MODULE 1

 INORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL
& MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY
 ORGANIC PHARMACEUTICAL
& MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY
GENERAL CHEMISTRY

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

ORGANIC MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS
GENERAL CHEMISTRY Matter

Chemistry  the study of matter

Matter  anything that occupies space & has
mass (1) composition
(2) structure

Composition/Constituents:
(3) changes that matter undergoes
(4) energy involved in such Elements Compounds
changes
Pure

Impure/ Mixture
 composed predominantly of
atoms, molecules, ions  - Time - Second Proportion Suspension
interconvertible w/ energy
▪ Mass  refers to the amount of - Temperature - Kelvin Colloids
matter present in the material ▪
Weight = Mass x pull of gravity Classification of Matter:
Units of Measurement Homogenous
*Law of Heterogenous
Fundamental Quantity SI U Definite
Proportion
- Length - Meter
*Law of Solution
- Mass - Kilogra Multiple
Properties of Matter 1 kind of material or atom
(1) Intensive/ Intrinsic  mass independent  has definite chemical composition
 are characteristics of any sample of the  cannot be decomposed by simple physical/
substance regardless of the shape or size of the chemical means into two or more different substances
sample ▪ Compound  substance composed of two or more elements unites
Examples: *Density *Melting point chemically in definite proportion
*pH *Freezing point cannot be changed into sipler substance under
*Color *Sublimation temperature normal laboratory conditions
*Concentration *Optical activity
▪ Element simplest form of matter
*Law of Definite Proportions always the same regardless
*Boiling point
 same w/ Law Constant Composition Elements
(2) Extensive/ Extrinsic  mass dependent
combined in different ratios of whole numbers to
Examples: *Volume
form different
*Weight
compounds
*Pressure
*Law of Multiple Proportions
*Heat content
 Elements combined in fixed ratios of whole
*Temperature
numbers to form compounds  states that the
elemental composition of a pure compound is
Changes that Matter undergoes:
 has solid like properties
(1)Physical Change  change in phase
 resemble those of a crystal in the formation of loosely
(2)Chemical Change  in both intrinsic & extrinsic
ordered molecular arrays similar to a regular crystalline
properties Evidences of Chemical Change:
lattice & anisotropic refraction of light
*Evolution of Gas
-Crystal lattice  ordered arrangement of atoms
*Formation of a precipitate
-flow properties
*Emission of light
-LCD  liquid crystal display
*Generation of Electricity
*Two main types of Liquid Crystals:
*Production of Mechanical Energy
*Absorption/liberation of Heat -Smectic (soap- or grease-like)
-Nematic (thread-like)
Physical State/ Phase *Six Distict Crystal System:
a. solid  (lowest) 1. Cubic (sodium chloride)
b. liquid 2. Tetragonal (urea)
c. gas  (highest) 3. Hexagonal (iodofrom)
d. Plasma  aka “Mesophase”, “Liquid Crystals” 4. Rhombic (iodine)
5. Monoclinic (sucrose)
 6. Triclinic (boric Acid) 3. Freezing  from liquid to solid, caused by cooling a liquid. 4.
▪ Mixture  composed of two or more elements/ substances which Boiling  from liquid to gaseous (vapor) at a temperature called
are not chemically combined boiling point.
5. Evaporation  from liquid to gaseous (vapor) due to the escape
Classification of Mixture of molecule from the surface.
▪ Heterogenous  two or more distinct phases Vapor  refers to the gaseous phase of a substance, which
▪ Homogenous only one phase or single phase is normally liquid or solid at room temperature.
-Solution uniform mixture 6. Liquefaction  from gas to liquid at a substance which is gas at
composed of solute & solvent room temperature & pressure. It is caused by
wherein atoms, molecules or ions of the substance cooling & increasing pressure.
become dispersed 7. Condensation  from gaseous to liquid, of a substance which is
-Suspension  homogenous dispersion insoluble in a liquid a liquid at room temperature & pressure. It is
aka Coarse Mixture naturally caused by cooling.
 finely divided solid materials distributed in a 8. Sublimation from solid to gaseous on heating, & from
liquid gaseous directly to solid on cooling.
-Colloids contain particles bigger than those in solutions but 9. Deposition  direct transition from vapor state to the solid state
smaller that those in suspension
particle of solute are not broken down to the size of Process of Separating Components of Mixture:
the molecules but are small dispersed throughout 1. Decantation  Difference in Specific Gravity
the medium. 2. Distillation  Evaporation & then condensation
 exhibit the light scattering effect 3. Magnetic separation  for metals
Properties of Colloids 4. Sorting  mechanical separation; darbling
1. Tyndall Effect  light scattering effect 5. Filtration  solid to liquid
2. Brownian Movement  zigzag movement of 6. Centrifugation  speeding up of settling process of a precipitate
colloidal particles 7. Functional Crystallization  lowering of temperature so that the
3. Electrically charge more insoluble component crystallizes
*Electrophoresis  Gel-electrophoresis out first.
SDS-PAGE 9. Chromatography  difference in solvent affinity
(used to separate
protein & nucleic acids)  Process involved in Chemical Change:
-Cathode (−) reduction takes place 1. Combustion  chemical union of oxygen w/ another substance
-Anode (+) oxidation takes place 2. Reduction  oxygen is removed from compound or H is added
4. Adsorption 3. Neutralization  acid reacts with a base to form salt & water 4.
Other Laws of Chemical Changes: Hydrolysis  reaction of water on a salt forming an acid and base
*Rate of Hydrolysis depends on: pH of the solution
*Law of  In a chemical reaction, the total mass
Temperature
Conservation of of reactant is equal to the total mass of
5. Saponification  a reaction between an alkali & fats/ oils
Mass products or mass is neither created nor
forming soap & glycerol
destroyed in any transformation of
6. Fermentation  action of bacterial/ microorganism on organic
matter.  by Antoine Van Lavoisier
substances resulting to the production of
alcohol.

Nuclear Change  chance in the structure of

Physical Changes/ Phase Transformation properties, composition of the
nucleus of an atom
resulting I \n the transmutation of the
element into another element
Nuclear Fission  splitting of a heavy atom
Nuclear Fusion  union of 2 light atoms to form a
bigger molecule.

Types of Chemical Reactions:

(a) Direct Union/ Synthesis/ Composition  involves the formation
of elements
*Combustion  chemical combination with oxygen
*Metal oxides = basic
Nonmetal oxides = acidic
(b) Decomposition/ Analysis  breakdown of complex substances
into simpler substance.
*Electrolysis  causing chemical change by passing
electricity through conducting solution
Ex: H2O −electrolysis H2 + O2
(c) Single Replacement: A + BC  B + AC
Na + HCl  H2  + NaCl
*Li  most reactive metal
Changes of State: Li + NaCl  Na + LiCl
1. Melting  from solid to liquid, usually caused by heating. 2. Na + LiCl  
Au  least reactive metal
Solidification  from liquid to solid of a substance which is a solid at
(d) Double displacement/ Metathesis: AB + CD  AD + CB Ex: NaCL
room temperature & atmospheric pressure.
 + AgNO3  AgCl + NaNO3
− Removal of − Removal of
*Neutralization  the reaction between acid & a base
hydrogen; Addition Oxygen; Addition
to form salt & water
of Oxygen of Oxygen
a. Acid + Base  Salt + Water
b. Metal Oxide + Acid  Salt + Water
c. Nonmetal Oxide + Base  Salt + Water − Reducing Agent − Oxidizing Agent
d. Metal Oxide + Nonmetal Oxide  Salt
e. Ammonia + Acid  Ammonium salt Ex: Na  Na + e− Ex: Cl2 + 2e−  2Cl
(e) Redox
Oxidation Reduction
“VI LEORA” “VD LEORA”
*MnO4 (violet/ pink) −acidic Mn2+
− Half reactive − Gain of Electrons (colorless/discoloration) −basic/
which involve loss neutral MnO2  (brown ppt)
of Structure of Atoms:
electrons  Democritus  “Matter composed of tiny particles called Atomos”
*Atomos  Greek word , meaning-(not to be cut or to be divided)  John
− oxidation −  oxidation Dalton  “atoms”
state/ valence state/ valence Electrons:
* Electrons  are located in electron clouds or energy level. 1.
Orbitals  region in space where the probability of finding an
electron is greatest
 Theory: The Billiard Ball Model -1s − spherical -Quantum numbers
− Atom is a hard indestructible sphere. -3p − principal Hybridization of Orbitals: - Sp3  hybrid
orbital - Sp2  double bond - Sp  triple bond
− was disproved when -5d − dumbed
Subatomoc Particles discovered.
- Electron number (z)
-Electron (−) Thompson - Electrons mass (A)
-Proton (+) Goldstein - ZASymbol
-Neutron (neutral)  Chadwick & Urey # Protons # Electrons # Neutrons
 Thompson  Model: The Raisin-bread Model 23
Na 11 11 12
The Plum-pudding Model 11
 “An atom is a sphere of positive particles” 24
Mg 2+ 12 10 12
Rutherford  disproved the Thompson’s Theory (after 5
2. Electron Shell  one or more orbitals of varying shapes
years)  Experiment: The Gold Foil/ Film Experiment
3. Electron Configuration  groups of numbers which shows the
−99% passed
arrangement of the electrons in an
−<1% deflected atom.
−According to him: (Proposal) 4. Valence Electrons  electrons occupying the outermost shell Ex:
▪ Atom is mostly an empty space (99& −
30Zn = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d (Ve −is from 2 to the last) ▪
2 2 6 2 6 2 10 nd
passed)
Paramagnetic  unpaired electrons
▪ Most of its Mass & (+) particles are
▪ Diamagnetic  all the electrons are paired
concentrated in the nucleus (<1%
deflected) 5. Electron Energy level  are composed of sublevels, which in
turn consist of orbitals
▪ Contains very small nucleus & in the
nucleus there is protons & Quantum Numbers:
neutrons. Sym Values
▪ Electrons are scattered around the bol
nucleus.
 Model: Nuclear Model 1. Principal 1, 2, 3, 4
n
Niel Bohr  Model: Planetary Model n=1 K shell
“Electrons move around in the circular paths n=2 L shell
called orbitals, wherein the energy of orbitals is n=3 M shell
quantized.” n=4 N shell
Erwin Schrodinger  Model: The Quatum-Mechanical Model
“Electron moves in a 3D space/structure, # of Total
2. Angular Ɩ 0 n=1
which is called electron cloud (e−cloud).” orbit # of
Moment
Ion  charged Atom als electr
um/ n=1; Ɩ=0 ons
▪ Atomic Number  always equal to the number of protons  always
Azithmut possib
equal to the number of electrons (if neutral) al le
▪ Mass Number (Atomic Mass)  sum of Protons + Neutrons 
Electrons + neutrons (if neutral)
n=2; Ɩ=0,1 0 -s 1 2
 Atomic number + neutrons ubshell
Neutral = #protons = #electrons
(+) = #protons > #electrons 1 -p 3 6
(−) = #protons < #electrons ubshell
Charged = #protons + #electrons
(+) (−) n=3; Ɩ=0,1,2 2 -d 5 10
ubshell
Example:
 Ɩ=3 -f 7 14
subshell * main energy level/ shell  sublevel/subshell  orbitals

3. Magnetic m/ −1, 0, +1 Functions

mƖ  Total energy of electron (n  energy)
n=1; 1. Principal  Size
Ɩ=0; of electron cloud (  size)
m=0  Main energy level or shell
n=2;  Describes the relative position of an energy level w/
Ɩ=0,1; respect to the other nergy level present
m=0
 Shape of electron cloud
m= −1, 0, +1
2. Angular Momentum/
n=3;
 Subshell/sublevel
Ɩ=0,1,2; Azithmutal
m=0
m= −1, 0, +1  Orientation of the space of electron cloud
m= −2, −1, 0, +1, +2 3. Magnetic 
Orbitals
4. Spin s/m −½ or + ½
 Direction of the spin or rotation
S
4. Spin
2 2 6 2 6 2 10
Ex: 30Zn = 1s 2s 2p 3s 3p 4s 3d
n = 3; Ɩ=2; m= −2, −1, 0, +1, +2; s = = + ½

