuits involving coupled coils using Dot Rule
•Classify and explain properties of Magnetic Materials
•Analyze loss mechanism in the Magnetic Materials
4
Coupled Inductors in Parallel (Case-1)
Solving above equations we get,
5
6
Solving above equations we get,
7
8
Magnetic Materials and
Magnetism
• All matter is composed of atoms, and atoms are composed of

protons, neutrons and electrons
• The electrons are in constant motion around the nucleus
• A magnetic field is produced whenever an electrical charge
(electron) is in motion
9
Magnetic Materials and Magnetism
• Materials can react quite differently to the presence of an

external magnetic field
• This reaction is dependent on a number of factors, such as the
atomic and molecular structure of the material, and the net
magnetic field associated with the atoms
10
• In most atoms, electrons occur in pairs

• When electrons are paired together, their opposite spins cause
their magnetic fields to cancel each other
• Materials with some unpaired electrons will have a net magnetic
field and will react more to an external field
11
• Diamagnetic materials have a weak, negative susceptibility to
magnetic fields (μr<1)
• They are slightly repelled by a magnetic field and the material does
not retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed
• In diamagnetic materials all the electrons are paired so there is no
permanent net magnetic moment per atom
Example: copper, silver, and gold
12
• Paramagnetic materials have a small, positive susceptibility to magnetic
fields (μr>1)
• They are slightly attracted by a magnetic field and the material does not
retain the magnetic properties when the external field is removed
• Paramagnetic properties are due to the presence of some unpaired
electrons, and from the realignment of the electron paths caused by the
external magnetic field.
Example: magnesium, molybdenum, lithium, and tantalum
13
• Ferromagnetic materials have a large, positive susceptibility to an external
magnetic field (μr>>1)
• They exhibit a strong attraction to magnetic fields and are able to retain
their magnetic properties even after the removal of field
• When a magnetizing force is applied, the magnetic domains become
aligned to produce a strong magnetic field.
Example: Iron, nickel, and cobalt
14
Magnetic Saturation
B- Magnetic flux density, T

H-Magnetic field or M.M.F per unit mean length, AT/m
• Ferromagnetic materials have large μr (1,000 to 10,000) but it is not
constant
• Saturation is the state reached when an increase in applied
external magnetic field (H) cannot increase the magnetization (B)
of the material further
15
Magnetic Saturation
• When all the magnetic domains are perfectly aligned there is no

enhancement of magnetic flux even if the field strength is
increased 16
Hysteresis
• When a ferromagnetic material is magnetized in one direction, it will
not relax back to zero magnetization when the imposed magnetizing
field is removed
• The lack of retraceability of the magnetization curve is the property
called hysteresis
• A hysteresis loop shows the relationship between the induced
magnetic flux density (B) and the magnetizing force (H) in both
increasing and decreasing fashion
17
B-H Curve
Hysteresis Loop
18
B-H Curve
• Retentivity it is a material's ability to retain a certain amount of
residual magnetic field when the magnetizing force is removed
after achieving saturation
• Residual Residual Flux is the magnetic flux density that remains in
a material when the magnetizing force is zero
• Coercive Force is the amount of reverse magnetic field which must
be applied to a magnetic material to make the magnetic flux
return to zero
19
Hysteresis Loss
• When a ferromagnetic material is excited by an ac current, it
undergoes a series of magnetization and demagnetization cycles
• During each cycle certain amount of energy is lost as heat, which
is proportional to the area under B-H curve
• This loss is known as hysteresis loss
20
Steinmetz’s empirical formula for
Hysteresis loss
• Charles Steinmetz proposed the empirical formula for calculating
hysteresis loss analytically,
Ph - Hysteresis loss per unit volume

Bmax - Peak value of flux density
f- frequency of ac current
kh - coefficient depends on the material
n- Steinmetz exponent may vary from 1.5 to 2.5 (1.6 for iron)
21
Eddy Current Loss
• When a magnetic material contains alternating flux, there will be an
induced e.m.f within the material as given by Faraday’s law
• As the material is conductive, the free electrons will experience a
force and will move in circular fashion (swirling) in a direction given
by Lenz’s law
• These induced currents are called as Eddy Currents and power loss
associated with them is called as Eddy Current Loss
22
Eddy Current Loss
Motion of free electrons is similar

to swirling of water Direction of eddy currents
• To reduce eddy current loss several laminations (which are insulated

from each other by paint or varnish) are used instead of a single solid
material
23
Eddy Loss Formula
Peddy - Eddy Loss per unit volume

Ke - Coefficient depends on the material
f- Frequency of AC
Bmax - Peak value of flux density
τ - Thickness of each lamination
24
Summary
• Most materials can be classified as diamagnetic, paramagnetic or

ferromagnetic
• The lack of retrace ability of the magnetization curve is the property
called hysteresis
• During each cycle certain amount of energy is lost as heat, which is
proportional to the area under B-H curve
25
Transformers
&
AC Machines
1
Lecture-25
Principle of Operation of a
Transformer
2
Topics
• Transformers Introduction
• Constructional Details
• Transformer Operation
• Classification of Transformers
• Application Examples of Transformer
3
Objectives
• State the meaning of "Transformer action”
• Describe physical characteristics of a transformer, including the

basic parts, main core types and winding types
• Name the source and load windings of a transformer
• Explain the principle of operation of a transformer
• Classify the transformer based on turns ratio
4
Transformer
• Transformer is a static device that changes ac electric
power at one voltage level to ac electric power at another
voltage level through the action of a magnetic field.
• Transformer works on the principle of Faraday’s Law Of

Electromagnetic Induction.
• Faraday’s Law, “Rate of change of flux linkage with

respect to time is directly proportional to the induced
EMF in a conductor or coil”
5
Transformer Uses
Changing
• Voltage Levels
• Current Levels
• Impedance values
6
Constructional Details
7 7
Basic Structure of Transformer
8
Constructional Details
• Requirements of magnetic material
are,
 High permeability
 Low reluctance
 High saturation flux density
 Smaller area under B-H curve
• For small transformers, the
laminations are in the form of E,I, C
and O.
9
How Transformer Works
Laminated Soft
Iron Core
Output Voltage
Input Voltage (A.C.)
(A.C.)
Primary Coil Secondary Coil
10
Transformer Operation
11
• Primary coil is supplied with a AC voltage.
• Current drawn produces a magnetic field
• Magnetic field transported to a secondary coil via a magnetic
circuit
• Magnetic field induces a voltage in secondary coil
V+ V+
12
• Primary coil normally has a subscript of 1

• Secondary coil has a subscript of 2
I1 I2
V1 V2
13
Working Transformer
14
Ultra high Voltage Transformer
15
Classification of Transformers
Transformers
Based on Based on
Transformer
Core Ratio
Core Shell
Step Up Step Down
Type Type
16
Transformer Core
Core type Construction Shell Type Construction
17
Winding Types
• Three types
Concentric
Higher voltage closest to Iron
18
Winding Types
Sandwich or Pancake
Very high voltages on both windings
19
Winding Types
Side by Side
Very good insulation between windings
20
Why do we laminate the core?
I
S
21
Basic Types of Transformer
• Based on TURNS RATIO
1. Step-up
turns ratio > 1
VS > VP
IS < IP
2. Step-down
turns ratio < 1
VS < VP
IS > IP
22
Transformer Symbols
NP = number of turns in the primary
NS = number of turns in the secondary
VP or EP or V1 = voltage of the primary
VS or ES or V2 = voltage of the secondary
IP or I1 = current in the primary
IS or I2 = current in the secondary
23
Application Example of Transformer
• Transformers are a necessary part of all power

supplies.
24
Application Example of Transformer
• Power distribution systems
25
Summary
• Transformer is a very common magnetic structure found in many
everyday applications.
• Transformer couples two circuits magnetically rather than through

any direct connection.
• Transformers are used to raise or lower voltage and current

between one circuit and the other, and plays a major role in almost
all AC circuits.
• Transformer works on the principle of mutual induction
26
Lecture-26
Ideal Transformer
1
Topics
• EMF Induced in Transformer

• Transformer Rating
• Ideal Transformers
• Ideal Transformer under No-Load
• Practical Transformer
2
Objectives
• Derive the EMF equation of Transformer and use it in calculations
• Identify the transformer ratings based on its name plate details

• Describe the properties of Ideal transformer
• Differentiate the Ideal and practical transformers
• Solve for primary voltage, secondary voltage, primary current and

number of turns in the secondary given various transformer values
3
EMF Induced in Transformer
Flux ɸ is produced which is given by an equation
= Npip/S …….(1)
where S is the reluctance
4
EMF Induced in Transformer Cont..,
According to Faraday law of electromagnetic induction
d
vp  N p ……(2)
dt
Substitute  = Npip/S into the above equation , then
2
Np d
vp   (ip ) ……(3)
S dt
5
If ip is sinusoidal, the flux produced also sinusoidal, i.e
 = m sin 2ft ……(4)

d m sin 2ft
therefore vp  N p
dt
vp = NP2fmcos 2ft = NP2fmsin (2ft + /2) ……(5)
The peak value = Vpm = NP2fm ……(6)

and vp is leading the flux by p/2.
Vpm
The rms value Vp   0.707  N P 2πf m  4.44 N P f m ……(7)
2
6
From (2) and (8) we get
Vs Ns …….(9)

Vp N p
NpIp = NsIs
Ip Ns
rearrange 
Is N p
7
Transformer Rating
•If a transformer carries the 10kVA, 1100/110volts information on its
name-plate. What are the meanings of these ratings?
•Voltage ratio indicates that the transformer has two windings, the
high-voltage winding is rated for 1100 Volts and
low-voltage winding for 110 volts.
•The kVA rating means that each winding is designed for 10 kVA.
current rating for the high-voltage winding = 10000/1100 = 9.09A
Current rating for low voltage winding = 10000/110 = 90.9 A
8
Worked Example No.1
Problem
A 250 kVA,11000V/400V, 50Hz single –phase transformer has 80 turns
on the secondary. Calculate
(a) The appropriate values of the primary and secondary currents;
(b) The approximate number of primary turns;
(c) the maximum value of the flux.
P 250 103
(a) Full-load primary current Ip    22.7 A
Vp 11000
P 250  10 -3
Full-load secondary current I s    625 A
Vs 400
9
Problem
(b) Number of primary turns
Vs Ns
recall 
Vp N p
Ns 80
NP   VP  11000  2200
Vs 400
(c) Maximum flux

recall E  4.44 N f  m
Es 400
m    22.5mWb
4.44 N s f 4.44  80  50
10
Ideal Transformers
• Ideal Transformer is a unity coupled, lossless
transformer in which the primary and secondary

coils have infinite self inductances.
Transformer is ideal if: Ideal transformer
1) Large reactance coils; L1 , L2 , M  
2) Unity Coupling k=1.