12
32 2−
S 16 18 16
16 Meyer & Mendeleev (Lothar Meyer & Dmitri
Mendeleev) First Periodic Law
*Isotopes  same elements, same 3 of protons, “The Physical & Chemical Properties
different # of neutrons are periodic functions of their atomic weight”
 same atomic #; different mass number Moseley (Henry Moseley)
 Classes: (1) Stable  elements are arranged based on atomic numbers
(2) Unstable or Radioactive Isotopes − increasing atomic number
*Isobars  different elements, same mass #
*Isotones  different elements, same # of neutrons
*Negatron → neutron converts to proton
*Positron → protron changes to neutron
▪ Allotropism
Allotrope  atoms of different elements can link together in different
ways to form substances with different properties.
Principles:
Pauli’s Exclusion Principle
 No two electrons can have the same set of quantum number
 Each atomic orbital can only accommodate 2 electrons (Ex: 1s2)
Aufbau/ Building Up Principle
 energy: Lower  Higher (lower energy levels are filled up
first)  the higher the n value, the higher the energy level
* 4s: (n+Ɩ) = 4+0 = 4 (energy level)
Hund’s Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
 orbital are filled up singly before pairing up.
Heisenberg Uncertainty (4f) −1st 14 elements
It is impossible to determine simultaneously the momentum = Lanthanoids/ Lanthanide series/ Rare Earth Metals
& position of an electron.
= 57-70th element
Periodic Table:
(5f) −2 14 elements
nd
Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier
= Actinoids/ Actinide Series/ Heavy Rare Earth Metals
 Father of Modern Chemistry
 first true periodic table = 89-102th element
*Base on classes: −Gases− −Metals− −Minerals−
Oxygen Fe Chalk Group/ Family: Column; Top to Bottom (18
Nitrogen Co Silica groups/families) Period: Row; Left to Right (7 periods)
Chlorine Cu
Dobereiner (Johann Dobereiner)
 proposed the Law of ”TRIADS” based on physical &
chemical properties of elements.  Summary: Periodic Properties
Li, Na, K, TB LR
Ca, Ba, Sr,
S, Sc, Tc
1. Atomic Size/  
Newlands (John Newlands)
 “octaves” (set of eight)
 LR =  IP
Atomic Radius
*Noble Gases  very high IP
3. Electron affinity  is the amount of energy release when a neutral
2. Ionization Energy Potential   atom accepts an electron in its outermost shell
to convert
3. Electron Affinity   it to negatively charge ion.
 is the energy change that occurs when an electron is
4. Electronegativity   added to a gaseous atom because it measures the
attraction of the atom for the added atom
5. Metallic Property   TB =  EA
LR =  EA
Non-metallic Property   4. Electronegativity  the tendency of an atom to attract
electrons to itself when its chemically
 TB =  Metallic Property & combined w/ another
Atomic size  LR =  Metallic atom.
TB =  EN
Property & Atomic size
LR =  EN
*Halogens  very high EN (F> O> N ≉Cl)
5. Metallic Property: TB =  metallic property
LR =  metallic property
Periodic Properties:
Nonmetallic Property: TB =  nonmetallic property
1. Atomic Size: w/ in Group (TB) = atomic size/ atomic
LR =  nonmetallic property
radius w/ in the Period (LR) =  atomic size/
*Metalloids  directly below the ladder
atomic radius
are elment possessing both metallic & nonmetallic
2. Ionization Energy Potential  is amount of energy required to
in character
remove en electron from a
-Boron
neutral
-Silicon
atom to convert it to positively charge
-Germanium
ion.
TB =  IP
−Group IA  VIIIA −Group IB  VIIIB
Family A Family B -Arsenic -Antimony -Tellurium
−Representative Elements −s & p −Transition Elements −d & f blocks -Polonium
blocks

*Diagonal/Bridge Element − closely resembles the second member of

an adjacent group to the right
Example:
15P= 1s22s22p63s23p3
= period number (highest n value): 3
= p block
= Family A
= Group number (# of valence electrons): 5
Chemical Bonding: * σ bond  single
Chemical bonds= stability= e− configuration as noble bonds
gas Example: π bond multiple
2He = 1s2 bonds
= noble gas: valence shell configuration
of ns2np6−stable octet, 7 valence electrons Sigma bonds (σ) − molecular orbitals are symmetrical about
 completely filled atomic orbitals the bond axes.
1. Electron Transfer  usually occur between a metal/ metalloid Pi bonds (π) − subject to addition reaction (ex:
& a nonmetallic 1-pentene) −subject to addition nucleophilic
 metal/ metalloid + nonmetal (ex: Ethanal)
Cation(+) + anion(−) = Ionic Bonding
Coval Non –polar  similar atoms
Example: 11Na : 1s22s22p63s1 ent  except for C−H (still
Na+: 1s22s22p6= Ne Bond
2 2 5 −
belongs)  equal sharing of
9F : 1s 2s 2p + e −
e
F−: 1s22s22p6 = Ne
2. Electron Sharing  nonmetal molecules
Polar  dissimilar atoms
 Covalent Bonding
−
Example: H2 = 1H + 1H  unequal sharing or e
1s1 1s1  dipole
*Overlapping of Atomic Orbitals  Molecular Orbitals
1. head-on  sigma (σ) m.o./ bond −lies along the line 2. lateral
sideways  pi(π) m.o./ bond −formed from overlap of p orbital
-anode  a region in space where there is a zero
 Forces of Attraction:
probability of finding an electron
 INTRAmolecular  forces within a molecule H  attached to highly electronegative atoms (N, O, F)
a. Covalent Bond  made by sharing electrons H-bond  D-D  LDF
-Nonpolar [Cl2, CO2, CCl2] –no significant diff. of EN 
-Polar [HCl, HCHO] –has significant dif. of EN relative strength
b. Ionic bond  affinity between oppositely charged 3. Ion-ion, Ion-dipole, & ion induced dipole
particles  present in salts/ ionic compounds  (+) & (−) interaction in the solid sate
 forces that hold ions together in the crystal  strongest bond
lattice of a salt
Solid Liquid Gas
INTERmolecular forces hold molecules together
1. VAN DER WAALS
1. London Dispersion Forces (LDF) Volume Definite Definite Indefinite
 aka Induced Dipole-Induced Dipole
 bond between nonpolar molecules (no charges) Shape Definite Indefinite Indefinite
 weakest bond
2. Dipole-dipole or Permanent Dipole Strength of IFA Strongest Strong Weakest
 aka Keesom Orientation FOrce (Intermolecular *Ideal Gas:
 operate on polar or dipole molecules forced of Attraction) No IFA
 stronger than LDF
3. Dipole- Induced Dipole
Molecular Motion Vibration Gliding Constant
 aka Debye Induction Force
random
 bond between a charged (dipole) and an uncharged
particles (induced dipole)
2. Hydrogen Bonding
 bond of Hydrogen with a highly electronegative atom of
another molecules
 special type of dipole-dipole interaction.
*CCl4 *CHCl3 movement (including direction) of
− molecule: − more polar than CCl4 molecules, ions, or atoms.
non polar −
bond: polar
Kinematic Molecular Theory  explains
the phases of matter based on the
*H2O: Polar molecule Polar Bond
Solutions  homogenous mixture of single phase system of %��/�� =�� ���� ������������
two or more substances 100�� ���� ����������������
-Solute  lesser amounts ���� ���� ������������
2. %��/�� =
 solid, liquid, gas 100���� ���� ����������������
-Solvent  greater amounts 3. %��/�� =
�� ���� ������������
 liquid, solid, gas 100���� ���� ����������������
*Alloys  an example of solid homogenous mixture ���� ���� ������������
4. ���� % =

Factors affecting Solubility:

1. Nature of Solute & Solvent
(Polarity): Like dissolve like
Solubility  maximum amount of solute expressed in grams
that can be dissolved in 100g of water
Miscibility  ability of one substance to mix with another
substance (ex: liquid-liquid; liquid-gas)
2. Temperature
temp: sobility of solid in liquid
temp:  solubility of a gas in liquid
Exothermic  solubility: temperature
Endothermic  solubility: temperature

Methods of Expressing Concentration of Solutions: 1.

 *Standard Temp: 0°C (273K) =���������� ����
3. Pressure (affects Gases only) ������������ ���� ���� ��=����/����
Henry’s Law of Gas solubility  solubility of
���������������� HCl : f=1
gas: pressure SI unit for pressure: Pascal
H2SO4: f=2
(N/m2) =����/���� H2PO4: f=3
4. Particle Size/ Surface Area ���� CH3COOH: f=1
particle size: surface area: solubility NaOH: f=1
5. Presence of Salts =����/���� Mg (OH)2: f=2
Salting-out  presence of salt decreases �� AL(OH)3: f=3
solubility 7. Normality (N) NH3: f=1
 precipitation of an organic substance from a
saturated solution when highly soluble salts. �� = �� × �� =����/���� F=total positive/ total
Salting in  presence of salt increases solubility negative charges
*Basic or Sub salt  is prepared by: NaCl: f=1
Partial hydrolysis of a normal salt MgO: f=2
Partial Neutalization of a hydroxide Ca3(PO4)2: f=6
K3C6H5O7: f=3
Types of Solution According to the Solubility of the
Solute:  Saturated Solution  solution achieved Oxid-agent: f=3 of
the maximum solubility  Unsaturated Solution  e−gained MnO4
less solvent that solute
100���� ���� ����������������
−H+Mn2+
F=5
5. Molarity (M)
−OH− Mn2
�� =���������� ���� F=3
������������ �� ���� Redu-agent: f=# of e lost
���������������� Fe2+  Fe3+

=����/���� ��
�� ��
6. Molality (m)  more accurate ��
 Supersaturated Solution  ��
more solvent that solute �� =������ ��

��
=�������������
��������� ����
������������ ��
����
��������������
��
Colligative Properties ?FP = kfm
1. Vapor Pressure Lowering  the addition of a non-volatile solute Freezing point of water is 0°C
lowers the VP of the liquid Kf= 1.86°C/m
 A liquid in a closed container will established an 4. Osmotic Pressure
equilibrium with its vapor. Pressure needed to prevent osmosis
 When equilibrium is reached, the vapor exerts a Osmosis  net movement of solvent molecules through a
pressure (vapor pressure) semipermeable membrane from a more dilute solution to
 Volatile  exhibits vapor pressure a more concentrated solution
 most use Lower Temperature Zone  lower to higher concentration of solute
 Nonvolatile  no measurable vapor pressure Reverse Osmosis  move under high pressure from
Raoult’s Law  is applied in the determination of vapor more concentrated to less
pressure P= (1x Xsolute) P° concentrated
 lowering of a vapor pressure of a solvent is equal to  process of water purification
the product of the mole fraction of the solute & vapor Gas Laws (PV=nRT)
pressure of the solvent. 1. Boyle’s Law  Volume is inversely proportional to
 follow ideal solution pressure  nonlinear relation for volume
 ?P=P° of pure solvent x mole fraction of the solute & pressure ��1��1 = ��2��2
2. Boiling Point Elevation Constant: n, R, T
Boiling Point  equilibrium between the liquid & the gas, point Variable: P, V
at which the VP equals atmospheric P. Relationship: Inverse
3. Freezing Point Depression
Presence of salt/ solute will cause lowering of freezing
point Ice cream making
2. Charle’s Law  Volume is directly proportional to 8. Grahams Law  The rate of the effusion of two gases (&
temperature (Kelvin), 273K−standard diffusion) are inversely proportional to the
square roots of their densities providing
��1=��2 the temperature & pressure are the same
��1 for two gases.
��2 ��2 ����1
Constant: P, n, R
��1
Variable: V, T
Relationship: Direct ����2
*Diffusion  gradual mixing of
3. Avogadro’s Law  Volume is directly proportional to molecules of one gas w/ the
molecules of
moles ��1=��2 another gas by virtue of their kinetic
��1 properties
��2 *Effusion  passage of a gas under
pressure through a small opening
Constant: P, R, T
Variable: V, n
Relationship: Direct
*Avogadro’s Number: 6.02 x 1023
Acids & Bases
4. Combined/  combination of Boyle’s, Charle’s, Electrolytes  Allow conductase of electricity
Ideal Gas Law  WEAK electrolytes: Incomplete/PartiaI dissolution
Avogadro’s ��1��1=��2��2 Poor electric conductor
��1��1  STRONG electrolytes: Strong acids & bases
Complete dissolution
��2��2 Best electric conductor
*Ideal Gas  exist at STP Non-Electrolytes  will not dissociate, will not conduct electricity
T= O°C / 273 K  do not ionized in water
P= 1 atm
= 760 mmHg Acid-Base Theory
N= 1 mol ACID BASE
V= 22.4 L
Arrhenius yield H+ yield OH Bronsted-Lowry proton donor
*Ideal Gas Constant: R
proton acceptor Lewis e- acceptor e- donor
R= 0.08205 Latm/ mol k
R= 8.314 J/mol k
R= 1.987 cal/mol/k Arrhenius Theory  water ion theory of Acidity
Bronsted-Lowry  H+(hydronium ion)
5. Dalton’s Law  State that the Pressure exerted by a  conjugate acid-base pairs
of Partial Pressure mixture of gasses (non-reacting gases) is  protonic concept
the sum of the partial pressures that elaborated as HA <-> H++ A
each gas in the mixture exert individually  natural direction of a bronsted-lowry acid-base
 gaseous mixtures reaction: SA+SB WA+WB
������������ = ���� + ���� * H30+  strongest acid in aqueous solution
+ ���� … ���� Lewis Theory  coordinate covalent bond
*Heavy metals + chelating agents (2or more donor atoms)
EDTA -^ donor atoms
6. Gay-Lussac’s  Pressure is directly proportional to
law or *Chelates (cage-like structures)
temperature, if V is constant
Amonton’s *Coordinate Covalent Bond − interaction wherein both lectrons in
Law the bond arise from a single orbital
on one of the atoms forming the
bond.
7.
Clausius-Clapeyron ��������2 1. SA + SB  neutral salt
��1=∆���� (��2 − ��1) HCl + NaOH  NaCl +H2O
2. SA + WB  acidic salt
2.303 ����2��1 HCl + NH4OH  NH4Cl + H2O
Where: P= Pressure 3. WA + SB basic salt
T= Temperature CH3COOH + NaOH  NaCH3COO + H2O
ΔHv = heat of vaporization 4. WA+WB  neutral, acidic, basic salt
R= gas constant + 8.314 J/molK CH3COOH + NH4OH  NH4CH4COO + H20
* Latent heat  heat required for kA = kB  neutal
phase transition to kA>kB  acidic salt
happen. kA<kB  basic salt
-Hf  heat of fusion (S⇌L)
-Hv  heat of vaporization (L⇌G)
-Hs  heat of sublimation (S⇌G)
*In a complex, the metal acts as a Lewis Acid (e- acceptor).
General Properties:
 ACIDS  sour taste
Alkali Metal NaOH
 Litmus: Blue to Red
 aqueous solutions conduct electricity (hydroxides) KOH
 reacts with metal to produce Hydrogen gas LiOH
reacts with carbonate & bicarbonate
to produce Carbon dioxide gas Alkaline Earth Be(OH2)
 turns colorless w/ Phenolphthalein (metal
 turns pink w/ methyl orange indicator hydroxides)
Most common acids:
Strong Acids Weak Acids

* Weak Base − conjugate base of a strong acid

Binary HCl HF
Acids HBr
HI

Oxyacid HNO3 H2SO4 Neutralization aka “acid-base reaction”

s HClO4 H2PO3 involve in determination of acidity or alkalinity of
HOXO –halous acid solutions.
Acid + base = salt & water
 point when equal amounts of acid & base reacted;
non-observable
*Titration  process of progressive addition of a solution of known
BASES  bitter taste concentration to a substance of unknown concentration *Indicator 
 Litmus: Red to blue substance that changes color at the end point *Equivalent Pointis
 aqueous solutions conduct electricity the point in a titration where stoichiometrically equivalent amounts of
 feel slippery analyte & titrant.
 Pink to Violet color w/ Phenolphthalein *Stoichiometric point
 Yellow w/ Methyl orange *End point  is the point in a titration where we stop adding
Most common bases: titrant(VS).
 experimental approximate of neutralization point;
Strong Bases
Observable
Basic Principles of Analysis
A. pH
 number of grams equivalent of H per liter of soln
 pH = -log [H]
or pH = log 1/[H]
pOH= -log[OH−]
pH + pOH =14
acidic = pH < 7.0, pOH >7.0
basic= pH >7.0, pOH <7.0
neutral= pH=pOH=7.0
* (−) value of pH is possible
* > 14 value is possible as well.
 Protolysis → a process whereby a proton is transferred from one
molecule to another.
 Autoprotolysis → a process whereby there is a transfer of a
proton from one molecule to another identical molecule. 
Amphoteric → properly where a substance can act either as acid or
base.

Henderson- Hasselbalch equation

pH = pka h log [salt]/[acid] or
pH = pka=log [conjugate base]/[base]

∙Isohydric → a solution having the same pH as the standard solution.

B. Buffer Capacity
→ ability/ degree (magnitude) of a buffer solution to resist
changes in pH upon addition of acid/alkali
→depends on the amount of the acid & the base from which
the buffer can neutralize before pH begins to change to an
appreciable degree
Van slyke
∙ was responsible for a quantitative expression
∙ amount in g/l of strong acid or a strong base required to be
added to a solution to change its pH by 1 unit.
∙ higher buffer capacity, lower change in pH.
Pearson’s HSAB principle:
“Hard acids are electron acceptor w/ high positive charges & relatively
small sizes while soft acids have low positive charges & relatively large
sizes. “
Thermodynamics  deals w/ energy transformation System ΔH = Hf − Hi
 any part of the universe which is isolated from the rest by a B. Non-state Function  path-dependent
boundary on a wall First Law of Thermodynamics
Surrounding  everything outside the system “Law of Conservation of Energy”
Energy is not created nor destroyed, it can only be
Three Types of Thermodynamic System transformed. −The Energy of the universe is constant.
1. Open  allow exchange of both matter & energy − ΔV = 9xw
-you can add/withdraw
2. Closed  allows exchange of energy but not of matter 3. Second Law of Thermodynamics
Isolated  does not allow the exchange of both matter & energy. “Spontaneous Law”
*Adiabatic  doest not allow energy or heat flow A process that occurs by itself must be increased in the entropy in
*Diathermal  allows energy & heat flow order to be SPONTANEOUS!
−accompanied by an increase of entropy
ΔG = (−) spontaneous
Thermodynamic Functions: ΔG = (+) non-spontaneous
1. Internal Energy (U or E)  total energy content of a system, ΔG = (0)  equilibrium
composed of thermal energy & chemical ΔG = ΔH −TΔS
energy (−) (+) (−)  spontaneous
 is the heat content of a system evaluated at (+) (−) (+)  non-spontaneous
contant volume (+) (+)   spontaneous
*Heat content = constant volume (isochoric) X X   non-spontaneous
 refers to the heat required to Above 0 degree − melt spontaneously
increase the internal energy & to
Below 0 degree − not melt spontaneously
perform work of expansion
2. Enthalpy (H)  Energy of a reaction Exacly 0 − equilibrium
 heat content evaluated at constant pressure − solid & liquid –Physical State @ Freezing point
*Heat content = constant pressure ( Isobaric) Triple Point  the condition of temperature & pressure where a
3. Entropy (S)  measure of degree of randomness or disorderliness of substance can exist solid, liquid & gas @ the same
a system. time
*If the Entropy is Zero, Freezing Point  0°C  matter @ solid
the reaction is Spontaneous & Irreversible. Boiling Point  matter @ liquid
4. Gibb’s Free Energy (G)  expendable amount of
energy  combines enthalpy & Third Law of Thermodynamics
entropy “The entropy of a pure crystalline solid at a zero Kelvin is zero.“
 determines spontaneity of a reaction  SOK = O
 when a reaction is at equilibrium
= Gibbs Free Energy is Zero
*G=H−TS (ΔG=ΔH−TΔS)
5. Heat (q)  an energy transfer due to temperature CHEMICAL REACTIONS:
1. Endothermic Process  reaction wherein heat is absorbed by the
difference q = (+)  endothermic
system, indicated by (+) change in enthalpy.
q = (−)  exothermic
2. Exothermic Process  a reaction wherein heat is released by the
6. Heat Capacity (c)  the amount of heat required to raise the
system, indicated by a (−) change in enthalpy.
temperature of an object or substance by one
 tend to be spontaneous reaction
degree.
6. Work (w)  a form of energy transfer between a system & its
surroundings in the form of compression or expansion of
Chemical Kinetics (reaction rates):
the gas.
1. Collision Theory  result of molecular collision
 movement of an object against some force
 rate & frequency of effective collisions
w = work
 is effective if:
w= P2xtΔY
Requirements:
ΔV = 0 w= 0 a. Reactants must posses energy equal to or higher
*work done BY the system  occurs during the process of than minimum energy requirement (energy barrier,
expansion (expansion) activation of energy [Ea])
ΔV = Vf − Vi b. Proper orientation  reaction profile
 sign is (−) A=B  P
*work done ON the system  occurs during Ea =  rate
compression (compression) Ea =  rate
 sign is (+) #peaks = equal to the number of steps of reaction
*Converted Reaction/ Single Phase Reaction
 single step reaction
A. State Function  path independent; not concern w/ the process only  determining Endo or Exo
in the initial & final state.  from graph
Ex: ΔH, ΔV, ΔG, ΔS ΔH = H prod − H reactants
 = (−) A B # collision
= Endothermic OO1
2. Transition State Theory  reactant (first form) to transition state & O
dissociation to products
OO 2
*reactants  transition state  products
*Rate  dependents on energy required for the formation of Chemical Equilibrium
transition state (TS)
energy TS =slow rate Kinetics  rate of forward reaction is equal to rate of backward reaction
energy TS = fast rate
*Intermediate  space occupied between two transition state (TS) Homogenous Equilibrium  reactants & product are present in same phase.
Factors Affecting Reaction rate: Heterogenous Equilibrium  the reactants & products are in different
1. Nature of Reactants  reactivity, physical state 2. Temperature phase
  temperature  ∝Eave  mobility   frequency collision  
rate
3. Surface Area Ionic Equilibria  involves Ionia
 SA  particle size 1. Weak Acid & Weak Base
  rate  will be equal if they are have 1 aqueous solution
4. Concentration -weak acid: Ka =acid ionization constant
  conc.   rate -weak base: Ka = base ionization constant
Except for zero order reaction 2. Insoluble Salts  happened if there saturated solution Ksp = solubility
product constant
Laws of Mass Action
  reactant =  collision
OO 3. Complexes: Kf = formation
O O3 constant
−when a stress is applied to an equilibrium
− stress factors: Δs in concentration: P, V, temp
Rate Law Expression = A=B  P −will not cause any shift
 rate = K [A] X[B]Y −addition of catalysy
Where: K = specific rate constant Ex: Δ(g) = 2B9g) ⇌ P(a)
= temp-dependent P (V) − shift to directions lesser # of gaseous
[A][B] = molar concentration molecules
X & Y = order of reaction
 temp = favors an endothermic reaction
magnitude of the effects of the changing
 temp = facvors an exothermic reaction
concentration of reaction rate
temp = 
}3
x=1
y=2 temp = 
5. Catalyst  a substance that speed up the rate of reaction by
providing a new reaction pathway for molecules
 influences the speed of a reaction without itself Common-ion Effects  suppresses the ionization of weak
being altered chemically. electrolytes (the dissociation of a
*Effects: a. Directly lower EA weak
b. Can make reaction proceed in a multistep process wherein
Le Chatelier’s Principles
each step has lower Ea compared to the usual OH =  H3O solution a strong electrolytes that in common
reaction Add of NaCl  Na+Cl = No shift w/ the weak electrolyte)
Add of HCl  H++ Cl− =  Add of NaOH  Na = electrolytes is decreasing by adding to the

ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic Chemistry  branched of chemistry that deals with carbon – containing compounds with: C, H, O, P, S, X (halides – F, Cl, B, I)

Hydrocarbon  contain (C,H)

 presence of ring/s, specifically Benzene

1. Aliphatic Naphthalene
Ring & its derivatives
 single chain, no ring/s involve a. Saturated Examples: (2 rings)
 single bonds only, Alkane (parafins) -polycyclic benzenoids
* CnH2n+2 Benzene -obtained from coal
b. Unsaturated (1 ring) tar -position (α, β)
 has multiple bonds,
Alkenes (double bond)
* CnH2n
Alkynes (triple bonds)
* CnH2n-2
2. Aromatic Compounds
 -cyclobutene
Anthracene
(3 rings)
-polyaromatic
3. Alicyclic or Carbocyclic
hydrocarbons (P
 they are chains that * Cycloalkanes: CnH2n
-for dyes
form a ring & behave
like aliphatics (single
Phenanthrene bond)
-isomer of anthraExamples:
-cyclopropane -cyclopropene -cyclobutane

Hydrocarbon Derivatives  are hydrocarbons that bear other carbon & hydrogen atoms & other
elements such as Oxygen, Nitrogen, Sulfur, or Halogen, Phosphorus, etc
Carboxylic Acid derivatives Tertiary Amines: R3N Organophosphate
-acid acyl 2. Heterocyclic Sulfur-containing
Oxygen-containing
-anhydrides 3. Nitrogen-compounds 1. Thiols (-SH)
1. Aldehydes (RCHO)
4. Carboxylic Acid -ester (RCOOR) Halogen -sulfur analogue of
Ketones (RCOR)
(Carboxyl, -COOH) -amides containing alacohols
2. Ethers (ROR)
Nitrogen-containing 1. Alkyl Halides 2. Aryl -aka “Sulfhydryls” 2.
-formed during
1. Amines (amino group, Halides Thioethers (R-S-R)
dehydration of alcohol
-NH) Primay Amines: RNH 2 Phosphorus-containing 1.
-CnH2n+20
*Organic acid (RCOOH) 5. Secondary Amines: R2NH Phosphate groups 2.
3. Alcohols (Phenol)
Isomerism  refers to the existence of two or more compounds having ⇒ (1-butene) H2C=CH−CH2−CH3
the same molecular formula, but different structure ⇒ (2-butene) H2C−CH=CH2−CH3
Isomer  compounds having the same Molecular formula, but C3H7Br
different structure. ⇒ (1-bromopropane) CH3− CH2−CH2−Br
Stereochemistry  the branch of organic chemistry that is ⇒ (2-bromopropane) CH3− CH−CH3
solely dedicated to the study of isomers |
Br
Reasons: *Prefixes that designate positions in the benzene:
1. Order of Bonding (a) Ortho  indicate substances on the benzene
 “Structurally Isomer” ring in positions next to each other
a. Chain – branching
− exhibited by alkanes Ortho-bromochlorobenzene
− differ in the arrangement of C atoms
Ex: C4H10⇒ (butane) CH3−CH2−CH2−CH3 (b) Meta  substituents on the benzene ring
⇒ (isobutane) CH3−CH−CH3 separated by one carbon atom.
|
CH3 Meta-bromochlorobenzene
C5H12 ⇒ (pentane) CH3−CH2−CH2−CH2−CH3
⇒ (isopentane) CH3−CH−CH2−CH3 (c) Para  subtituents separated by two carbon
| atoms
CH3 Para-bromochlorobenzene
⇒(neopentane) CH3
| c. Functional Isomer − Functional Group
CH3−C−CH3 − differ in their functional groups
| Ex: CH2−CH2−OH  ethanol (alcohol)
CH3 CH3−O−CH3  methyl ether (ether)
b. position − position of multiple bond or differ in the
position of substituent or functional group.
− differ in position of the substituent or
unsaturated bonds (C=C, C≡C) 2. Spatial Orientation  arrangement of atom in
space  “Stereoisomer”
Ex: C4H8 –alkene w/ 1 double bond
a. Geometric Isomers  double bond (alken3),
 cyclic *Cis-Trans 1. Chiral Center/ Chiral carbon/ Asymmetric chiral
-Cis (means on the same side) carbon  aka Stereocenter
Ex: Cis −2−butene  is acarbon to which four different atoms
or group of atoms are attached
2. No symmetry element
 Enantiomers  mirror images but not superimposable
-Trans (means across or on opposite sides)  also called as Optical Isomer since they rotate light in
Ex: Trans−2−butene the opposite direction
 Diastereomers  non-mirror images, not
superimposable  Mesocompounds  mirror images,
superimposable
b. Conformational Isomers same compounds
(a) open chain/ acyclic  can be obtain in  Epimer  special type of diastereomers
rotation along a single  identical in all except in one chiral center
bond  differ only in configuration at one asymmetry carbon
(b) cyclic-ring flipping atom ▪ D-glucose/ D-mannose Epimers at 2
Ex: ▪ D-glucose/ D-galactose Epimers at 4
 Ethane  Anomer  differ only in configuration at Carbon #1
(carbonyl C or anomeric C)
 Saw horse Projection:

 Perspective Formula:
-dash (back) α-anomer β-anomer
-wedge (front)
Ex: Tartaric Acid
 Newman Projection: HOOC−CH−CH−COOH
-eclipse conformation ||
OH OH
= # stereoisomers =2n (n=chiral center)
= 22
-staggered conformation: =4
-more stable
Fischer Projection Formula
Dihedral angle
I II III IV
 Cyclobutane
-planar  not a stable conformation
 are all eclipsing

-butterfly conformation  more stable

I-II  mirror images
Superimposable
meso compounds ( compounds w/ stereocenters but are
chiral)  optically inactive
 Cyclopentane
II-III  non mirror images
-planar  not stable
Non superimposable
 diastereomers
-envelope conformation  more stable
III-IV  mirror images
Non superimposable
 enatiomers
Meso Compounds  compounds w/ sterocenters but are chiral
 are characterized by the presence of a plane
 Cyclohexane
of
-Chair  most stable
symmetry & are superimposable
Racemic-mixtures (racemates)
-planar  not stable
 produced w/ mixtures of equimolar concentrations
of dextro & levo isomers
-boat conformation  more stable
 contain equal amounts of
 flagpole positions
D & L isomers
R & S isomers  determine by Cahn-Ingold-Prelog
Example: Thalidomide  exist 2 chiral center
steric effect
r-thalidomide  sedative/ hypnotic
Optical Activity ability of a compound to rotate a polarized light either
s-thalidomide  teratogenic
to right or to the left
*Thalidomide syndrome  because of the
 can only be determined by POLARIMETER
 Dextrorotatory =d/ (+) presence of s-thalidomide
 Levorotatory= l/(−) −phocolmelia (short limb)
 −amelia (no limb)
# of C Rootword + -ane Molecular formula
Haworth Projection  presents a cyclic sugar structure
Biosostere  substituents or groups w/ similar physical or chemical 1 Meth Methane CH4
properties that in impart similar biological properties
to a chemical compounds
2 Eth Ethane C2H6
Purpose:
-Enhance the desired biological or physical properties of a 3 Prop Propane C3H8
compound without making significant changes in chemical
structure -Increase Potency 4 But Butane C4H10
-Decrease Side effects
-Increase duration of action by altering metabolism 5 Pent Pentane C5H12
-Isosteric analogs may act antagnonistically w/ the parent molecule
6 Hex Hexane C6H14
Example of Biososteric replacements:
-Fluorine vs Hydrogen 7 Hept Heptane C7H16
-Hydroxyl vs Amino Acids
-Hydroxyl vs Thiol Groups 8 Oct Octane C8H18
-Methyl, Methoxyl, Hydroxyl, Amino groups vs Hydrogen -Fluoro,
Chloro, & Bromo, thiol, vs Methyl & other small alkyl groups 9 Non Nonane C9H20

Types of Organic Reactions: 10 Dec Decane C10H22

1. Addition: CH2 = CH2 + HBr  CH3CH2Br
2. Substitution: CH3CH2OH+Cl−  CH3CH2Cl
3. Elimination: CH3CH2OH  CH2 = CH2 +H2O
4. Re-arrangement: CH3CH2CH2Br  CH3CHCH3
| *Substituents: R-alkyl = alkanes−1H atom
Br −yl = methyl: −CH3
5. Propagation, Inititation, Termination: CH4 + Br+  CH3* + Ethyl: −CH2−CH3
Br O Propyl: −CH2−CH2−CH3
|| Isopropyl: CH3−CH−CH3
6. Oxidation: CH3CH2OH + H2CrO4  CH3C-OH + Cr +3 |
7. Reduction: Nitrobenzene + Fe  Aniline + Ferric Hydroxide Tertairy Butyl: CH3
|
Systems of Nomenclature: CH3−C−CH3
1. Common  uses the name given when it was |
discovered  example: Formic Acid (Latin, −x (halo): −F: Fluoro
formica=ants) −Cl: Chloro
Uses prefixes: -n, -iso, -neo −Br: Bromo
2. Derived Names  derived from a parent compound −I: Iodo
3. IUPAC (international Union of Pure & Applied −NO2: Nitro
Chemistry)  most systemic −C≡N: Cyano
 example: 2-methylhexane
*Alkyl groups
 based on: A. longest continuous C chain or parent
− Can participate in Van der Waals Interaction
chain B. use of numbers
& Hydrophobic Bonding.
C. use of C # prefixes
− Metabolism: Oxidation
* QSAR (Quantitative Structure & Activity Relationship)
− Aryl Groups (Ar)  an aromatic (benzene ring)
IUPAC Rules:
with a hydrogen atom removed
1. Name by considering the longest carbon chain
*Reactions to Consider:
2. Number C atoms consecutively from one end so that the
branches or substituents are given the lowest position numbers − Combustion  a chemical reaction in which HC
burns (rapid oxidation) & produces
3. Modify the Suffix based on the type of formula or the
functional group CO2 & H20
ROH (-ol) *Cycloalkanes: (alkanes that exist in the shape of a
RCHO (-al) ring) − Cycopropane / Trimethylene
RCOR (-one) − Cyclobutane
RCOOH (-oic acid) − Cyclopentane
4. Identify the substituents & indicate the positions by using
numbers CH3 (methyl) Unsaturated Hydrocarbons  have multiple bonds in their
R (alkyl) molecules Alkenes: CnH2n (-ene)
OCH3 (methoxy) ethane/ ethylene:
OR (Alkoxy)
Cl (Chloro) propene: CH3−CH=CH2
Br (Bromo) Reactive site occur in 
NH2 (Amino) C=C
5. If there is more than one of the same substituent/ alkyl group double bond (e−rich) – has 1σ, 1π
on the chain, indicate the number of groups by using −react to something
prefixes; di two; tri-three; tetra-four; & so on. positive
Saturated Hydrocarbons θ
Electrophile (E )  e- poor / e- lovinf reagents (+)
Alkanes: CnH2n+2 (-ane)
 θ *Reactions:
NUcleophile (N )  e- rich reagent (−)
Electrophilic Addition  alkene react w/ electrophiles 1. Nitration
2. Halogenation
1. Catalytic hydrogenation (addition of H) – 3. Friedel-Craft’s Alkylation
alkenealkane  used in production in Margarine 4. Friedel-Craft’s Acylation
Fixed oils (Unsaturated Fatty Acids)  saturated F.A 5. Sulfonation  only reversible EAS
Liquids  solid Other Functional Groups:
2. Halogenation (addition of Halogen) Halides: Halogenation
Alkene −CHCl2/CCl4 Alkyldihalide Formation of an alkyl or aryl halide
Examples of Organic halides: -F, -Cl, -Br, -I
−H2O halohydrin Functional Froup: R-X
3. Hydrohalogenation  (addition of HX, -hydrogen Alkyl & aromatic halides
halide) Alkene + HX  alkylhalide electron-withdrawing functional groups
* Markonicov’s Rules  used to “lock” a drug molecule in a desired conformation
−H adds to C w/ the greater # of H substituents  decrease aromatic oxidation of the drug
−X adds to C w/ the lesser # of H substituents only F can bind
 Ex: Diclofenac, Chloramphenicol
− *Electrophilic Groups will most likely attach to 1-pentene
4. Hydration (addition of water/ H20) * Electron-withdrawing Groups  impart acid stability
Oxidation of Alkene: 1. Hydroxylation/ Glycol Formation Alcohols
*Basis for: Baeyer’s Test (for unsaturated)  OH groups can form ion-dipole & H-bonds
*Glycol (ex: 1,2-diols)  is the genral term  OH groups enhance water solubility
tha is used to refer to compounds  esterified to form prodrugs
having two hydroxyl groups  metabolism: Oxidation, Glucuronidation or sulfate
attached to adjacent carbons conjufation Functional group: R-OH
2. Oxidative cleavage Classification:
Metabolism: More reactive than alkyl group 1. Based on the # of R bonded to the Carbon bearing the –OH
Hydration group (C-OH, carbinol group)
a. Primary alcohol  has only one R-group (1° alcohol)
Epoxidation
Examples:
Peroxidation
Methyl alcohol: CH3−OH
Reduction
Ethyl Alcohol: CH3−CH2−OH
Alkadienes  contain 2 C=C Propyl Alcohol: CH3−CH2−CH2−OH
 name: Indicate the position of double bond + b. Secondary Alcohol two R-groups (2° alcohol)
prefix+ diene; CH2=CHCH=CH2 Example
Alkynes: CnH2n−2 (-yne) Isopropyl: CH3−CH−CH3
Triple bond (one or more) |
H−C≡C−H: Ethyne/ Acetylene (simplest alkyne) OH
Reactive site occur in  c. Tertiary Alcohol has three R-groups
Example:
C≡C
Tertairy Butyl: CH3
triple bond (e−rich)
Aromatics  contain Benzene Ring that have multiple double
|
CH3−C−CH3
bonds *Benzene: C6H6 (subject to Substitution Electrophilic)
|
Toluene  methyl derivative of benzene OH
Xylene  dimethyl benzene 2. Based on the # of hydroxyl groups
*Aromaticity: (Criteria) a. Monohydric  1 OH
1. Cyclic b. Dihydric  2 OH (ethylene glycol)
2. Flat/ Planar (sp2C = double bond) c. Trihydric  3 OH (glycerol)
d. Polyhydric (carbohydrates)
3. Conjugated double bonds − having alternating double
Nomenclature of Alcohols:
bonds 4. Huckel’s Rule : 4n+2 rule A. Common names are often used
− name of alkyl group + alcohol
− CH3OH (methyl alcohol)
B. Derived names from Carbinol (an old name of
6πe- 10πe metyhanol) −Eg. CH3CH2OH
6=4n+2 10=4n+2 −Methyl carbinol
4=4n n=2 C. IUPAC Rules: similar to alkanes
n=1 1. Parent chain has the –OH
cyclobutadiene: antiaromatic compound 2. –OH is given the lower number
4=4n+2 3. Name ending in –ol
n= ½ (therefore, it’s not aromatic) Qualitative Test for Alcohols:
1. Lucas Test
furan: 6πe- (n=1) -Reagent: Zinc Chloride (catalyst) in concentrated HCl
not benzene ring, (reactant) -involves in double displacement
But Aromatic -differentiate alcohols by forming an insoluble layer
-Tertiary alcohols are the most reactive towards this
Pyrole: 6πe- (n=1) test *Reactivity: 3°>2°>1°>CH3OH
not benzene ring,
-Primary alcohols do not undergo the reaction easily & needs
But Aromatic
heat -Visible result: Two immiscible layers
*Eletrophilic Aromatic Substitution (EAS) 2. Dehydration –usually undergone by Methanol &
 Ethanol −removal of H2O
1. Methanol  aka “Wood Alcohol” (because it was formerly
3. Oxidation – reagent: K2Cr2O7
obtained from destructive
− depend on type of alcohol
distillation)
1°  aldehyde (oxidized to Carboxylic acid)
 used to produce formaldehyde, a starting material
2°  Ketone for many plastics
3°  no reaction  a good denaturant for ethyl alcohol (makes ethyl
4. With Active Metal (ex: Na) alcohol unfit for drinking) because of its taste &
*williamsons reagent  for synthesis of ethers poisonous
Reactivity: CH3OH > 1°> 2°> 3° properties.
2. Ethanol  aka “Grain Alcohol”, “wine Sprit”,
Methanol  formaldehyde  formic acid  metabolic ”Spiritus vini rectificatus”
acidosis  alcohol present in alcoholic beverages
(blindness)  obtained from fermentation of sugars & starch
Antidote: ethanol/ ethyl alcohol  used as antiseptic (70% solution of ethanol)
Ethanol  acetaldehyde  acetic acid  liver  used as solvent in medicinal preparations
damage Ethylene Glycol  oxalate + CA2+  (tinctures)  unfit for use in intoxicating beverages
hypocalcemia by addition of Denatured alcohol (contains
 Methanol & Benzene)
CaC2O4 (kidney stones) 3. Isopropyl Alcohol  component of rubbing alcohol
Phenols  solvent
-aka Phenolics  intermediate in the production of acetone
-class of chemical compounds, consisting of a hydroxyl group 4. Cholesterol  a complex alcohol that occurs in nature, a sterol
(-OH) attached to an aromatic hydrocarbon group. found in a cell membrane of animal cells; used as
-they have relatively higher acidities compared to precursor
alcohols -examples of phenols: for the synthesis of sex hormones & bile acids
Ortho (catechol) 5. Glycerol  used in the manufacture of certain plastics 
Meta (resorcinol) used as solvent in liquid medications being
Para (hydroquinone) nontoxic
1-naphthol (alpha-naphthol)  ingresient in cosmetics formulation due to its
2-naphthol (beta-naphthol) moisturizing property
-form ion-dipole & hydrogen bonds  main constituent of suppositories
-enhance water solubility 6. Ethylene Glycol  antifreeze for automobiles
-esterified to form prodrugs  solvent
-susceptible to oxidation  humectants −aids in retaining moisture
Air 7. Phenol  aka “Carbolic Acid”
Ferric ions  used as disinfectant for surgical instruments & utensils
-Metabolism: ets.  starting material in the manufacture of aspirin,
Sulfation detergents, dyes, herbicides, explosives, etc.
Glucuronidation 8. Cresol  saponated cresol (aka “Lysol”) – used as disinfectant
Aromatic Hydroxylation which is better & less toxic
O-methylation than phenol
❖Important Alcohols & Phenols: 9. Resorcinol  also used as antiseptic but not as good as
phenol 10. Hexyl Resorcinol  a much better antiseptic &
germicide, commonly used in mouthwash
11. Menthol  from oil of Peppermint
12. Geraniol  from Rose Oil
13. Glucose  a carbohydrate basic unit