3) Coils are lossless (R1=R2=0) Circuit symbol for the Ideal transformer
11
Variables of an Ideal Transformer
• Input and Output voltages and currents
of an ideal transformer are related only
by the turns ratio.
V1  j MI 2
V1  j L1 I1  j MI 2 I1 
j L1
MV1 j M 2 I 2
V2  j MI1  j L2 I 2 V2  j L2 I 2  
L1 L1
Perfect Coupling k  1, Thus we have M  L1 L2 Substitute
L1 L2 V1 j L1 L2 I 2 L2 N2
V2  j L2 I 2    V1  nV1  V1
L1 L1 L1 N1
V2 N 2
  n  Turns Ratio
V1 N1
12
Turns Ratio of an Ideal Transformer
V2 N 2
  n  Turns Ratio
V1 N1
• A Ideal Transformer is called:

1) Step-up transformer if n > 1.
2) Step-down transformer if n < 1.
3) Isolation transformer if n=1.
13
Ideal Transformer with No Load
IO
EP VP NP NS VS
Io is the no load current when the secondary is open circuit.
14
Ideal Transformer with No Load Cont...
VP= emf of supply to the primary coil
EP=emf induced in the primary coil
VS=emf induced in the secondary coil
Iom=magnetizing current
Io1=current to compensate the losses
due to hysteresis and eddy current.
Io=the no load current and given by
I o  I om
2
 I o21
I o1
Power factor coso 
Io 15
Practical Transformer
Practical transformer has
• Copper resistance
• Leakage flux
• Finite core permeability (i.e., finite inductance)
• Core loss
Note: Practically no transformer is ideal .knowledge of

ideal transformer helps us to develop the concept of
behavior of practical transformer
16
Problem
Worked Example No.2
The diagram shows a transformer. Calculate the voltage across the
secondary coil of this transformer.
Solution
VP N P

VS N S
Substituting
12 180

VS 540
Step-up Transformer Crossmultiplying
180.VS  12 x 540
12 x 540
 VS 
180
 VS  36 V
17
Worked Example No. 3
Problem
A transformer which has 1380 turns in its primary coil is to be used to convert the mains
voltage of 230 V to operate a 6 V bulb. How many turns should the secondary coil of this
transformer have?
Solution
VP = 230 V VP N P

NP = 1380 VS = 6 V VS N S
NS = ? Substituting
230 1380

6 NS
Crossmultiplying
Step-down Transformer
2300.N S  6 x 13800
6 x 1380
 NS 
230
 N S  36 turns
18
Summary
• EMF equation of Transformer is E  4.44 N f  m
• Losses are zero in an ideal transformer
• An ideal transformer divides a sinusoidal input voltage by a factor

of a and multiplies a sinusoidal input current by a to obtain
secondary voltage and current.
• If a transformer increases the voltage, the current decreases and

vice versa.
19
Lecture-27
Circuit model of a Transformer
1
Topics
• Ideal Transformer under On Load

• Circuit Model of Transformer under No-Load
condition
• Circuit Model of Transformer under Load condition
2
Objectives
• State the meaning of a "no-load condition" and “on-load condition"
relative to a transformer
• Describe the operation of ideal transformer under on-load

condition
• Construct a transformer on-load phasor diagram for different loads
• Derive the equivalent resistance and reactance referred to the

primary and secondary side of a transformer
3
Ideal Transformer On Load
4
Phasor Diagram of Ideal Transformer
For Resistive Load :
V1
I2’ I1
Ø1
Ø0= 90 Ø
I0=Iµ
I2
E2
Phasor diagram for resistive load
5
Phasor Diagram of Ideal transformer
for inductive load
V1
I2’ I1
Ø1
Ø0= 90 Ø
I0=Iµ
Ø2
I2
E2
Phasor diagram for inductive load 6
Phasor Diagram of Ideal transformer
for Capacitive load
V1
I2’ I1
Ø1
Ø2
Ø0= 90
Ø
I0=Iµ
Ø2
I2
E2
Phasor diagram for capacitive load 7
Equivalent Circuit of Transformer
No Load Equivalent Circuit
8
Equivalent Circuit with Load
9
Equivalent Circuit with Load Cont..
I R2  I R
2 2 1
2 1 2
2
I
R 
1 2
2 2
R2
I 1
R2 I1
K 

1 where
R 2 I2
K2
The R21 is called the secondary resistance referred to primary.
10
Equivalent Circuit Referred to Primary
Side
Transferring Secondary Side Parameters to Primary Side
11
Problem
where
12
Equivalent Circuit Referred to
Secondary Side
Transferring Primary Side Parameters to Secondary Side
Similarly exciting circuit parameters are also transferred to

secondary as Ro’ and Xo’
13
Approximate Equivalent Circuit
I12 R2'  I 22 R2
2 2
 I2   V1 
 
R2'  R2    R2  
 I1   V2 
2 2
Similarly  N1   V1 

X 2'  X 2  
  X 2  
 N2   V2 
14
Equivalent Circuit
2
 V1 
Re  R1  R2'  R1  R2  
 V2 
2
 V1 
X e  X 1  X 2'  X 1  X 2  
 V2 
(b)
Ze
then Z e  Re2  X e2 V1
I1 I2
E1=V2’
where Re  Z e cose E2=V2
To
load
X e  Z e sin e
Xe Transformer simplified circuit
and tan e 
Re
15
Example
•A single-phase transformer has 1000 turns on the primary and 200
turns on the secondary. The no load current is 3A at a power factor
0.2 lagging when secondary current is 280A at a power factor of 0.8
lagging. Calculate the primary current and the power factor. Assume
the voltage drop in the windings to be negligible.
Solution: Ip Ns

Is Np
NS 200
IP   IS   280  56 A
NP 1000
16

Problem
sin  0.6
cos2'  0.8
V1 , E 1
2'
- I 2‘
coso  0.2  sin o  0.98 I 1
1
Solve for horizontal and vertical components O Io
I1 cos1  I 2' cos2'  I o coso 
 56  0.8  3  0.2  45.4 A 2
I1 sin 1  I 2' sin 2'  I o sin o I2

V2 , E 2
 56  0.6  3  0.98  36.54 A
I1  45.42  36.542  58.3 A
tan 1 
36.54
 0.805  1  38o
50'
45.4
Power factor cos1  cos 38o50'  0.78 lagging
17
Summary
• Operation of ideal transformer under on-load condition
• Phasor diagrams of the transformer at different loads
• Development of equivalent circuit of a transformer referred to

primary side
• Development of equivalent circuit of a transformer referred to

secondary side
18
Lecture-28
Tutorial
1
Objectives

• Solve the problems on the transformer principle of operation
• Solve the problems on the no-load phasor diagram
2
Problem 1:
4500 V/225 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer is to have an
approximate e.m.f. per turn of 15 V and operate with a maximum
flux of 1.4 T. Calculate (a) the number of primary and secondary
turns and (b) the cross-sectional area of the core.
Problem 2:
A 2400 V/400 V single-phase transformer takes a no load current of
0.5 A and the core loss is 400 W. Determine the values of the
magnetizing and core loss components of the no load current. Draw
to scale the no-load phasor diagram for the transformer.
3
Problem 3:
The number of turns on the primary and secondary windings of a
transformer are 1000 and 2000 respectively. When the load current
on the secondary is 100A at 0.8 power factor lagging, the primary
current is 30A at 0.707 power factor lagging. Determine the no-load
current of the transformer and its phase with respect to the voltage.
Problem 4:
A 500/250V, 50Hz, single-phase transformer is to be worked at a
maximum flux density of 1.2T in the core. The effective cross-
sectional area of the core is 90cm2. Calculate the primary and
secondary turns.
4
Problem 5:
A 2400 V/400V single-phase transformer takes a no-load current of 0.5A
and the core loss is 400 W. Determine the values of the magnetising
and core loss components of the no-load current. Draw to scale the no-
load phasor diagram for the transformer.
Problem 6:
A transformer takes a current of 0.8A when its primary is connected to
a 240 volt, 50 Hz supply, the secondary being on open circuit. If the
power absorbed is 72 watts, determine the
(a) iron loss current
(b) power factor on no-load and
(c) magnetising current. 5
Problem 7:
A 500 V/100 V, single-phase transformer takes a full load primary
current of 4A. Neglecting losses, determine the
(a) full load secondary current and
(b) rating of the transformer.
Problem 8:
A 3300 V/440 V, single-phase transformer takes a no-load current of
0.8A and the iron loss is 500 W. Draw the no-load phasor diagram and
determine the values of the magnetising and core loss components of
the no-load current.
6
Lecture-29
Tutorial
1
Objectives
• Solve the problems on the transformer E.M.F. equation
• Solve the problems on the on-load phasor diagram
• Solve the problem on the equivalent circuit of a transformer
2
Problem 1:
A single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has 25 primary turns and 300
secondary turns. The cross-sectional area of the core is 300 cm2. When
the primary winding is connected to a 250V supply, determine the
(a) maximum value of the flux density in the core and
(b) voltage induced in the secondary winding.
Problem 2:
A 4500 V/225 V, 50 Hz single-phase transformer is to have an
approximate e.m.f. per turn of 15V and operate with a maximum flux of
1.4 T. Calculate the
(a) number of primary and secondary turns and
(b) cross-sectional area of the core.
3
Problem 3:
A single-phase, 50 Hz transformer has 40 primary turns and 520
secondary turns. The cross-sectional area of the core is 270 cm2.When
the primary winding is connected to a 300 volt supply, determine the
(a) maximum value of flux density in the core and
(b) voltage induced in the secondary winding
Problem 4:
A 3.3 kV/110 V, 50 Hz, single-phase transformer is to have an
approximate e.m.f. per turn of 22V and operate with a maximum flux of
1.25 T. Calculate the
(a) number of primary and secondary turns and
(b) crosssectional area of the core
4
Problem 5:
A single-phase transformer has 2000 turns on the primary and 800 turns
on the secondary. Its no-load current is 5A at a power factor of 0.20
lagging. Assuming the volt drop in the windings is negligible, determine
the primary current and power factor when the secondary current is
100A at a power factor of 0.85 lagging.
Problem 6:
A single-phase transformer has 2400 turns on the primary and 600 turns
on the secondary. Its no-load current is 4A at a power factor of 0.25
lagging. Assuming the volt drop in the windings is negligible, calculate
the primary current and power factor when the secondary current is
80A at a power factor of 0.8 lagging.
5
Problem 7:
A transformer has 600 primary turns and 150 secondary turns. The
primary and secondary resistances are 0.25 and 0.01 ohms respectively
and the corresponding leakage reactances are 1.0 and 0.04 ohms
respectively. Determine the
(a) equivalent resistance referred to the primary winding,
(b) equivalent reactance referred to the primary winding
(c) equivalent impedance referred to the primary winding and
(d) phase angle of the impedance.
6
Lecture-30
OC and SC Test
1
Topics
• Determination of Parameters of Circuit Model of