*Ideal Antiseptic
 has a low surface tension
 should also be non-irritating to tissue &
non-allergenic  retain activity in the presence of
body fluids
 rapid & sustained lethal action against microorganisms

Ethers
-aka Organic Oxides
R−O−R
Ar−O−Ar
Ar−O−R
-glycosidic bond formed in glycoside
Nomenclature fro Ethers
1. IUPAC Rules
 -use alkoxy as a prefix
Aliphatic Amine Aromatic Amine
-position is indicated by number
-“OXY”
-CH3OCH3 CH3−NH2 -aniline
2. Derived Name
-alkyl groups + Ethers
-CH3OCH3

Classification of Ethers:
Basicity: Aliphatic Amine > Aromatic Amine
1. Open-chain
Classification based on the number of group attached
a. Symmetrical  contains similar R groups
to N (1°, 2°, 3° & Quaternary Ammonium Compounds)
Ex: Methyl ether (Methoxy methane): CH2−O−CH3
Ethyl Ether (Ethoxy ethane): CH3−CH2−O−CH2−CH3
❖Important Amines:
b. Mixed  contains different R groups
Ex:Ethymethyl ether (Methoxy ethane): 1. Aniline  used to commercially in the preparation of many
CH3−CH2−O−CH3 dyes & drugs
2. Cyclic Ethers 2. Choline  found in egg yolks, meats,& fish, essential for
a. Epoxides/ Oxiranes/ Oxacyclopropane growth 3. Adrenaline/ Epinephrine/ Norepinephrine  a
 cyclic ethers in which the ether oxygen is a part of a neurotransmitter Causes low
3-membered ring system 4. Amphetamine  a psychomimetic drugs
Ex: Ethylene Oxide  gas sterilant pH urine or
 alkylation of essential 5. Methamphetamine
metabolism of bacteria alkaline
6. Pseudoephedrine
b. More than 3 members included in the ring system 7. Phenylpropanolamine
furanose ring: urine
8. Barbituric Acid  parent compound of barbiturates
(sedatives)  an addictive drug
pyranose ring:  has both an amino & an acid group
9. Saccharin  artificial sweetener, (disadvantage: bitter after
❖Important Ethers: taste) 10. Other amino-containing compounds: β-blockers
β-agonists
1. Ethyl Ether  once widely used as general anesthetic because
it is safe even in long surgical procedures
 ADR: Irritation of mucous membranes, nausea &
vomiting
 dangerous because it is explosive * NH2  recentl discovered compound w/ a
 solvent for waxes & fats composition of 87.5%N & 12.5% H
2. Ethylene oxide  gas sterilant Aldehydes (RCHO)
 used to fumigate textiles & grains  undergone w/ Cannizaro Reaction
 raw material in the synthesis of other organic  are oxidized to carboxylic acids,
compound & reduced to primary alcohols
3. Monobenzone  depigmenting agent in cases of excessive IUPAC: Parent chain contains the –CHO,
melanin formation same pattern as alkane,
− reduce melanin formation change –e to –al
− can be seen in whitening preparation terminal functional group
4. Eugenol  from Clove Oil Example:
 when mixed with ZNO forms a cement used by Methanal (formaldehyde)
dentist as temporary fillings
5. Naproxen  NSAID
6. Gembrozil Ethanal (acetaldehyde)

Reactions of Aldehyde:
1. Reaction w/ 2,4-DNPH
 Amines  organic compounds that are derived from −forms highly colored 2,4 –DNP Hydrazones
ammonia by replacing 1, 2, or 3 H’s w/ alkyl or aryl (Ar)
which range from yellow to deep red
Primary Amines: RNH2 2. Oxidation:
Secondary Amines: R2NH (a) Benedicts Test traditional test forn glucose in the urine
Tertiary Amines: R3N *Basis: reduction of cupric ions to
Quaternary Amines  not basic, no lone pair of electrons cuprous
*amino group: −NH oxide
*R-group: e- donor  brick red ppt (for Aliphatic only;
causes: sterric effect (“crowding”) also for ketones)
*basicity: 2°>3°>1°> NH3 (more groups, more basic) RCHO + Cu2+  R-COOH + Cu2O
*Heterocyclic Amines  cyclic compounds that contain N (b)Tollen’s Test −rgnt: Ammoniacal AgNO3 (Silver
atom as part of the ring Nitrate)  form Silver mirror w/
 occur widely in biological systems Aliphatic & Aromatic Aldehyde
RCHO + Ag2+  R-COOH + Ag°
Classification based on the Group attached to N:
(c)Iodofrom Test  reaction w/ I2 – K2 (test for
 methylketones) yellow; fowl smell
1. Acetone  used as a solvent for such products as paints,
3. Reduction to Alcohols
lacquers, & cellulose acetate because of its miscibility with both
4. Addition of Alcohols/ Acetals Formation
5. Addition of Grgnard Reagents water & non polar
(a)Formaldehyde will give primary alcohols nail polisher remover
(b)Higher Aldehydes will give secondary alcohols 2. Testosterone  makor constituent of the male sex hormone 
(c)Ketones will give tertiary alcohols responsible for the development of the
(d)Esters will give tertiary alcohols secondary
sex characteristics
 steroidal ketone
❖Important Aldehydes: 3. Muscone  odorous principle component of musk (sex
attractants)  valued for its ability to enhance fragrances even
1. Formaldehyde  preservative for anatomical specimens when present in minute amounts
because it causes skin hardening  present in many of the expensive perfumes as
 effective disinfectant used in hospital fixative *Musk − natural substance w/ a strong sweet
 embalming fluid –(FORMALIN) smell
 creates a “silver mirror” on the walls of a test 4. Pheromones  produce by musk to attracts sex ;
tube w/ Silve Nitrate (Scents) 5. Muscaline  pheromone produce by house
2. Acetaldehyde  intermediate in the manufacture or acetic, flies
ethyl acetate, vinyl acetate which in turn 6. Chloracetophenone  lacrimator (irritates eye)
are used on is used as a Tear Gas (produce stinging pain
the production of synthetic rubber & water-based in the eyes &
paints. streaming from the
3. Chloral  starting material for the manufacture of insectides eyes & nose)
-DDT *Chloral Hydrate  “knockout drops” 7. Pipper spray  contain capsaicin (sili)
 dissolves Starch, Resins, Proteins 8. Acetophenone  has been used as a hypnotic but newer &
 metabolite: Trichloroacetic Acid safer drugs are now available
4. Butanal  a constitutent of the aroma of fresh bread 5. 9. Methyl Ethyl Ketone (MEK)  solvent for lacquers, paints, plastics
Benzaldehyde  once called “Oil of Bitter Almond” because of
its presence in almond seed
 used as Flavoring Agent
 intermediate in the manufacture of drugs, dyes, &
other organic products Hydrocarbons with Carbonyl Functional Group
6. Cinnamaldehyde  chief constituent of the oil of cinnamon -Carbonyl Group  is a functional group composed of a
bark 7.Vanillin  fragrant component of vanilla beans carbon atom double-bonded to an
 flavoring agent oxygen atom.
8. Citral  major component of lemon grass oil
Carboxylic Acids  R-COOH/ Ar-COOH
 terminal functional group
product of hydrolysis of anhydrides
 product of further oxidation of Primary Alcohol
Ketones (RCOR) IUPAC: Parent chain has the –C=O ✧Nomenclature of Acids
group, Its is given the lower 1. Common name  Uses Greek letters to indicate the
number positions of substituents
Change –e to –one C-C-C-C-C-COOH
 product of oxidation of Secondary alcohol Alpha=next to COOH
 non terminal functional group Beta
 Example: Gamma
Propanone (acetone) Sigma
− a substrate can be Epsilon
used to synthesize  Often derived from Latin Greek name indicating
tertiary alcohol the original source of the acid
− simplest Ketone 2. IUPAC  Parent chain contains the –COOH, carboxy C
is #1  Change –e to –oic
 Ex: methane? –methanoic acid
Butanone
✧Reactions: 1. Acid/ Salt Formation
-Other example: 2. Conversion into functional derivatives
Acetone  used as a solvent & nail polisher remover (a) conversion into acid chlorides
Testosterone  a male sex hormone, steroidal ketone (b) conversion into an ester
Muscone  odorous principle of musk (sex attractants) (b) conversion into amides
Pheromones  produce by musk to attracts sex ; (Scents) 3. Reduction
Muscaline  pheromone produce by house flies
Chloracetophenone  lacrimator (tear gas) ✧Kinds of Acids: (based on the number of carboxyl group
Pipper spray  contain capsaicin (sili) –COOH) 1. Monocarboxylic acids  saturated fatty acids,
Metabolism of Ketones: one carboxylic acid group
Ketones are very stable
Common Name # Systematic Name Formula
Primary route of metabolism: reduction to alcohol
C CnH2n+1COOH
❖Important Ketones:
 Acid)  Tetraenoic Acid (4 double bonds)
Formic Acid 1 Methanoic Acid HCOOH
▪ Arachidonic Acid(20:4Δ5,8,11,14)
(5,8,11,14-Eicosatetranoic Acid)
Acetic Acid 2 Ethanoic Acid CH3COOH
can be synthesized through the bne

Propionic Acid 3 Propanoic Acid CH3CH2COOH *Palmitoleic, Oleic, Linolenic,Linoleic & Linolenic
are the most abundant unsaturated fatty acids in
Butyric Acid 4 Butanoic Acid CH3(CH2)2COOH animal lipids
*Linoleic, Linolenic, Arachidonic
Valeric Acid 5 Pentanoic CH3(CH2)3COOH  are the three essential fatty acids
*Omega  refers to VH3 Methyl group
Caproic Acid 6 Hexanoic Acid CH3(CH2)4COOH *Fatty Acids are aliphatic carboxylic acids
 occur mainly as esters in natural fats & oils but do
Caprylic Acid 8 Octanoic Acid CH3(CH2)6COOH not occur in the unsterified from as free fatty acids,
a
Capric Acid 1 Decanoic Acid CH3(CH2)8COOH transport form found in the plasma.
0  are usually straight-chain derivatives containing an
even number of carbon atoms.
Lauric Acid 1 Dodecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)10COOH  the chain may be saturated or unsaturated
2
❖Important Acids:
Myristic Acid 1 Tetradecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)12COOH 1. Salicylic Acid  Monoprotic Acid
4  used for treatment of fungal infection & removal of
warts & corns
Palmitic Acid 1 Hexadecanoic Acid CH3(CH2)14COOH  used as a keratolytic agent (for the removal of
6 dead skin cell)
* Whitfield’s Ointment ® (antifungal)
Stearic Acid 1 Octadecanoic CH3(CH2)16COOH = Benzoic Acid + Salicylic Acid
8 Acid 2. Acetylsalicylic Acid  (ASPIRIN)
 analgesic, antipyretic, treatment of colds,
Arachidic Acid 2 Eicosanoic Acid CH3(CH2)18COOH headache, minor aches & pains
0 3. Acetaminophen USP(Paracetamol BP) substitute for
aspirin 4. Citric Acid  found in citrus fruits
Behemic Acid 2 Docosanoic Acid CH3(CH2)20COOH  Triprotic Acid
2 5. Lactic Acid  foud in sour milk
 formed during fermentation of milk sugar,
Lignoceric 2 Tetracosanoic Acid CH3(CH2)22COOH lactose, & responsible for souring of spoiled
Acid 4 milk
 product of fermentation milk sugar
6. Tartaric Acid  found on several fruits particularly
grapes  salt of tartaric acid
 Diprotic Acid
2. Dicarboxylic Acids  saturated acids with two –COOH group *Potassium Hydrogen Tartarate (Cream of Tartar)
3. Others −used in making baking powder
Monobasic/ Monoenoic Acid/ Monocarboxylic acid *Potassium Sodium Tartrate −used as a mild cathartic
unsaturated fatty acids, with one double bond 7. Benzoic Acid  Monoprotic Acid
▪ Palmitoleic Acid (16:1Δ9)  contains 16C w/ 1 double  used as Antifungal Agent
bond (cis-9-hexadecanoic  its sodium salt, sodium benzoate,
acid) −is used as a food preservative
▪ Oleic Acid (18:1Δ9)  at position between 9&10 8. Para-aminobenzoic Acid  used in suntan lotions to prevent
(cis-9-octadecanoic acid) the dangerous UV rays from reaching the skin
▪ Elaidic Acid (18:1Δ9)  (trans-9-octadecanoic Acid) 9. Acetic Acids  vinegar, spermatocidal
▪ Nervonic Acid (20:1Δ15)  (cis-15-tetracosanoic Acid)  considered as a universal precursor for fatty acids,
lipids, & other organic plant products
Polyunsaturated (Polyethanoid; Polyenoic Acid) *Glacial Acetic Acid  Ethanolic Acid
 Dienoic Acids (2 double bonds)
▪ Linoleic Acid (18:2Δ9,12)  (9,12-octadecanoic Acid)
 Trienoic Acid (3 double bonds)
▪ Linolenic (18:3Δ9,12,15)  (9,12,15-ocatadecatrienoic

4 Succinic Acid
#C Name
5 Glutaric Acid
2 Oxalic A
6 Adipic Acid
3 Maloni
7 Pimetic Acid
 *Azelaic acid 
8 Subericanti-pimple

9 Azelaicoh
my
10 Sebacicsuch good apple
pie
sweet as
sugar

*Oxalic Acid  product of the oxidation of Ethylene Glycol

Carboxylic Acid Derivatives

1. Acid/ Acyl chloride

Oic  oyl chloride

Ex:
Ethanoyl chloride
(acetyl chloride)

2. Esters product of the reaction between a Carboxylic Acid & Alcohol

 Formula: RCOOR
 ends in –oate
 most ester have fragrant odors
& contribute to the flavors of fruits
 Common characteristics: pleasant odor
Ex: Isoamyl ethanoate Reactivity: most  least
Methyl salicylate *acid/acyl chloride  anhydrides  esters  amide
* R – CO – OR + H2O  R – COOH + R – OH
Reactions: Hdrolysis  acidic, unpleasant odor
 Lipids  esters of glycerol & high molecular weight of fatty
acids  Saponification  reaction of lipids w/ a strong inorganic ❖Important Amides:
base  alkali hydrolysis of an ester (RCOOR) 1. Acetanilide  has been used as an Antipyretic & as an
 products: Glycerol + Soap analgesic 2. Niacinamide  amide of niacin, a form of Vitamin
B3 3. Nicotinamide (nicotinic acid)  only form can treat
3. Anhydrides pellagra or classical deficiency
 composed of two molecules of carboxylic acids 4. Sulfanilamide  sulfur analogue of an amide
 hydrolysis yield two molecules of carboxylic acid  parent compound of sulfonamides
discovered in 1936 to have a definite therapeutic
effect against such diseases as pneumoria,
diarrhea, & streptococcal infections
 -oic acid  -oic anhydrides  ADR: Nausea, Dizziness, Anemia
Example: ethanoic acid −H2O acetic anhydrides

4. Amide  formed by the condensation of a carboxylic acid & an amine

Reactions: Hydrolysis (requires an acid catalyst & heat ORGANIC MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY
products are Carboxylic Avid &
Ammonia Gas) Organic Medicinal Chemistry  Physicochemical properties of a drug that
affect its biological action.
 -oic acid  amide  the practice of medicinal chemistry is
devoted to the discovery & development
of new drugs
Example: Drug  an agent intended for use in the diagnosis, mitigation, treatment,
-Ethanamide: cure, or prevention of disease in humans or another animals Receptor 
a substance to which a drug needs to interact with to elicit a
pharcological response
-N-methylethanolamide: Affinity  ability of a drug to bind to the receptor
Intrinsic  ability of a drug to exert a pharmacologic
action Four Fundamental Pathways:
1. Absorption
2. Distribution
3. Metabolism
4. Excretion: Glomerular Filtration
Active Tubular Secretion
Passive tubular –reabsorption
Enterohepatic Recirculation  drugs emptied via the bile duct
 into the small intestine can be
reabsorbed in the intestinal lumen
back to the systemic circulation
(LIver intestines  Liver) (c) Thermodent®  Formaldehyde USP (formalin)
 disinfectant; embalming fluid
Isosterism  describes the selection of structural components, the steric  contains not less than 37% of formaldehyde
electronic & solubility characteristics of a drug which make it w/ methanol added to retard polymerization
interchangeable with drugs of the same pharmacologic class  MOA: Direct & nonpecific alkylation of
nucleophilic functional groups of
Isosteres  compounds or groups of atoms having the same number & proteins
arrangement of electrons (d) Cidex®  Glutaraldehyde/ Glutarol
 group of atoms that impart similar physical & chemical  sterilizing solution for equipment & instruments
properties to a molecule, because of similarities in the size, that cannot be autoclaved
electronegativity, or stereochemistry II. Phenols (Carbolic Acid)
 compounds may be altered by isosteric replacements of standard to compare germicide
atoms or groups, to develop analogues with select biologic  was introduced as a surgical antiseptic
example: replacement of the hydroxyl group of folic acid by by Sir Joseph Lister
an amino group.  antiseptic; disinfectant
Liquefied Phenol, USP (phenol containing 10% water)
Phenol Coefficient  ration of the dilution of a
disinfectant to the dilution of phenol
required to kill S. typhi.
the greater the Phenol Coefficient,
the greater the Antibacterial property.
Local Anti- Infectives or Germicides
SAR  substitution of alkyl, aryl, halogen at
Antiseptic  compounds that kill (−cidal) or prevent the growth of p− position increase antibacterial property.
(–static) microorganisms when applied to living tissue
Straight chain alkyl group
Disinfectant  agents that prevent infection by the destruction of
are > than branches
pathogenic microorganisms when applied to inanimate
Phenol  for Protein precipitation
objects
Cresol  a mixture of three isomeric cresols
I. Alcohol & Related Compounds
Eugenol  clove oil
 # of carbons,  antibacterial property
 toothache drop
(but up to carbon 8 only)
 anesthetic; antiseptic
branching tend to  Antibacterial property
Thymol  metacresol (m-cresol)
(except to isopropyl)
 antifungal; used for the treatment of tinea inf.
(a) Alcohol USP (Spiritus vini recticatus)
Resorcinol  CRH (Dihydroxy benzene)
”Grain Alcohol”; “wine spirit”
 antiseptic; keratolytic
 the most widely abused of all recreational drugs.
OH (Cathecol) / (o-hydroxyphenol)
 undergo a series of Oxidation reaction in vivo
manufacture from:
Fermentation of grain OH (Resorcinol) / (m-hydroxyphenol)
Hydration of Ethyl OH (Hydroquinone) / (p-hydoxyphenol)
 Denatured Alcohol
 ethanol that has been rendered unfit for use in
intoxicating beverages by the addition of other
substances
 completely denatured alcohol contains added III. Oxidizing Agents
methanol (wood alcohol) & benzene & is Primary Mechanism of Action:
unsuitable for either internal or external use 1. Liberation of nasent oxygen (nasent  alone)
Diluted Alcohol  49/50 % -Free radical
Rubbing Alcohol  70% 2. Denature of Proteins
Absolute Alcohol  95%
Dehydrated Algohol  99% Panoxyl® (Hydrous Benzoyl Peroxide) -2.5%, 5%, 10%
Isopropy alcohol  primarily used to disinfect the skin & −Keratolytic & keratogenic agent
surgical instruments −MOA: Induces proliferation of epithelial cell
rapidly bactericidal in the −Increases cell turnover
concentration range of 50% to 95%
 a 40% concentration is considered to − most effective topical OTC agent for the control of acne
be equal in antiseptic power to a Carbamide Peroxide  a stable complex of urea & hydrogen
60% ethanol concentration peroxide
Formic Acid  blindness releases hydrogen peroxide when mixed
Ethanol  act competitive inhibition w/ water
(b) Ethylene Oxide  gas sterilant Hydrogen Peroxide  particularly active against anaerobic
 used to sterilized temperature-sensitive bacteria & find use in the cleansing of
medical equipment & certain contaminated wounds.
pharmaceuticals that cannot be  effectiveness is somewhat limited by its
autoclaved poor tissue penetrability & transient
 MOA: alkylation of functional groups in action
nucleic acids & proteins  the stability is increased in Acid Medium
 carcinogenic *Hydrogen Peroxide (0.03%)  has Acetanilide to
increase its stability by
 catalytically retarding its Iodides  only ion that used for expectorant in cough
decomposition syrup
*Vincent’s Stomatitis (Hairy Tongue)  result in 2nd bet expectorant (next to Water vapor)
continued use of Iodophor  complexes of iodine
Hydrogen Peroxide as & nonionic surfactants
mouthwash  such complexes retain the germicidal
*Volume Specifications: mL of Oxygen measured at properties of iodine & also reduce its
standard temperature & volatility & essentially remove its irritant
pressure. Thus, a 20- properties
volume solution is 6% & PVP : non-ionic Surfactant complexes of I2
has 20mL oxygen Less irritating
More washable
Less volatile I2
M.O.A : Iodination of amide in CHON &
IV. Halogen-containing Compounds oxidation of –SH group
a. Chlorine (Cl)  NaOCl  bleaching agent V. Cationic Surfactant (cationicpositive charge)
 Halazone  water disinfection → Refers to quaternary ammonium component
M.O.A : chlorination of amide in CHON & → Have surface active property
oxidation of –SH group −Causes absorptioninto the cell wall
Halazone  chlorine-containing −Causes distortion of the cell (lysis)
 used to disinfect drinking water a. Benzalkonium Chloride  used as detergent, emulsifying, &
Chlorides  may be precipitated from solution by the Silver wetting agent
Nitrate reagent  used w/ parabens as a preservative
b. Iodine (I)  one of the oldest known germicides in use today  is germicidal surfactant which render
 produces blue color w/ Starch & Dextrin inactive in the presence of Soaps
 Iodine preparations official in USP: Sodium Lauryl Sulfate  deactivate the
- Iodine Tincture (2% solution of iodine in cationic surfactant
50% alcohol w/ NaI) VII. Heavy metals
-Strong Base (Lugol’s Solution)- (5% I in water w/ KI) w/ Oligodynamic Properties
-Iodine Solution (2% iodine in water w/ NaI)  has few concentration, they are able to inhibit
*Sodium & Potassium  iodine Stabilizer microorganisms
Povidone Iodine (Betadine ®) a. Ag  AgNO3 −for ophthalmia neonatorum
 used as an antiseptic for skin application −may cause conjunctivitis
before surgery & injection New alternative: Erythromycin Ointment
 a complex w/ the nonionic surfactant  Ag Sulfadiazine (Flammazine®)
polymer, Polyvinylpyrrolidone − burn ointment
 has 10% Iodine (approximately) b. Hg  quicksilver
 a water-soluble complex that release  MOA: reacts with sulfhydryl (SH) groups in enzymes &
Iodine Slowly
other proteins
 provides a nontoxic, non-irritating,
nonvolatile & nonstaining form of Iodine
Span − w/o Tween − o/w nonionic compounds such as Cysteine & DImercaprol
 this is reversible by thiol-containing
is also used a 1% to 3% solution for the treatment
b. Methyl benzythonium Chloride: Diaperene® of tinea & yeast infections
for Diaper rash  also used orally as an antihelminthic for
Cause by Bacterium ammoniagenesis strongyloides & oxyuriasis
(causes liberation of ammonia in b. Basic Fuchsin  ingredient of Carbol-fuchsin solution
decomposed urine) (Castellani’s paint), used topically in the
liberates ammonia from treatment of fungal infections, such as
decompose wine ringworm & athlete’s foot
c. Cetyl Pyridinium Chloride c. Methylene Blue  antidote for Cyanide Poisoning
 used as a general antiseptic  in high concentrations, it promotes the
 available form: Throat lozenges & mouthwashes conversion of hemoglobin to
 FDA approved for the treatment of Gingivitis Methemoglobin, which because of its high
d. Chlorhexidine (Bactidol®) affinity for cyanide ion diverts it from
 used as irrigation solution & as mouthwash inactivating hemoglobin
 not absorbed through skin or mucus membrane &  in low concentration, it is used to treat
does not cause systemic toxicity drug0induced methemoglobin
e. Hexidine  mouthwah Hg1Cl2 Calomel (Mercurous Chloride)
 HgCl2 Corrosive sublimate (Mercuric Chloride)
Ammoniated mercury  White precipitate;
used for skin infections
VI. Dyes (cationic)  positively charge Organic Mercurials: Merthiolate (Thimerosal)
Effective against gram (+) & fungi preservative for vaccines
a. Gentian Violet (Methyl Violet)/ (Crystal Violet) MOA: reaction w/ -SH of CHON
(p-rosanilline)
Vaginal suppository (Anti-candida, yeast infection) Chlormerodin Hg-197  used for scintillation
Helminths (Strongyloides spp.) scanning of brain for
 suspected tumors b. Nystatin (Mykinac®, Mucostatin®, Nilstat®)
Polyene Antifungal: binds to ergosterol,
VIII. Preservatives resulting in holes/ pores in the
 used to prevent microbial contamination fungal cell membrane
 IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS: effective at low the aglycon portion of nystatin consisting of
concentration against all possible 38-membered ketone ring w/ a single tetracene & diene
microorganisms, notoxic, compatible w/ other chromophores isolated from each other by a methylene
constituents used in the preparation, stable for group, one
the shelf life of the preparation carboxyl, one keto & eight hydroxyl groups
a. Paraben (esters of p-hydroxy benzoic acid) Use: Candidiasis of Esophagus/GIT
for liquid dosage form
antifungals C. Topic Azoles
 preservative effect tends to increase w/ molecular MOA: Inhibition of c14 lanosterol demethylase
weight Lanosterol  Ergosterol
Methylparaben  molds Inhibition of ergosterol synthesis
Propylparaben  yeasts
 more oil-soluble so it is prepared for oils & Imidazole
fats
Butylparaben  cause endocrinologic abnormalities Clotrimazole
b. Chlorobutanol  employed as a bacteriostatic agent in
pharmaceuticals for injection, Toconazole
ophthalmic
use & intranasal administration Miconazole :
c. Benzyl alcohol  for dermal/ topical preparation
 commonly used as a preservative in vials of Triazole
injectable drugs in concentrations of 1% to
4% in water or saline Fluconazole
d. Benzoic Acid  for topical preparation
 Very effective in acidic pH/low pH
Itraconazole
e. Sorbic Acid  for sugar-containing preparation like elixir
 an effective antifungal preservative
Ketoconazole
Syrup, NF  self-preserving
Antifungal Agents:
General MOA: inhibition of ergosterol; synthesis injury to cell membrane
Amphotericin B (Fungitone®) S.nodosus
II. AGENTS FOR LESS SERIOUS SYSTEMIC MYCOSES
a. Ketoconazole
Nystatin (Mycostatin ®) S.norsei by
potent enzyme inhibitor
Hazen&Brown
Inhibits testosterone antiandrogenic effects
gynecomastia
Natamycin (Natacin®) S. natalensis low sperm count
low libido
Griseofulvin P. griseofulvin b. Fluconazole preferred for resistant candidiasis
 has excellent penetrability into the CSF
C. Itraconazole
2nd best systemic antifungal next to Amphotericin B
 lacks the endocrinologic effects of ketoconazole
Fatty Acidsall fatty acids & their salts have fungicidal properties Uses: Blastomycosis
a. Propionic Acid  present in sweat in low concentrations (around Histoplasmosis
0.01%) Paracoccidioidomycosis
b.Undecylenic Acid  obtained from the destructive distillation Coccidiodomycosis
of Castor Beans (Ricinus communis) III. AGENTS FOR SERIOUS SYSTEMIC MYCOSES
I. AGENTS FOR SUPERFACIAL MYCOSES a. Amphotericin B
a. Griseofulvin (P. griseofulvin) Gold Standard, Best organ, DOC
No established MOA: Inhibitor of microtubule Polyene antifungal  creates pores in fungal cell
assembly (antimitotic) membrane
accumulates in the stratum corneum of the skin, acts Side Effects: Revesible Azotemia (former name of
as a protective barrier uremia) Patient should be monitored (BUN,
 is recommended for the systemic treatment or Creatinine
refractory ringworm infections Clearance)
is supplied in “microsize’” & “ultramicrosize” forms Febrile Reaction
 its bioavailability is notoriously poor Anemia
 is used in the treatment of Tinea corpuris, tinea Thrombophlebitis
unguium, Tinea capitis, & tinea pedis, caused by various b. Itraconazole
species of C. Caspofungin inhibits 1-3 β-glucan synthase
dermatophyte fungi, including Trichophyton, 
Microsporum, & Epidermophyton. glucan (cell wall)
 is very lipophilic compound w/ vey low water d.Voriconazole
solubility higher BA w/ ingestion of fatty foods e.Flucytosine  inhibits thymiditate synthase
Uses: Ringworm Infections
 by replacing uracil in nucleic acid always given w/ Amphotericin B for the treatment of
synthesis (DNA&RNA) systemic mycoses & meningitis caused by
d. Terbinafine e. Naftifine allylamine, inhibition of squalene epoxidase Cryptococcus neoformans & candida