Transformer (O.C and S.C Test)
• Voltage Regulation
• Transformer Efficiency
2
Objectives
• Explain the need of Open Circuit (OC) and Short Circuit (SC) tests
• Conduct Open Circuit (OC) and Short Circuit (SC) tests
• Compute parameters of equivalent circuit and voltage regulation

from the tests results
3
Tests conducted on a transformer
• Open Circuit test

• Short Circuit test
• Sumpner’s or Back-to-Back test
• Polarity test
In this lecture we will discuss the OC and SC tests only.
4
Open circuit and Short circuit tests
Purpose of conducting these tests are:
i. To determine the parameters of the equivalent circuit
ii. To pre-determine the voltage regulation and efficiency at any given

load.
5
Open-circuit Test
• O.C Test is usually conducted on H.V side

• O.C Test is used to find
(i) No load loss or core loss
(ii) No load current Io which is helpful in finding Go(or Ro ) and Bo (or Xo )
6
Open-circuit Test Cont...
Core loss  Woc
 V0 I 0 cos φ 0
Woc
cos φ 0 
V0 I 0
V0
I c or I w  I 0 cos φ 0 R0 
Iw
I m or I μ  I 0 sin φ 0  I 02 - I 2w X0 
V0
I
I0
I 0  V0 Y0 ;  Yo  I
V0 G0  w
V0
Woc  V02 G 0 ; I
B0 
Woc V0
 condu ct a n c e G0 
V02
& suscep t a n c e B 0  Y02  G 02
7
Short-circuit Test
• S.C Test is usually conducted on L.V side

• S.C Test is used to find
(i) Full load copper loss – to pre determine the efficiency
(ii) Z01 or Z02; X01 or X02; R01 or R02 - to predetermine the voltage
regulation
8
Short-circuit Test Cont..
Full load cu loss  Wsc  I sc2 R01

Wsc
R 01  2
I sc
Vsc
Z 01 
I sc
 X 01  Z 012  R012
9
Voltage Regulation of a Transformer
• Voltage regulation of a transformer is defined as the change
in secondary terminal voltage from no- load to full-load
expressed as a secondary rated voltage with primary applied
voltage held constant.
no - load voltage  full - load voltage

Voltage regulation 
no - load voltage
10
Voltage Regulation of a Transformer Cont..
• The voltage regulation of a transformer can be obtained from its
approximate equivalent circuit referred to primary or secondary
windings.
I2 Xo2
Ro2
E2 V2
Approximate equivalent circuit referred to secondary
11
Phasor Diagram
E2= OC = OA+AB+BC (or FG)

= OA+AF cosφ2 + EG sinφ2
=V2 +I2 Ro2 cosφ2+I2 Xo2 sinφ2
12
• Voltage drop in the secondary terminal voltage

E2 - V2 = I2 Ro2 cosφ2 +I2 Xo2 sinφ2
• Voltage drop in the secondary terminal voltage for any load power
factor.
E2 - V2 = I2 Ro2 cosφ2 ± I2 Xo2 sinφ2
Where +ve sign for lagging power factor load
-ve sign for leading power factor load
• Similarly the voltage drop as referred to primary is

E1 – V1 = I1 Ro1 cosφ2 ± I1 Xo1 sinφ2
13
Voltage Regulation Based on Phasor’s
In terms of secondary values
0 V2  V2 I 2 R02 cos 2  I 2 X 02 sin  2
% regulation  
0 V2 0 V2
where ' ' for lagging and '-' for leading

In terms of primary values
V1  V2' I 1 R01 cos1  I 1 X 01 sin 1
% regulation  
V1 V1
where ' ' for lagging and '-' for leading
14
Transformer Efficiency
Transformer efficiency is defined as (applies to motors, generators and
transformers):
Pout
   100%
Pin
Pout
  100%
Pout  Ploss
Types of losses incurred in a transformer:
Copper I2R losses
Hysteresis losses
Eddy current losses
Therefore, for a transformer, efficiency may be calculated using the following:
VS I S cos
 x100%
PCu  Pcore  VS I S cos
15
Summary
•Open-circuit and short-circuit tests are used to determine
equivalent circuit parameters. By conducting these tests
efficiency and voltage regulation can be predetermined at
any load.
16
Lecture-31
Tutorial
1
Objectives
• Solve the problems on the transformer tests
2
Problem 1:
The following readings were obtained on O.C. and S.C. tests on a
200/400V,50Hz, single –phase transformer
O.C.test (l.v. side) : 200V,0.6 A,60W
S.C.test (h.v. side) : 15V,9A,80W
Calculate the secondary voltage when delivering 4 kW at 0.8 power
factor lagging, the primary voltage being 200V.
3
Problem 2:
A 50KVA, 2200/110V transformer when tested gave the following results
OC test measurements on the L.V side : 400W, 10A, 110V
SC Test measurements on the HV side : 808W, 20.5A, 90V
Compute all the parameters of the equivalent circuit referred to the HV
and LV side of the transformer.
4
Problem 3:
A single-phase 3 kVA, 230/115V, 50- Hz transformer has the following
constants;
Resistance : Primary 0.3 Ω ,secondary 0.09Ω
Reactance : primary 0.4Ω, secondary 0.1Ω
Resistance of equivalent exciting circuit referred to primary, R0= 600Ω
Reactance of equivalent exciting circuit- referred to primary ,X0= 200Ω
What should be the readings of the instruments when the transformer
is connected for 1)O.C. test
2) S.C. test in both tests supply is given to h.v side
5
Lecture-32
Tutorial
1
Objectives
•Solve the problems on the voltage regulation
•Solve the problems on the transformer efficiency
2
Problem 1:
A 20KVA, 2000/200V, single-phase transformer has the following
parameters
HV winding R1=3 ohms X1=5.3 ohms
LV winding R2=0.05 ohms X2=0.05 ohm
Find the voltage regulation at 0.8 power factor lagging and 0.707 Pf
leading.
3
Problem 2:
The Parameters of the equivalent circuit of a 100kVA,2000/ 200 volts 1-phase
transformer are as follows
Primary resistance = 0.2ohms
Secondary Resistance = 2 milli ohms
Primary leakage reactance = 0.45ohms
Secondary leakage reactance = 4.5 milli ohms
Core loss resistance = 10kilo ohms
Magnetizing reactance = 1.55 kilo ohms
Using the circuit referred to primary, determine the
1)Voltage regulation
2) Efficiency of the transformer operating at rated load with 0.8 lagging power
factor 4
Problem 3:
A 25 kVA 2200/220 V, 50 Hz distribution transformer is tested for efficiency
and regulation as follows:
O.C. test (l.v side) : 220V,4 A, 150W
S.C test (h.v. side) : 90 V,10A, 350W
Determine
1) Core loss
2) Equivalent resistance referred to primary and secondary
3) Equivalent Reactance referred to primary and secondary
4) Regulation of transformer at 0.8 power factor lagging current and
5) Efficiency at full –load and half load at 0.8 power factor lagging current
5
Lecture-33
3-Phase Induction Motor
1
THREE-PHASE INDUCTION MOTORS
2
Topics
• Induction Motors Introduction
• Classification of Electrical Machines
• Construction details of Electric Machines
• Principle of operation of three phase Induction Motor
• Expressions for Slip, Voltage and Frequency Induced in

the Rotor
3
Objectives
• Explain electromagnetic phenomena in the Electrical Machines
• Discuss the constructional details of Induction Motor
• Describe the principle of operation of 3-phase Induction Motor
• Derive the expressions for Slip, Slip Speed, Voltage and Frequency
Induced in the Rotor
4
ELECTROMECHANICAL ENERGY CONVERSION
Electrical Mechanical
system Electric Machine system
e, i T, n
Motor
Energy flow
Generator
•An electrical machine is link between an electrical

system and a mechanical system.
•Conversion from mechanical to electrical: generator
•Conversion from electrical to mechanical: motor
5 5
Classification of Electrical Machines
Electrical
Machines
DC AC
machine machine
Synchronous Induction
machine machine
•Machines are called AC machines (generators or motors) if the electrical

system is AC.
•DC machines (generators or motors) if the electrical system is DC.
6
Electromagnetic Phenomena in the Electric Machines
Electrical Coupling Mechanical

system magnetic system
fields
e, i T, n
•When a conductor moves in a magnetic field, voltage is induced in the

conductor.
•When a current-carrying conductor is placed in a magnetic field, the

conductor experiences a mechanical force.
7 7
Applications of AC Rotating Machines
Asynchronous (Induction) Machines:
•Induction Motors: Most widely used electrical motors in
both domestic and industrial applications.
•Induction Generators: Due to lack of a separate field
excitation, these machines are rarely used as generators.
Synchronous Machines:
•Synchronous Generators: A primary source of electrical
energy
•Synchronous Motors: Used as as power factor compensators
(synchronous condensers)
8
Electric Machines Basic Structure
The structure of an electric machine has a'
b
two major components, stator and rotor, c