f. Whitfield’s Ointment  Benzoic + Salicylic g.

Selenium Sulfide (Selsum Blue) antidandruff
Antitubercular Agents: Antiscabies & Antipedicular Agents
1. Isoniazid (Isonicotinic acid hydrazide) Scabicides  compounds used to control the mite, Sarcoptes
MOA: Inhibits the synthesis of mycolic acid, an scabei, an organsm that thrives under conditions
important component of the cell walls of mycobacteria of poor
principal adverse effect: Peripheral neuropathy due to the personal hygiene.
competition of isoniazed w/ pyridoxal phosphate for the 1. Benzyl Benzoate obtained from Peru balsam & other
enzyme apotryptophanase resins  immediate relief from itching
coadminististration of Vit B6 (Pyridoxine) , prevents is a clear colorless liquid ester w/ faint
the symptoms of peripheral neuritis aromatic odor
2. Pyrazinamide (Pyrazinecarboxamide) 2. Crotaminon
used in combination w/ other agents because Pediculocides  used to eliminate head, body & crab
resistance develops rapidly lice 1. Pyrethrin  derived from Chrysanthemum plants
first line drug for short term treatment  MOA: nerve poisoning
 adverse effect: Hepatotoxicity 2. Piperonyl Butoxide  enhances the pediculicide effects
 must be enzymatically hydrolyzed to pyrazinoic (active form) of pyrithrins
3. Ethambutol (2,2’-Ethylenediiminno-di-1-butanol 3. Permethrin  exerts a lethal action against lice, ticks, mites, &
dihydrochloride)  is remarkably stereospecific fleas
 adverse effect: Optical neuritis  a pediculicide w/ a single application of a 1%
 loss of ability to discriminate between red & green solution is known to effect cures in more
(color blindness) than 99% of the cases
*Toxicities of its isomers are about equal but their activity vary  *Pruritus  most frequent Side Effects
considerably. The afctors that have pronounced effect on the 4. Lindane ( Kwell®, Scaben®, Kwildane®)
activity are:  gamma-benzene hexachloride
-Length of the alkaline chain  ADR: Neurotoxiciity
-Nature of the branching e/ the alkyl substituents in the  threefold actions:
nitrogens -direct contact poison
-Extent of N-alkylation -a fumigant effect
4. Ethionamide -stomach poison
 has two substitution differs from IHN series
 structural analogue ofIsoniazed
 used in the treatment of Isoniazid-resistant tuberculosis 
adverse effects: Gastric irritation, hepatotoxicity, peripheral
neuropathies, optic neuritis
5.Para-amnio salicylic acid Antimalarials
 acts as a competitive inhibitor for p-aminobenzoic acid in  Antimalarials have one common structure – a quinolone ring ,
folate biosynthesis or a “quinolone w/ an additional benzene addede” (an
 adverse effect: Severe gastric irritation acridine ring)
6. Clofamine  non except the cinchona alkaloids has a quinuclidine
 basic red dye used in the treatment of leprosy, ring Cinchona Alkaloids
including dapsone-resistant forms Quinine  reserved for malarial strains resistant to other agents 
major adverse effect: Cinchonism ( a sundrome causing nausea,
vomiting, tinnitus & vertigo)
7-chloro-4-aminoquinolines
Chloroquine  drug of choice in the treatment of
Antitubercular Antibiotics erythrocytic falcifarum malaria
1. Rifampin (Rifampicin; Rifamycin) anti-inflammatory action rxplains its occasional use
 the most effective agent in Rheumatoid Arthritis & discoid lupus
 obtained from S. mediterranae erythematosus
a class of antibiotics that contain a macrocyclic ring 8-aminoquinoline
bridged across two non-adjacent positions of an aromatic Primaquine  effective only against the exoerythrocytic stage of
nucleus & called Ansamycin malaria
high risk of military cramps  only agent that can lead to radical cures of
 Nucleic Acid Synthesis Inhibitors Plasmodium Ovale, & Plasmodium vivax malarias.
 Adverse effect: Red orange of body secretions  gametocidal for all 4 plamodia species, transmission
2. Cycloserine of the disease can be prevented
 isolated from Streptomyces: 9-aminoacridine
S. orchidaceus, Quinacrine  primarily used in the treatment of giardiasis, but
S. garyphalus, is also effective against tapeworm & malaria, &
S. lavendulus topically against leishmaniasis
3. Capromycin  isolated form Streptomyces capreolus  should not be given w/ Primaquine because of
4. Streptomycin  only aminoglycoside used for tuberculosis  increased toxicity
the first antibiotic effective against tuberculosis Mefloquine  effective single agent for suppressing & curing
(1944 by Waksman) multidrug-resistant forms of Plasmodium
Leprosy: Dapsone, Rifampicin, Clofazimine falciparum
Antibacterials
Cycloserin S. orchidaceus
∙A substance is classified as an Antibiotic
S. garyphalus
if its is a product of Metabolism (although it may be
S. lavendalus
duplicated or even have been anticipated by chemical
synthesis)
Vancomycin S. orientalis
 its is synthetic product produced as a structural
analogue of a naturally occurring antibiotic
it antagonizes the growth or the survival of one or Neomycin S. fradiae
more species of microorganisms
it is effective in low concentrations Steptomycin S. griseus by Walksman

Bactericidal Muciprosin Pseudomonas fluorescens

−Aminoglycoside Gramicidin B. brevis

−Cell wall synthesis inhibitors Natamycin S. natalensis

−Cell membrane disrupting agents D-cycloscrine S. garyphalus

−Nucleic Acid synthesis inhibitors Streptogrannins: S. pristinaespirals

Bacteriostatic Quinopristin &
Dalfupristin

−Protein synthesis inhibitors except aminoglycosides

−Antimetabolites when given alone

Antifungal Chemotherapy

1. For Superficial
Mycoses ∙ Griseofulvin
Kanamycin Streptomyces kanamyceticus
∙ Nystatin Grisactin®, Grifulvin,V®, Fulvicin®
∙ Clotimoxazole
Clavulanate S. clavuligerus
∙ Miconazole Mycostatatin®, Nilstat®
Erythromycin S. erythreus ∙ Econazole
∙ Oxiconazole Lotrimin®
Griseofulvin P. griseofulvin ∙ Sulconazole
∙ Ketoconazole Monistat®, Micatin®
Polymixin B. polymixa ∙ Butenafine
Spectazole®
∙ Haloprogin
Bacitracin Bacillus subtilis ∙ Terbinafine
Oxistat®
∙ Ciclopirox
Nystatin S. noursei by Hazen & Brown ∙ Naftipine Exelderm®
∙ Whitfield’s ointment
Chloramphenicol S. venezuelae ∙ Salicylic acid Nizoralv®
∙ Tolnaftate
Cephalosporins Acremoium Chrusogenum
∙ Selenium sulfide Mentax®
2. For Less Serious
Aztreonam Chromobacterium violaceum
Systemic Mycoses Halotex®
∙ Ketoconazole
Chlortetracyclin S. aureofaciens
∙ Fluconazole Lamisil®
Linezolid E. faecium ∙ Itraconazole
3. For Serious Systemic Penlac®
Ivermectin S. avemitilis Mycoses
∙ Amphotericin B Naftin®
LIncomycin S. lincolnensis
∙ Itraconazole
Carbapenems: Thienamycin S. cattleya ∙ Caspofungin
∙ Vorconazole
Rifampicin S. mediterranei ∙ Flucytosine

Amphotericin B S. nodosus

Daptomycin S. roseosporus
 Lithium (Li) Carmine Red Purple

Diflucan® Calcium (Ca) Brick Red Light green

Sporanox® Strontium (Sr) Crimson Purple

Barium (Ba) Yellowish Green Bluish-green

Fungizone®, Ambisome®, Borate (BO3−1) Green

Abelcet®, Amphotec® Copper (Cu)
Thallium (Tl)
Phosphorus (P)

Bismuth (Bi) Blue Yellow

Cabcidas®
Lead (Pb)
Arsenic (As)
Vfend®
Cobalt (Co)
Antimony (Sb)
Ancobon®
Ammonium Colorless
(NH4−1)

INORGANIC CHEMISTRY
Flame Test: Groups of Cation:

Metals Non-Luminous Flame Under Cobalt Glass Sodium (Na) Group

Persistent golden yellow Nil
#Members Characteristics
Potassium (K) Violet Crimson
Insoluble chloride
IPb+2 Hg+2 group
Form precipitate w/
dilute HCl
+2
Ag

III Fe+2 Do not react w/ either HCl

+2 nor H2S in dilute mineral
CO
acid
Fe+3 medium, however, they
Mn+2 form precipitates w/
+3 (NH2)2S in neutral or
Al
Mn+7 ammoniacal
+3 solution
Cr
Zn+2
+6
Cr
Base insoluble
Ni+3
sulfides

IV Ba+2 Do not react w/ HCl,

H2S & (NH4)2S.
Groups of Anion: Sr+2
Form precipitate w/
Ca+2 NH4Cl in neutral or
+ Do not react w/ HCl,
II Hg Sulfate insoluble slightly acidic
Sb+3 but form ppt. w/ H2S, groups
dilute mineral acid medium
Bi+3
medium. However, they
Sb+5 form precipitates w/ V Mg+2 Do not react w/ any of
Cu +2
(NH4)2S in neutral & + the reagents stated,
K
ammoniacal Na- yellow ppt w/ cobalt
Sn+2 Na+
solution. uranyl acetate
Cd+2 NH4 K- white ppt w/ sodium
Sn+4 Soluble group bitartrate,
As+3 NH4− alkalinized vapors
acid insoluble turns red litmus
paper to blue
As+5
sulfide
 Group # HNO3 w/ 1M BaCl2 + HNO3
Members Precipitated formed &

Visual Result w/ 1M AgNO3 + 6M

Radiopharmaceutical Uses
I Cl AgCl -(white) No ppt.
Br AgBr -(cream) Technetium 99m−Phytate −Liver imaging & potency studies
I AgI -(yellow) Technetium −Kidney imaging,
insoluble in HNO3 99m−Heptagluconate −determining renal function