Rotor
separated by the air gap.

c'
b'
• Stator: a
Stator
Does not move and normally is the
outer frame of the machine.
• Rotor:
Stator
Is free to move and normally is the inner
part of the machine. R
B’ Y’
N
Rotor
Both rotor and stator are made of
B
ferromagnetic materials. Y S
R’
9
Constructional details of Induction Motor
General
• Induction machine has a stator and a
rotor like other type of motors.
•Types of rotors in Induction machine :
1-squirrel-cage winding,
2-Wound-rotor
• Both three-phase and single-phase
motors are widely used.
Construction of Induction Motor
10
IM Application
• For industrial applications,

the three-phase induction Housing
motor is used to drive

machines Motor
11
Construction (Rotor construction)
• Types of rotors in Induction machine
Squirrel cage rotor.

Wound rotor
• Motors employed squirrel cage rotor are called squirrel cage

induction motor.
• Motors employed wound rotor are called wound motors or slip
ring motors.
12
Construction (Rotor construction)
• Induction motor types:
 Squirrel cage type:
Rotor winding is composed of copper bars embedded in the
rotor slots and shorted at both end by end rings
Simple, low cost, robust, low maintenance
 Wound rotor type:

Rotor winding is wound by wires. The winding terminals can be
connected to external circuits through slip rings and brushes.
Easy to control speed, more expensive.
13
Squirrel-Cage Rotor
• Rotor is from laminated iron

core with slots.
14
Squirrel cage rotor Construction Details
• It has most rugged construction
• The rotor consists of a cylindrical laminated cone.
• The conductors consists of heavy balls of copper, aluminium or alloy.
• It resembles a squirrel case, hence the name squirrel case rotor.
• The rotor slots are given a slight skew to Make the motor run quickly
by reducing magnetic hum.
15
Squirrel cage rotor
16
Slip Ring Rotor
•Rotor contains windings similar to stator.
•Connections from rotor are brought out using slip rings that
• are rotating with the rotor and carbon brushes that are static.
17
Construction
Squirrel cage rotor
Wound rotor
Notice the
slip rings
18
Principle of Operation
• Torque producing mechanism
• When a 3 phase stator winding is connected to a 3 phase

voltage supply, 3 phase current will flow in the windings, hence
the stator is energized.
• A rotating flux Φ is produced in the air gap. The flux Φ induces
a voltage Ea in the rotor winding (like a transformer).
• Induced voltage produces rotor current, if rotor circuit is
closed.
• The rotor current interacts with the flux Φ, producing torque.
The rotor rotates in the direction of the rotating flux.
19
Induction Motors and Transformers
• Both IM and transformer works on the principle of

induced voltage
Transformer: voltage applied to the primary windings
produce an induced voltage in the secondary windings
Induction motor: voltage applied to the stator windings

produce an induced voltage in the rotor windings
20
Frequency
• The frequency of the voltage induced in the rotor is given by
Pn
fr 
120
Where fr = the rotor frequency (Hz)
P = number of stator poles
n = slip speed (rpm)
P  (ns  nm )
fr 
120
P  sns
  sf e
120
21
Slip and Slip Speed
The slip s of an induction motor is the difference between the
synchronous speed and the rotor speed, expressed as percent
(per unit) of synchronous speed
The per-unit slip is given by the equation
ns - nr S = slip
S= ns = synchronous speed [r/min]
ns nr = rotor speed [r/min]
22 22
Voltage and Frequency Induced in the Rotor
The voltage and frequency induced in the rotor both depend
on the slip. They are given by the following equation
f2 = s f
E2 = s Eoc (approx.)
f2 = frequency of the voltage and current in the rotor [Hz]

f = frequency of the source connected to the stator [Hz]
s = slip
E2 = voltage induced in the rotor at the slip s
Eoc = open-circuit voltae induced in the rotor when at rest [V]
23 23
Summary
• The basic types of three-phase induction motors are:
squirrel cage induction motor
wound rotor induction motor
•Wound-rotor motors have three slip rings on the rotor shaft to
provide external connection to the rotor.
•synchronous speed of the induction motors are depends on
number of stator poles per phase and frequency of the applied
voltage.
•Maximum torque is developed when stator and rotor flux are in
phase with each other.
24
Lecture-34
Equivalent Circuit of 3 - phase
Induction Motor
1
Topics
• Equivalent Circuit of three phase Induction Motor
• Torque-speed characteristics
2
Objectives
• Develop the equivalent circuit of 3 - phase Induction Motor
• Describe the torque-speed characteristics of 3 - phase Induction

Motor
• Derive the Torque equation of 3 - phase Induction Motor
• Describe the power flow of 3 - phase Induction Motor
3
Equivalent Circuit
• The induction motor is similar to the transformer with the
exception that its secondary windings are free to rotate.
4
Equivalent Circuit
• When the rotor is locked (or blocked), i.e. s =1,
the largest voltage and rotor frequency are
induced in the rotor, Why?
• On the other side, if the rotor rotates at
synchronous speed, i.e. s = 0, the induced voltage
and frequency in the rotor will be equal to zero,
Why? E  sE R R0
• Where ER0 is the largest value of the rotor’s induced

voltage obtained at s = 1(loacked rotor)
5
Equivalent Circuit
• The same is true for the frequency, i.e.
fr = S fe
• It is known that
x = ωL = 2 π f L
• So, as the frequency of the induced voltage in the
rotor changes, the reactance of the rotor circuit
also changes X r  r Lr  2 f r Lr
Where Xr0 is the rotor reactance
 2 sf e Lr
at the supply frequency
(at blocked rotor)  sX r 0
6
Equivalent Circuit
• Then, we can draw the rotor equivalent circuit as

follows
Where ER is the induced voltage in the rotor and RR is

the rotor resistance
7
Equivalent Circuit
• Now we can calculate the rotor current as
ER
IR 
( RR  jX R )
sER 0

( RR  jsX R 0 )
• Dividing both the numerator and denominator by

s so nothing changes we get
Where ER0 is the induced voltage and XR0 is the rotor

reactance at blocked rotor condition (s = 1) 8
Equivalent Circuit
• Now we can have the rotor equivalent circuit
9
Equivalent Circuit
• Now as we managed to solve the induced voltage and different frequency
problems, we can combine the stator and rotor circuits in one equivalent
circuit
Where
X 2  aeff
2
X R0
R2  aeff
2
RR
IR
I2 
aeff
E1  aeff ER 0
NS
aeff 
NR
10
Equivalent Circuit
• We can rearrange the equivalent circuit as follows
Resistance
Actual rotor
equivalent to
resistance
mechanical load
11
Torque-speed characteristics
Typical torque-speed characteristics of induction motor
12
1. Induced torque is zero at synchronous speed. Discussed
earlier.
2. Curve is nearly linear between no-load and full load. In

this range, the rotor current, torque increase linearly
with the slip.
3. Maximum possible torque is called as pullout torque and

is 2 to 3 times the rated full-load torque.
13
4. Starting torque of the motor is slightly higher than its
full-load torque, so the motor will start carrying any load
it can supply at full load.
5. The torque of the motor for a given slip varies as the

square of the applied voltage.
6. If the rotor is driven faster than synchronous speed it

will run as a generator, converting mechanical power to
electric power.
14
Torque-Equation
• Torque, can be derived from power equation in term of mechanical
power or electrical power.
2 n
Power , P  T , where   (rad / s)
60
60 P
Hence, T 
2 n
Thus,
60 Pm
Mechanical Torque , Tm 
2nr
60 Po
Output Torque , To 
2nr
15
Torque-Equation
• Note that, Mechanical torque can written in terms of circuit parameters. This
is determined by using approximation method
R ' Hence, Plot Tm vs s

Pm  3I R ' R (1  s ) and Pm  rTm
2
s
Tmax
 2 RR '  Tm
3 I ' (1  s )
Pm  R s 
Tm   
r  r 
 
... Tst
...
...
 3(VRM ) 2   sRR ' 

Tm    2
 2 ns   ( RR ' )  ( sX R ' ) 
2 s=1 smax ns
smax is the slip for Tmax to occur

16
Torque-Equation
Starting Torque , s  1
 
 3(V )  
2
RR ' 
s
Tst    2
 2  ns    ( Rs  RR ' )  ( X s  X R ' ) 
2
  60  
 RR ' 
smax    
 ( R s )  ( X R ' ) 
2 2
 
 3(V ) 2   
1
Tmax   s   
   ns    Rs  ( Rs )  ( X s  X R ' ) 
2 2
 22  60    
    
17
Power Flow of Induction Motor
18
Summary
• Equivalent Circuit of three phase Induction Motor is

developed.
• Behavior of Torque-speed characteristics are analyzed.
• Power Flow of Induction Motor
19
Lecture-35
Tutorial
1
Objectives
• Solve the problems on the 3 – phase Induction Motors
2
Problem 1:
A 3 – φ, 4 pole, 50 Hz induction motor runs at 1460 r.p.m.
find its %age slip.
Problem 2:
A 12 pole 3 - φ alternator driver at speed of 500 r.p.m.
supplies power to an 8 pole 3 φ induction motor. If the
slip of motor is 0.03p.u, calculate the speed.
3
Problem 3:
A 3-φ 4 pole induction motor is supplied from 3φ 50Hz ac supply.
Find
(1) synchronous speed
(2) rotor speed when slip is 4%
(3) the rotor frequency when runs at 600r.p.m.
Problem 4:
A 12 pole 3-φ alternator is coupled to an engine running at 500r.p.m.
If supplied a 3φ induction motor having full speed of 1400 r.p.m. Find
the %age slip, frequency of rotor current and no of poles of rotor.
4
Problem 5:
The rotor of 3 - φ induction motor rotates at 900r.p.m. when states is
connected to 3 - φ supply .find the rotor frequency.
Problem 6:
A 3 - φ 50Hz induction motor has a full load speed of 960 r.p.m
(a) find slip
(b) No of poles
(c) Frequency of rotor induced e.m.f
(d) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. rotor structure
(e) Speed of rotor field w.r.t. Stator structure
5
Problem 7:
A 50 Hz, 8 pole induction motor has full load slip of 4%. The
rotor resistance and stand still reactance are 0.01 ohm and
0.1 ohm per phase respectively. Find:
i) The speed at which maximum torque occurs
ii) The ratio of maximum torque to full load torque
Problem 8:
A 3-φ 6 pole, 60Hz induction motor has a slip of 3% at
full load. Find the synchronous speed, full load speed and
frequency of rotor current at full load.
6
Lecture-36
Tutorial
1
Objectives
• Solve the problems on 3 – phase Induction Motors
2
Problem 1:
An 8 pole 3 φ, 50 Hz induction motor has rotor resistance of 0.025
ohm/phase and rotor standstill reactance of 0.1ohm/phase. At
what speed is the torque maximum? What proportion of maximum
torque is the starting torque?
Problem 2:
A 6 pole 3φ induction motor develops 30hp including 2 hp
mechanical losses at a speed of 950 r.p.m. on 550V, 50Hz Mains.
Find:
1) Slip
2) Rotor Cu. loss
3
Problem 3:
A 208-V, 10hp, four pole, 60 Hz, Y-connected induction motor has
a full-load slip of 5 percent
1. What is the synchronous speed of this motor?
2. What is the rotor speed of this motor at rated load?
3. What is the rotor frequency of this motor at rated load?
4. What is the shaft torque of this motor at rated load?
Problem 4:
A 0.5 hp, 6-pole induction motor is excited by a 3-phase, 60 Hz
source. If the full-load is 1140 r/min, calculate the slip.
4
Problem 5:
A 120 pole 3 – phase star connected induction motor has a slip ring
rotor of resistance 0.016 ohm and stand still reactance 0.265 ohm
per phase. Full load torque is obtained at a speed of 247 r.p.m.
calculate
(i) ratio of maximum to full load toque.
(ii) Speed at maximum torque.
5
Lecture-37
Video Demonstration on
Induction Motor and Transformers
1
Objectives
• Observe the Video Demonstration on Induction Motor &
Synchronous Generator
2
Video
How does an Induction Motor works?
Note: To see the video give right click on the title and open hyperlink
3
Video
Production of Rotating Magnetic Field

Synchronous Speed
4
Video
How does Transformer works?
5
Fractional-kW Motors and DC
Machines
1
Lecture No. 38
DC Machines – Principle and Construction
2
Objectives

• Explain the basic principle of induced E.M.F. and
electromagnetic torque
• Discuss the need for commutator
• Identify different parts of a DC machine and understand

their function
3
Topics
• Fleming’s left-hand rule

• The Action of a Commutator
• D.C. Machine Construction
• Principle of operation of a simple DC Motor
• Back e.m.f
4
Introduction
• Motor converts electrical energy into mechanical energy
• Generator converts mechanical energy to electrical
energy
5
Introduction
6
D.C. Machine Construction
• The basic parts of any d.c. machine are shown in Figure
7
HOOK
YOKE
FIELD
POLE WINDING
N
S S
COMMUTATOR
N
ARMATURE
BASE 8
9
How EMF is Induced ?
• When ever a conductor cuts the Magnetic field an EMF is
induced in it ( Faradays Ist law of Electro magnetic induction
)
What are the types of Induced EMF ?
 Dynamically Induced EMF

 Statically Induced EMF
10
• What are the basic requirements
generating EMF ?
• Conductor
• Magnetic Field
• Relative Motion
11
DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF
• Emf is induced when the

flux linking a conductor
changes
• In dynamically induced emf

the conductor moves in a
stationary magnetic field.
• The emf is induced in the

conductor when it is in
motion
12
DYNAMICALLY INDUCED EMF
• Conductors are moved

through a stationary
magnetic field –
D.C.generator
• Conductors are
stationary and the field
is moving –
A.C.generators
13
Generation Principle
14
Action of Commutator
15
FLEMINGS RIGHT HAND RULE
Thumb points motion
Forefinger points field
Middle finger points Induced Emf
16
a) a stationary part called the stator having,

I. a steel ring called the yoke, to which are attached
II. the magnetic poles, around which are the
III. field windings, i.e. many turns of a conductor wound

round the pole core; current passing through this
conductor creates an electromagnet
17
• A rotating part called the armature mounted in
bearings housed in the stator and having,
I. Yoke
II. armature winding
III. Commutator
• Armature windings can be divided into two groups,

These are called wave windings and lap windings
18
Wave and Lap Windings
• In wave windings there are
two paths in parallel
irrespective of the number of
poles. Wave wound
generators produce high
voltage, low current outputs
• In lap windings there are as
many paths in parallel as the
machine has poles. Lap
wound generators produce
high current, low voltage
output.
19
Principle of operation of a simple DC Motor
20
Principle of operation of a simple DC
Motor
• Force F to be exerted on the current-carrying conductor
which, by Fleming’s left-hand rule, is downwards
between points A and B and upward between C and D
for the current direction shown
• The current direction is reversed every time the coil

swings through the vertical position and thus the
coil rotates anti-clockwise for as long as the current
flows
21
Back e.m.f.
• When a DC motor rotates, an e.m.f. is induced in the
armature conductors. By Lenz’s law this induced e.m.f. E
opposes the supply voltage V and is called a back e.m.f.,
and the supply voltage, V is given by
V = E + IaRa or E = V − IaRa
22
Summary
• DC Machines work on the principle of Faraday’s law,

Flemings Left Hand and Flemings Right Hand rule
• DC Motor and Generator have same construction
• Commutator is essential for Motor to have

unidirectional rotation
• Commutator is essential for Generator to have

unidirectional emf at the terminal
23
Lecture No. 39
DC Generator (Types & Characteristics)
1
Objectives

• Derive an expression for induced E.M.F.
• Classify DC Generators based upon methods of excitation
• Discuss Open Circuit and Load characteristics of DC

Generators
• Explain the losses associated with DC machines
2
E.M.F. Generated in An Armature
Winding
Z = number of armature conductors,
ф = useful flux per pole, in webers
p = number of pairs of poles
and n = armature speed in rev/s
• The e.m.f. generated by the armature is equal to the

e.m.f. generated by one of the parallel paths.
3
E.m.f. generated in an armature winding
• Each conductor passes 2p poles per revolution and
thus cuts 2pф webers of magnetic flux per
revolution.
= 2pфn Wb
so the average e.m.f. E generated per conductor is

given by:
E = 2pфn Volts
(since 1 volt = 1 Weber per second)

4
• c = number of parallel paths through the winding
between positive and negative brushes
c= 2 for a wave winding
c= 2p for a lap winding
• The number of conductors in series in each path Z/c
• The total e.m.f. between brushes
= (average e.m.f./conductor)(number of conductors in
series per path)
= 2pфn*Z/c
2 pnZ
i.e., generated e.m. f ., E  volts
c
5
• Since Z, p and c are constant for a given machine,

then E α фn. However
2πn is the angular velocity ω in radians per second,

hence the generated e.m.f. is proportional to ф and
ω, i.e.,
generated e.m. f ., E  
6
Problem
• Problem 1. An 8-pole, wave-connected armature has 600
conductors and is driven at 625 rev/min. If the flux per
pole is 20 mWb, determine the generated e.m.f.
Soln
Z  600, c  2 ( for a wave winding ), p  4 pairs
625
n rev / s,   20x103Wb
60
2 pnZ
Generated e.m. f ., E 
c
3  625 
2(4)(20x10 )   (600)
  60 
 500 volts
2
7
DC Generator
• DC generators are classified according to the method of
their field excitation. These groupings are
Separately-excited generators
Self-excited generators
(a) shunt
(b) series, and
(c) compound wound generators
8
Types of DC generator
• Separately-excited generator -
terminal voltage,
V = E − IaRa
9
Problem
• Problem 7. Determine the terminal voltage of a generator
which develops an e.m.f. of 200 V and has an armature
current of 30 A on load. Assume the armature resistance is
0.30
• Soln V = E-IaRa = 200-(30)(0.30) = 200 9 = 191 volts
• Problem 8. A generator is connected to a 60Ω load and a
current of 8 A flows. If the armature resistance is 1Ω
determine (a) the terminal voltage, and (b) the generated
e.m.f.
(a) Terminal voltage, V = IaRL = (8)(60) = 480 volts
(b) Generated e.m.f., E = V + IaRa
= 480 + (8)(1) = 480 +8 = 488 volts
10
Separately-excited Generator Characteristics
a) Open circuit characteristics

b) Load characteristics 11
Shunt-wound generator
• In a shunt wound generator the field winding is
connected in parallel with the armature as shown in
Figure. The field winding has a relatively high resistance
and therefore the current carried is only a fraction of the
armature current For the circuit shown :
ter min al voltage V  E  I a Ra
or generated e.m. f ., E  V  I a Ra
I a  I f  I , from kirchhoff ' s current law,
where I a  armature current
V 
I f  field current  
R
 f 
and I  load current 12
Problem
• Problem 10. A shunt generator supplies a 20 kW load at
200 V through cables of resistance, R = 100 m. If the field
winding resistance, Rf = 50 and the armature resistance,
Ra = 40 m, determine (a) the terminal voltage, and (b)
the e.m.f. generated in the armature
Soln : -The circuit is as shown in Figure
(a)
20000watts
Load current , I   100 A
200 volts
13
Problem
3
Volt drop in the cables to the load  IR  (100)(100x10 )
 10V
Hence ter min al voltage, V  200  10  210volts
(b) Armature current I a  I f  I
V 210
Field current , I f    4.2 A
R f 50
Hence I a  I f  I  4.2  100  104.2 A
3
 210  (104.2)(40x10 )
 214.17volts
14
Shunt Generator Characteristics
• The generated e.m.f., E, is proportional to ф, hence at
constant speed, since ω=2фn,
• E / ф Also the flux ф is proportional to field current If
until magnetic saturation of the iron circuit of the
generator occurs.
15
Shunt-wound Generator Characteristics
• As the load current on a generator having constant field
current and running at constant speed increases, the
armature volt drop, Ia Ra increases
16
Series-wound Generator
17
Series-wound Generator
• The values of field resistance and armature resistance
in a series wound machine are small, hence the
terminal voltage V is very nearly equal to E.
18
Compound-wound Generator
• Compound-wound generator consists both shunt and
series windings
Long Shunt Short Shunt
19
Problem
• Problem 11. A short-shunt compound generator
supplies 80 A at 200 V. If the field resistance, Rf = 40 ,
the series resistance, RSe = 0.02 and the armature
resistance, Ra = 0.04Ω , determine the e.m.f. generated.
20
Problem
Soln
Volt drop in series winding  IR Se   80  0.02   1.6 V
P.d.across the field winding  p.d. across armature
 V1  200  1.6  201.6 V
V1 201.6
Field current If = = = 5.04 A
Rf 40
Armature current, Ia = I + If = 80 + 5.04 = 85.04 A
Generated e.m.f., E = V1 + Ia R a
= 201.6 + (85.04)(0.04)
= 205 volts
21
D.C. Machine Losses
22
Efficiency of a D.C. Generator
efficiency,  =
 output power 
efficiency, =   × 100%
 input power 
• Armature copper loss- I2a Ra

• Field copper loss- If V
23
Efficiency of a D.C. Generator
• the total losses is given by

Ia 2 R a + If V + C (I 2a R a + If V is, in fact, the 'copper loss')
Total input power = VI + I2a R a + If V + C. Hence

output  VI 
efficiency,  = = 2  × 100%
input  VI + I a R a + If V + C 
• The efficiency of a generator is a maximum when the
load is such that:
I 2a Ra = VIf + C
i.e., when the variable loss = the constant loss
24
Problem
• Problem 12. A 10 kW shunt generator having an armature circuit
resistance of 0.75Ω and a field resistance of 125Ω , generates a
terminal voltage of 250 V at full load. Determine the efficiency of
the generator at full load, assuming the iron, friction and windage
losses amount to 600 W.
25
Problem
Soln
Output power = 10 000 W = VI
10 000 10 000
from which, load current I =   40 A
V 250
V 250
Field current, If = = =2A
R f 125
Armature current, Ia = If + I = 2 + 40 = 42 A
 VI 
Efficiency,    2  x 100%
 VI + I a R a + If V + C 
 VI 
 2  x 100%
 10 000 + (42) (0.75) +(2)(250)+ 600 
= 80.50%
26
Problem
Problem 13. The armature of a d.c. machine has a
resistance of 0.25 and is connected to a 300 V supply.
Calculate the e.m.f. generated when it is running: (a) as a
generator giving 100 A, and (b) as a motor taking 80 A.
(a) As a generator, generated e.m.f.,
E = V + Ia R a ,
= 300 + (1000)(.25)
= 300 + 25 = 325 volts
(b) As a motor, generated e.m.f. (or back e.m.f.),
E = V - Ia R a ,
= 300 - (80)(0.25) = 280 volts
27
Summary
• Induced emf in a DC machine is proportional to

speed and flux per pole
• OCC of Shunt Generator is similar to B-H curve
• As the load increases on a shunt generator its

terminal voltage decreases
• Efficiency of a DC machine is maximum when

variable loss is equal to constant loss
28
Lecture No. 40
Tutorial
1
Objectives

• Solve problems on induced E.M.F.
2
Problem No 1
• A 4-pole generator has a lap-wound armature with50

slots with 16 conductors per slot. The useful flux per
pole is 30 mWb. Determine the speed at which the
machine must be driven to generate an e.m.f. of 240
V.
3
Problem No 2
• A separately-excited generator develops a no-load

e.m.f. of 150 V at an armature speed of 20 rev/s and
a flux per pole of 0.10 Wb. Determine the generated
e.m.f. when
(a) the speed increases to 25 rev/s and the pole flux
remains unchanged,
(b) the speed remains at 20 rev/s and the pole flux is
decreased to 0.08 Wb, and
(c) the speed increases to 24 rev/s and the pole flux
is decreased to 0.07 Wb.
4
Problem No 3
• A d.c. shunt-wound generator running at constant

speed generates a voltage of 150 V at a certain value
of field current. Determine the change in the
generated voltage when the field current is reduced
by 20%, assuming the flux is proportional to the field
current.
5
Problem No 4
• A d.c. generator running at 25 rev/s generates an

e.m.f. of 150 V. Determine the percentage increase in
the flux per pole required to generate 180 V at 20
rev/s.
6
Problem No 5
• A shunt generator supplies a 50 kW load at 400 V

through cables of resistance 0.2Ω. If the field winding
resistance is 50Ω and the armature resistance is 0.05
Ω, determine
(a) the terminal voltage,
(b) the e.m.f. generated in the armature.
7
Problem No 6
• The armature of a d.c. machine has a resistance of

0.5Ω and is connected to a 200 V supply. Calculate
the e.m.f. generated when it is running
(a) as a motor taking 50 A and
(b) as a generator giving 70 A.
8
Lecture No. 41
Tutorial
1
Objectives

• Solve problems on DC generators
2
Problem No 1
• The shaft torque required to drive a d.c. generator is

18.7 Nm when it is running at 1250 rev/min. If its
efficiency is 87% under these conditions and the
armature current is 17.3 A, determine the voltage at
the terminals of the generator.
3
Problem No 2
• A 15 kW shunt generator having an armature circuit

resistance of 0.4Ω and a field resistance of 100Ω,
generates a terminal voltage of 240 V at full load.
Determine the efficiency of the generator at full load,
assuming the iron, friction and windage losses
amount to 1 kW.
4
Problem No 3
• A 4-pole d.c. motor has a wave-wound armature with

800 conductors. The useful flux per pole is 20 mWb.
Calculate the torque exerted when a current of 40 A
flows in each armature conductor.
5
Problem No 4
• A 150 V d.c. generator supplies a current of 25 A

when running at 1200 rev/min. If the torque on the
shaft driving the generator is 35.8 Nm, determine
(a) the efficiency of the generator, and
(b) the power loss in the generator.
6
Problem No 5
• A series motor having a series field resistance of

0.25Ω and an armature resistance of 0.15Ω, is
connected to a 220 V supply and at a particular load
runs at 20 rev/s when drawing 20 A from the supply.
Calculate the e.m.f. generated at this load. Determine
also the speed of the motor when the load is
changed such that the current increases to 25 A.
Assume the flux increases by 25%. 7
Problem No 6
• In a test on a d.c. motor, the following data was

obtained.
Supply voltage: 500 V. Current taken from the supply:

42.4 A
Speed: 850 rev/min. Shaft torque: 187 Nm
Determine the efficiency of the motor correct to the

nearest 0.5%.
8
Lecture No. 42
DC Motor (Types & Characteristics)
1
Objectives

• Classify DC Motors based upon methods of excitation
• Derive an expression for torque developed in a DC Motor
• Discuss Speed-Torque characteristics of DC Motors
• Explain methods of Speed Control
2
Methods of Excitation of DC Machines
3
Methods of Excitation of DC Machines
• In DC machine current carrying conductors rotate inside
static magnetic field.
• DC machine can be termed as an electro mechanical
energy converter which only works in the presence of a
field excitation.
• Two types of excitation present for dc machine
1. Separate excitation
2. Self excitation
4
Separate Excitation
• Field excitation is only possible by dc supply
5
Self Excitation
A self excited dc machine can be divided into:
1. Series excitation – in this case the field is in series with

the rotor and the armature current itself acts as the
field current
6
Self Excitation
2. Shunt excitation- when the
field is in the parallel with the
armature, then that excitation
is called shunt excitation.
3. Compound excitation- both

series and shunt excitation
winding is present in the
circuit then this is called
compound excitation. 7
Self Excitation
Short Shunt DC Motor Long Shunt DC Motor
8
Torque of a D.C. Machine
• For a D.C. Motor, the supply voltage V is given by
V = E + IaRa
• Multiplying each term by current Ia gives:
VIa = EIa + I2aRa
• The term VIa is the total electrical power supplied to the
armature, the term I2aRa is the loss due to armature
resistance, and the term EIa is the mechanical power
developed by the armature
• If T is the torque, in newton metres, then the
mechanical power developed is given by Tω watts
Hence T   2 nT  EI a from which,
EI a
torque T  newton metres
2 n 9
Torque of a D.C. Machine
• The e.m.f. E generated is given by:
2 pnZ
E 
c
 2 pnZ 
Hence 2 nT  EI a    Ia
 c 
 2 pnZ 
  Ia
and torque T   c 
2 n
pZI a
i.e., T  newton metres
c
For a given machine, Z , c and p are fixed values
Hence torque T I a
10
Problem
• Problem 14. An 8-pole D.C. motor has a wave-wound armature
with 900 conductors. The useful flux per pole is 25 mWb.
Determine the torque exerted when a current of 30 A flows in
each
n armature conductor.
Sol
p  4, c  2 for a wave winding ,   25x103Wb, Z  900
I a  30 A
pZI a
torque T 
c
(4)(25x103 )(900)(30)
  429.7 Nm
 (2)
11
Speed Torque Characteristics (Shunt)
• The graph above shows a torque/speed curve of a D.C.

shunt motor.
• For shunt motors Φ will be constant, and Torque is

proportional to ΦIa, hence the curve will be straight
line with –ve slope 12
Speed Torque Characteristics (Series)
In linear region,
In saturation region,
13
Torque Vs. Current Speed Vs. Current
14
Speed Vs.
Torque
•Series motor should never be started with no load
•It is not suitable for constant speed applications
15
Speed Torque Characteristics
• Motor characteristics are frequently given as two points
on this graph:
– The stall torque, represents the point on the graph at
which the torque is a maximum, but the shaft is not
rotating
– The no load speed, is the maximum output speed of the
motor (when no torque is applied to the output shaft)
16
Speed Torque Characteristics
• As the motor starts to rotate and picks up speed, the
developed torque decreases. The motor finally comes to
a stable operating point when the two torques balance
each other
17
Speed Control of DC Motors
• Shunt-wound Motors: - The speed of a shunt-wound
D.C. motor, n, is proportional to (V-IaRa )/ф
• The former is achieved by using a variable resistor in
series with the field winding, such a resistor is called
the shunt field regulator
V  I a ( Ra  R )
n

Shunt Wound Motors

18
Problem
• Problem 16. A 500 V shunt motor runs at its normal
speed of 10 rev/s when the armature current is 120 A.
The armature resistance is 0.2
– (a) Determine the speed when the current is 60 A and a
resistance of 0.5 is connected in series with the
armature, the shunt field remaining constant
– (b) Determine the speed when the current is 60 A and the
shunt field is reduced to 80% of its normal value by
increasing resistance in the field circuit
Sol n
(a) back e.m. f at 120 A, E1  V  I a Ra
 500  (120)(0.2)
 500  24  476 volts
19
When I a  60 A, E2  500  (60)(0.2  0.5)
 458 volts
E1 1n1
Now 
E2  2 n2
476  (10)
i.e.,  1 sin ce  2  1
458  2 n2
(10)(458)
from which, speed n2   9.62rev / s
(476)
(b) Back e.m. f when I a  60 A, E2  500  (60)(0.2)

 488 volts
E1 n
Now  1 1
E2  2 n2
476 1 (10)
i.e.,  sin ce  2  0.81
458 (0.81 ) n3
(10)(458)
from which, speed n3   12.82rev / s
(0.8)(476) 20
• Series-wound motors: -The speed control of series-
wound motors is achieved using either (a) field
resistance, or (b) armature resistance techniques
a) Field resistance series wound motor: The speed of a D.C.

series-wound motor is given by:
 V  IR 
n  k 
  
21
• Problem 17. On full-load a 300 V series motor takes 90 A and
runs at 15 rev/s. The armature resistance is 0.1Ω and the
series winding resistance is 50 mΩ. Determine the speed
when developing full load torque but with a 0.2Ω diverter in
parallel with the field winding. (Assume that the flux is
proportional to the field current.)
Soln
At 300 V , e.m. f . E1  V  IR
 V  I ( Ra  Rse )
 300  (90)(0.1  0.05)  286.5volts
with the 0.2 diverter in parallel with Rse
(0.2)(0.05)
theequivalent resis tan ce, R   0.04
(0.2)  (0.05)
 0.2 
By current division, current I1    I  0.8I
 0.2  0.05  22
Torque, T  I a  and for full load torque, I a11  I a 2  2
Since flux is proportional to field current 1 I a1 and  2 0.8 I a 2
then (90)(90)  (I a 2 )(0.8I a 2 )
(90) 2 90
from which, I a 2  2
and I a 2   100.62 A
0.8 0.8
Hence e.m. f E2  V  I a 2 ( Ra  R )
 300  (100.62)(0.1  0.04)  285.9volts
E n I a1n1
Now e.m. f ., E  n from which, 1  1 1 
E2  2 n2 0.8I a 2 n2
(286.5) (90)(15)
Hence 
285.9 (0.8)(100.62)n2
and new speed , n2  16.74 rev / s
Thus the speed of the motor has increased from 15 rev/s (i.e., 900
rev/min) to 16.74 rev/s (i.e., 1004 rev/min) by inserting a 0.2
diverter resistance in parallel with the series winding.
23
(b) Armature resistance technique
– Speeds below normal are obtained by connecting a variable
resistor in series with the field winding
– reduces the speed
– large power loss
 V  IR 
n  k 
  
Armature Resistance Technique 24

• Problem 18. A series motor runs at 800 rev/min when
the voltage is 400 V and the current is 25 A. The
armature resistance is 0.4Ω and the series field
resistance is 0.2Ω . Determine the resistance to be
connected in series to reduce the speed to 600 rev/min
with the same current.
• Soln e.m. f . E1  V  I ( Ra  Rse )
 400  (25)(0.4  0.2)  385volts
At 600 rev/min, since the current is unchanged, the flux is unchanged.
E n 385 800
Thus E  n from which, 1  1 1    288.75volts
E2  2 n2 E2 600
and E2  V  I ( Ra  Rse  R )
Hence 288.75  400  25(0.4  0.2  R)
R  3.85
Thus the addition of a series resistance of 3.85 has reduced the speed
from 800 rev/min to 600 rev/min
25
Summary
• Torque developed by a DC motor is proportional to

flux and armature current
• Shunt motors run at almost constant speed
• Series motors are used for high torque applications
• Series motors should never be operated without load
26
Lecture No. 43
Tutorial
1
Objectives

• Solve problems on electromagnetic torque
2
Problem No 1
• A series-wound motor is connected to a d.c. supply

and develops full-load torque when the current is 30
A and speed is 1000 rev/min. If the flux per pole is
proportional to the current flowing, find the current
and speed at half full-load torque, when connected
to the same supply.
3
Problem No 2
• A 350 V shunt motor runs at its normal speed of

12 rev/s when the armature current is 90 A. The
resistance of the armature is 0.3Ω. (a) Find the
speed when the current is 45 A and a resistance of
0.4Ω is connected in series with the armature, the
shunt field remaining constant. (b) Find the speed
when the current is 45 A and the shunt field is
reduced to 75% of its normal value by increasing
resistance in the field circuit.
4
Problem No 3
• A 320 V series motor takes 80 A and runs at 1080

rev/min at full load. The armature resistance is
0.2Ω and the series winding resistance is 0.05Ω.
Assuming the flux is proportional to the field
current, calculate the speed when developing full-
load torque, but with a 0.15Ω diverter in parallel
with the field winding.
5
Problem No 4
• A 115V dc shunt motor draws an armature current

of 25A when running at 1450 rpm at full load
torque. Motor armature circuit resistance is 0.3Ω.
Calculate the resistance to be added in series with
motor armature to reduce the speed to 1200 rpm.
Also calculate the armature efficiency.
6
Problem No 5
• A shunt motor is running at 626 r/min when taking

an armature current of 50A from a 440V supply. The
armature circuit has a resistance of 0.28Ω. If the flux
is suddenly reduced by 5%, find
a) the maximum value to which the current increases
momentarily and the ratio of the corresponding
torque to initial torque;
b) the steady state value of the armature current
assuming constant load torque
7
Lecture No. 44
Tutorial
1
Objectives

• Solve problems on speed control of DC motors
2
Problem No 1
• A series motor runs at 900 r/min when taking 30A at

230V. The total resistance of the armature and field
circuits is 0.8Ω. Calculate the values of additional
resistance required in series with the machine to
reduce the speed to 500 r/min if the gross torque is:
a) constant
b)proportional to the speed
c) proportional to the square of the speed.
Assume the magnetic circuit to be unsaturated.
3
Problem No 2
• A separately excited DC motor runs at 1500 rpm

under no load with 200V applied to the armature.
The field voltage is maintained at its rated value. The
speed of the motor, when it delivers a torque of
5Nm, is 1400 rpmas shown in the figure. The
rotational losses and armature reaction is neglected.
4
Problem No 2 Cont…
a) What is the armature resistance of the motor?
b) What is the armature to be applied, for motor to

deliver a torque of 2.5 Nm at 1400rpm?
5
Problem No 3
• A d.c motor takes an armature current of 50A at

220V. The resistance of the armature is 0.2Ω. The
motor has 6 poles and the armature is lap wound
with 430 conductors. The flux per pole is 0.03Wb.
Calculate the speed at which the motor is running
and the electromagnetic torque developed.
6
Problem No 4
• A 220 V, d.c shunt motor has Ra= 0.8 Ω and draws an armature
current of 20 A while supplying a constant load torque. If flux is
suddenly reduced by 10%, then immediately the armature
current will become:
(a)45.5A and the new steady state armature current will be 22.2A
(b)20 A and the new steady state armature current will be 22.2 A
(c) 22.2 A and the new steady state armature current will be 45.5 A
(d)20 A and the new steady state armature current will be 25 A
7
Problem No 5
• A 220 V, d.c shunt motor has Ra= 0.8 Ω and draws an armature
current of 20 A while supplying a constant load torque. If a 4.2 Ω
resistance is inserted in the armature circuit suddenly, then
immediately the armature current will become:
(a)20 A and the new steady state armature current will be 3.2 A
(b)3.2 A and the new steady state armature current will be 20 A
(c)47.2 A and the new steady state armature current will be 3.2 A
(d)3.2 A and the new steady state armature current will be 47.2 A
8
Lecture No. 45
Stepper Motor
1
Objectives

• Differentiate Stepper Motor from conventional motors
• Classify Stepper Motors based on construction
• Explain the Stepper Motor Principle of Operation
2
Definition of Stepper Motor
• Stepper Motors therefore are manufactured with steps
per revolution of 12, 24, 72, 144, 180, and 200, resulting
in stepping angles of 30, 15, 5, 2.5, 2, and 1.8 degrees per
step
• Stepper motor can be controlled with or without
feedback
3
Introduction
• The essential property of the stepping motor is its ability to
translate switched excitation changes into precisely defined
increments of rotor position (‘steps’)
• Stepping motors are categorized as
- doubly salient machines
Figure 1: Force components between two magnetically permeable teeth
4
Introduction
• According to the type of motor, the source of flux may be

a permanent-magnet or a current-carrying winding or a
combination of the two
• However, the effect is the same: the teeth experience

equal and opposite forces, which attempt to pull them
together and minimize the air-gap between them
5
Types of Stepper motor
Permanent Magnet Variable Reluctance
Motor Motor
Employ Permanent Does not have
magnet Permanent magnet
Low speed, relatively

Low torque
high torque
6
Construction of Variable Reluctance
Motor
• Cylindrical rotor is made
of soft steel and has
four poles
• It has four rotor teeth,

90⁰ apart and six stator
Source: NPTEL
poles, 60⁰ apart
7
Variable Reluctance Motor
• Electromagnetic field is produced by activating the stator
coils in sequence. It attracts the metal rotor
• When the windings are energized in a reoccurring sequence

of 2, 3, 1, and so on, the motor will rotate in a 30⁰ step angle.
• In the non-energized condition, there is no magnetic flux in

the air gap, as the stator is an electromagnet and the rotor is
a piece of soft iron; hence, there is no detent torque.
8
Variable Reluctance Motor
• When a particular stator coil is excited, the rotor aligns
itself such that one pair of teeth is along the energized
stator coil, at the minimum reluctance path
• Full step angle is derived by stator pole teeth and rotor

pole teeth, given by:
Stator pole pitch:
Rotor pole pitch:
9
Permanent Magnet Step Motor
• Two phase two pole permanent magnet step motor
Source: NPTEL
10
Stepping sequence (half-stepping) for
a two-phase two-pole PM step motor
for clockwise rotation
11
Stepping sequence (half-stepping) for
a two-phase two-pole PM step motor
for clockwise rotation
12
Switching sequence according to
movement
13
Advantage and Disadvantage
• Advantage of a permanent magnet step motor is that it
has a holding torque that due to the presence of
permanent magnet the rotor will lock itself along the
stator pole even when the excitation coils are de-
energized.
• Major disadvantage is that the direction of current for

each winding needs to be reversed. This requires more
number of transistor switches that may make the driving
circuit unwieldy 14
Advantages of stepper motors
• Low cost
• Ruggedness
• Simplicity of construction
• Low maintenance
• Less likely to stall or slip
• Will work in any environment
• Excellent start-stop and reversing responses

15
Disadvantages of stepper motors
• Low torque capacity compared to DC motors
• Limited speed
• During overloading, the synchronization will be broken.
• Vibration and noise occur when running at high speed
16
Summary
• Stepper motors operate in terms of discrete steps
• They are classified as Variable Reluctance and Permanent

Magnet Motors
• They are widely used in position control mechanism
17
Lecture-49
Domestic Wiring
1
Topics
• Introduction of wiring
• Types of Wiring
• Wiring tools and materials
• Principles of Earthing
2
Objectives
•Classify the types of Wiring

•Describe the advantages and disadvantages of different types of
wiring
•Identify the wiring tools and materials
•Explain principles of earthing
3
Introduction
• Before you can build or design, you will need to recognize how to
use proper wiring techniques in order to start connecting simple
circuits.
• Learning these techniques will ensure that you are following proper
electrical safety procedures.
4
Introduction
• Use of electricity
1. Domestic : Light, fan, heater, washing machine.
2. In industries : Heating, welding, electroplating.
3. Commercial : Cinema, Lift, water pump, lighting.
5
Types of Wiring
1. Cleat Wiring
2. Batten Wiring
(a)TRS/CTS Wiring.
(b) Lead Sheath Wiring.
3. Conduit Wiring
6
Cleat Wiring
Advantages:
1. Easy installation
2. Materials can be retrieved for reuse
3. Flexibility provided for inspection, modifications
and expansion.
4. Relatively economical
5. Skilled manpower not required.
Disadvantages:
1. Appearance is not good
2. Open system of wiring requiring regular
cleaning.
3. Higher risk of mechanical injury. 7
Cleat Wiring
CTS ( Cable Tyre Sheathed) / TRS ( Tough Rubber Sheathed ) / Batten wiring
Advantages:
1. Easy installation and is durable
2. Lower risk of short circuit.
3. Cheaper than casing and capping system of
wiring
4. Gives a good appearance if properly erected.
Disadvantages:
1. Danger of mechanical injury.
2. Danger of fire hazard.
3. Should not be exposed to direct sunlight.
4. Skilled workmen are required.
8
Metal Sheathed or Lead Sheathed wiring
•Wiring is similar to that of CTS but the conductors (two or three) are
individually insulated and covered with a common outer lead-aluminum
alloy sheath
•Sheath protects the cable against dampness, atmospheric extremities and
mechanical damages
Advantages:
1. Easy installation and is aesthetic in appearance.
2. Highly durable
3. Suitable in adverse climatic conditions provided
the joints are not exposed
Disadvantages:
1. Requires skilled labor
2. Very expensive
3. Unsuitable for chemical industries
9
Conduit Wiring
Advantages:
1. No risk of fire and good protection against mechanical injury.
2. The lead and return wires can be carried in the same tube.
3. 4. Waterproof and trouble shooting is easy.
5. Shock- proof with proper earthing and bonding
6. Durable and maintenance free
Disadvantages:
1. Very expensive system of wiring.
2. Requires good skilled workmanship.
3. Erection is quiet complicated and is time consuming.
10
Tools and Materials
Soldering Iron Solder
Crimping tool Wire Nuts
11
Wiring Diagram Symbols
Incandescent Light
Wire (insulated, metal conductor)
Wires crossing (but NOT connected) Alternate symbol for Light
Wires connected (at dots) Circuit Breaker
Fuse
Battery (long line on top is positive)
Ground
Switch, single pole, single throw (SPST)
Male Connector
Switch, single pole, double throw (SPDT)
Female Connector
Switch, double pole, single throw (DPST)
12
Wire Color Selection
• Properly choosing the colors for your
wires can help you decipher your wiring
configurations.
• To the right is a picture of a bad

configuration and a good configuration.
• For low DC voltages use the following

color codes:
Black – Negative
Red – Positive
Green - Ground
13
Earthing
Principles of Earthing:
1. To protect the operating personnel from danger of shock in case they

come in contact with the charged frame due to defective insulation.
2. To maintain the line voltage constant under unbalanced load condition.
3. Protection of the equipments
4. Protection of large buildings and all machines fed from overhead lines
against lightning.
14
Summary
So far we have discussed,
• Uses of Electricity
• Types of wiring and its advantages and disadvantages
• Tools and materials
• Principles of Earthing
15

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Course Code: 18ESC107A

Course Title: Elements of Electrical Engineering

Course Notes Prepared By:

• Course: B. Tech. in Electrical Engineering

2. To enhance the understanding of the underlying engineering principles of electrical

5. To impart training on instrumentation and testing of electrical and electronic

7. To build and test electrical and electronic systems

8. To impart training on professional ethics, history, economics, social sciences and

9. To provide a general perspective and opportunities for a career in industry, business

Measuring Instruments and Domestic Wiring:

Both components will be moderated by a second examiner.

8 Circuit Element Impedance

12 Phasor Relationship for R, L and C,

17 Law of Electromagnetic Induction

21 Mutually Induced E.M.F

Lecture Date Time Day Topic Delivered By Additional

Semester End Examination

• Classify Circuit Elements

• Identify basic active and passive elements

• Define current, voltage, Resistance, Capacitance and inductance

• State and Illustrate Ohm’s law

• State and solve Kirchoff’s law

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• Perform source transformation, Voltage source to current source

• Analyse mesh circuits using KVL

• Analyse nodal circuits using KCL

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• Explain linearity property

• State and analyze superposition theorem for any complicated

• Reduce complicated network to simple network using star delta

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• Solve problems on KCL

• Solve problems on KVL,

• Solve problems on Mesh and Nodal analysis

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• Solve problems on KCL, KVL, Mesh and Nodal analysis

• Compute equivalent resistance in electrical circuits

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• State and implement Thevenin's theorem on any complicate

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• State and implement Thevenin's theorem on any complicate

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• State and compute Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

• Describe Sinusoidal Forcing Function

• Solve Complex Forcing Function

• Define Impedance and admittance

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• Solve problems on Superposition Theorem

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• Solve problems on Thevenin’s Theorem

• Solve problems on Superposition Theorem

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• Explain and analyze transient characteristics of RL and RC

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• Analyze phasor Relationship for R, L, and C Elements

• Define phasor voltage-current relations

• Define angular Frequency (ω)

At the end of this lecture, student will be able to:

• Solve problems on Thevenin’s Theorem

• Solve problems on Norton’s Theorem