II NO2− AgS (black)soluble in No ppt. Technetium 99m−IDA −Hepatobiliary studies

S−2 HNO3 NO2&
C2H3O2-(no ppt) Techetium 99m−Elidronate −Bone imaging
C2H3O4−

Technetium 99m−Injection −Brain Scanning

III SO3 White ppt. soluble in White ppt of
HNO3 BaSO4, CaSO4,
CO3−2 Tc 99m Albumin −Lung Scanning
C2O4−2 BaC2O4 Aggregated Injection
soluble in HNO3
Tc 99m Pyrophosphate −Cardiac Infarct Imaging
VI PO3−3 Ag3PO4-(yellow) BaCrO4-(yellow)
AsO4−3 Ag3AsO4-(brown) Ba3(PO3)2-(whit I-131-Human Serum Albumin −Blood plasma volume/
e) −cardiac output determination
CrO4−2 Ag2CrO4-(red)
all ppt. soluble in HNO3 Ba3(AsO4)2-(whit
e) all ppt. Iodohippurate I 131 Injection −Cardiac infarct imaging
soluble in
NaI- 1125 −Localization of ocular tumors
HNO3
Sodium Phosphate Serum −Thyroid Function
V NO3− No ppt. No ppt. Albumin
ClO−
Cyanocobalamin 57 Capsule −Pernicious Anemia
VI SO4−2 No ppt. White ppt.
soluble in HNO3

*Unit for Radioactivity:

Becquerel − new unit (named after Henry Becquerel)
*Mg  only Group V cation that will − 1Bq= 1dps
yield a precipitate w/ sodium biphosphate Curie − old unit (3.7 x 1010dps)

Radiopharmaceuticals & their uses:

Color Reactions

Unknown Tests
Acetate C2H3O2Sulfuric acid+ ethanol  fruity odor of ethyl acetate
Ferric chloride TS  brownish red or reddish brown ppt of basic acetates
Aluminum Al Ammonium TS  gelatinous ppt. w/c dissolves in excess of ammonium TS
Aluminon reagent  red lake

Ammonium Acidic cobalt solution  intense blue colored complex at interfeface Co(CNS)4
NH4SCN Ferric salts  blood red ferric thiocyanate
Thiocyanide

Arsenates AsO4 Silver nitrates TS  chocolate brown soluble in nitric acid

Ammonium molybdate yellow ppt

Arsenites AsO3 Silver Nitrate test  yellow ppt soluble in nitric acid
 Magnesia Mixture  no reaction (differentiating test for arsenates & arsenite)

Borates Sulfuric Acid + methanol  green bordered flame

BO3−3
Turmeric paper (curcumin)  orange + sodium hydroxide  olive green
Turmeric paper when dipped into a solution of borate acidified w/ HCl  produce reddish brown/ orange-red

Bromine Br Carbon tetrachloride  orange color

Carbonate In acidic aqueous solution  effervescence

CO3−2

Chloride Cl Silver nitrate test  white curdy precipitate ppt soluble in ammonia, insoluble in nitric acid

Citrate C6H5O2 Silver mirror test

CaCl2 or Ca(OH)2 (in excess)  no ppt  white ppt w/c dissolve on cooling
Pyridine + acetic anhydride (3:1)/ Denige’s reagent (distinguishing test for citrate &
tartrates)  Citrates produces Carmine Red
 Tartrates produces Emerald Green

Chromium Cr Sodium hydroxide  grayish green slug dissolves in excess reagent (turn to yellow upon addition of Na
Peroxide)

Cobalt Co Sodium hydroxide  blue ppt of CO(OH)2 (boiling)  olive green  rose red
Potassium nitrite + acetic acid Fernando Gabriel Reyes yellow ppt
α-nitroso-β-naphthol brown ppt soluble in HCl

Nickel Ni Dimethylglyoxime  bright red crystalline ppt insoluble in ammonia

α-nitroso-β-naphthol reddish brown ppt soluble in HCl

Copper Cu Fe+ HCl  deposit of red film on iron

Potassium ferrocyanide  green ppt. forming a blue solution w/ ammonia

Iodide Chlorine water or potassium permanganate solution violet color

I−1
Sulfuric acid+sodium bisulfate (cold)  decolorized
Sulfuric acid+oxali acid (hot)  decolorized

Cyanate CNO Cobalt acetate +acetic acid  azure blue crystal

Phosphate Silver test  yellow ppt in nitric acid & ammonia

PO4−3
Ammonium molybdate  yellow ppt. soluble in nitric acid & ammonia

Potassium K Flame test  violet or iliac color

Tartaric acid  white ppt of potassium bitartrate (only insoluble compound of potassium)

Salicylate Ferric chloride  violet color

Acid  white ppt of salicylic acid

Silver Ag HCl  white curdy ppt. insoluble in nitric acid but soluble in ammonia

Sodium Na Flame test  intense golden yellow flame

Cobalt uranyl acetate  golden yellow ppt

Tartrate C4H4O6 Silver mirror test

Pyridine + acetic anhydride (3:1)  emerald green

Thiosulfate S2O3 HCl  white ppt turning yellow; SO2

Zinc Zn Hydrogen sulfide  white ppt (only white sulfide)

Saccharin (Fluorescein Test)- Resorcinol+ sulfuric acid + excess NaOH  Fluorescent green liquid
 Common Names of Inorganic Compounds

Common Name Chemical Name Formula

Alcohol, grain Ethyl Alcohol / Ethanol C 2H5OH Brimstone Sulfur (S)
 Alcohol, wood Methyl Alcohol/ Methanol CH3OH Quicksilver Mercury (Hg)

Alum Potassium Aluminum Sulfate K2SO4Al(SO4)224H2O Benzol Benzene (C6H6)

Ammonia water Ammonium Hydroxide Solution NH4OH Carbolic Acid Phenol (C6H5OH)

Agua Fortis Conc. Nitric Acid HNO3 Cane Sugar Sucrose (C12H22O11)

Agua Regia Mixture of Conc. Nitric Acid & Hydrochloric Acid HNO3/ 3HCl Marsh Gas Methane (CH4)

Baking Soda Sodium Bicarbonate NaHCO3

Baryte Barium Hydroxide Ba(OH)2

Bauxite Impure Aluminum Oxide Al2O3

Bleaching Powder Calcium Oxychloride or Chloride of Lime CaOCl2

Blue Vitriol Copper Sulfate CuSO45H20

Borax Sodium Tetraborate Na2B4O710H2O

Brine Sodium Chloride Solution NaCl

Calomel Mercurous Chloride Hg2Cl2

Carbona Carbon Tetrachloride CCl4

Carborundum Silicon Carbide SiC

Caustic Potash Potassium Hydroxide KOH

Chalk Calcium Carbonate CaCO3

Limestone Calcium Carbonate CaCO3

Chile Saltpeter Sodium Nitrate NaNO3

Chloroform Trocloromethane CHCl3

Cinnabar Impure Mercuric Sulfide HgS

Corrosive Sublimate Mercuric Chloride HgCl2

Cream of Tartar Potassium Bitartrate KHC4H4O6

Cryolite Sodium Aluminum Fluoride Na3AlF6

Deuterium Oxide Heavy Water D2O

Dry Ice Solid Carbon Dioxide CO2

Epsom Salts Magnesium Sulfate MgSO47H2O

Flourspar Calcium Fluoride CaF2

Galena Lead Sulfide PbS

Glauber’s Salt Sodium Sulfate Decahydate Na2SO410H2O

Gypsum Hydrated Calcium Sulfate CaSO42H2O

Hematite Ferric Oxide Fe2O3

 Iodoform Triiodomethane CHI3

Laughing Gas Nitrous Oxide N2O

Limewater Calcium Hydroxide Solution Ca(OH)2

Litharge Lead Oxide PbO

Lunar Caustic Silver Nitrate AgNO3

Lye Sodium Hydroxide NaOH

Milk of Magnesia Magnesium Hydroxide MG(OH)2

Muriatic Acid Hydrochloric Acid HCl

Nitroglycerine Glyceryl Nitrate/ Glyceryl Trinitrate C3H5(NO3)3

Oil of Vitriol Concentrated Sulfuric Acid H2SO4

Phosgene Carbonyl Chloride COCl2

Plaster of Paris Hydrated Calcium Sulfate (CaSO4)2 H2O

Prussian Blue Ferric Ferrocyanide Fe4[Fe(CN)6]3

Prussic Acid Hydrocyanic Acid HCN

Pyrite/ Fool’s Gold Iron Sulfide FeS2

Quicklime Calcium Oxide CaO

Rochelle Salt Sodium Potassium Tartrate NaKC4H4O6

Sal Ammoniac Ammonium Chloride NH4Cl

Salt (Table) Sodium Chloride NaCl

Saltpeter Potassium Nitrate KNO3

Sand Silicon Dioxide SiO2

Slaked Lime Calcium Hydroxide Ca(OH)2

Turnbull’s Blue Ferrous Ferricyanide Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2

Vinegar Diluted Acetic Acid C2H4O2

Washing Soda (Sal Soda) Sodium Carbonate Na2CO3

Water Glass Sodium Silicate Na2O3Si

Zinc Blende Impure Zinc Sulfide ZnS

INORGANIC COMPOUNDS most reactive of all metallic elements

hydroxides give alkaline solutions (increase w/ atomic
GROUP I-A (1): ALKALI METALS number)  ALL Group IA have icreasing oxidation potentials w/
 react vigorously w/ water to form hydrogen gas & the metallic increasing ionization potentials except LITHIUM.
hydroxides  activity , alkalinity  w/ atomic #
 has the greates alkalinity in nature w/ alkalinity increasing  degree of solution  w/  atomic #
as the ionic readily increase  Members: Hydrogen (H)
has only 1 valence (ns1); has a single positive charge Lithium (Li)
 Sodium (Na)  aka “Baking Soda”
Potassium (K)  Systemic Antacid
Rubidium (Rb)  antidote for Zinc Poisoning
Francium (Fr) –highest activity among Group IA  Carbonating Agent for effervescent prep.
Ammonium (NH4) -liberating CO2, to enhance palatability
 SE: Rebound Hyperacidity, Systemic Alkalosis, Edema 5.
❶ Hydrogen (H)  “Inflammable Air”. “Flammable Air” Sodium Carbonate (Na2CO3)  Antacid, Carbonating Agent 
 lightest element source of Carbonate Ion
 has no therapeutic use 6. Sodium Chloride (NaCl)
 Uses: Inflating Balloons  aka “Rock salt”, “Table Salt”, “Solar Salt”
Isotopes: used for a more rapid elimination of iodine in cases
(a) Protium  most abundant of iodism
(b) Deuterium  heavy hydrogen  Electrolyte replenisher, Preservative,
(c) Tritium  radioactive isotope Condiment  Examples: NSS; Ringer Solution (Na,
Water Vapor  best expectorant Ca, K)
Messerschmidt process  can obtain 99% purity
7. Sodium Citrate (Na3C6H5O7)
gydrogen ❷ Lithium (Li)  aka “Earth”
Anticoagulant (due to Citrate), Diuretic,
 Lightest metal
Chronic Acidosis, Buffer, Alkalinizer, , expectorant
 lowest density
 can cause bleeding
 most reactive lement
 the only alkali metal that melts 8. Sodium Fluoride (NaF)  Anticariogenic(prevent dental
caries) 9. Sodium Hydroxide (NaOH)  aka“Caustic Soda”, “Lye”,
above the boiling point of water
“Sosa"  Saponifying agent
 bridge elemnt (Li resembles Mg, to some extent Ca,
more closely than Na) *Saponification –rxn
between inorganic &
 Pharmacologic Action:
organic acid
Depressant
 NaOH TS, -reagent to
 Diuretic
differentiate mercurous salts
Nonpharmacologic Action:
from mercuric salts.
 Heat exchanger in aircon
10. Sodium Hypochlorite (NaClO)
❖Important Compounds of Lithium:
 aka “Chlorox®”, “Bleaching Powder”
1. Lithium Bromide (LiBr)  Depressant
 Oxizing Agent, Bleaching Agent
2. Litium Carbonate (LiCO3)  DOC for Mania  *Diluted Sodium Hypochlorite:
 Sodium (Na)  aka “Natrium” (Latin word, from Modified Dakins Solution: Antiseptic
nature)  most abundant Extracellular Dakins Solution: Disinfectant
Fluid Cation  0.025% Concentration for Sodium
 cation of choice to optimize the pharmaceutical Hypochlorite Topical
utility of organic medicaments Solution
 used w/ caution in the treatment of cardiac & renal 11. Sodium Iodide (NaI)
condition in w/c edema is a problem (Na-H20 reten.)  Expectorant, Iodine Solubilizer, Antifungal
 Triple Acetates w/ Sodium (forms insoluble salts) 12. Sodium Lactate (NaC3H5O3)
-Zinc Uranyl Acetate  Antiketogenic, Eletrolyte Replenisher,
-Mg Uranyl Acetate Antacid, Diuretic
-Cobalt Uanyl Acetate  most stable 13. Sodium Metaphosphate  Graham’s Salt
 Pharmacologic Action: Fluid Retention 14. Sodium Nitrite (NaNO2)
Benedict’ Reagent contains:
 Vasodilator , Antidote for Cyanide Poisoning
-Na2CO3
-Na2C6H5O7 15, Sodium Nitrate (NaNO3)  aka “Chile Salt
Feling’s Solution contains: Peter”  Meat
-NaKC4H4O6 Preservatives
-NaOH
16. Sodium Sulfate (NaSO3)  aka “Glauber’s Salt” ;
❖Important Compounds of Sodium: Cathartic 17. Sodium Tartrate (Na2C4H4O6)
1. Sodium Dihydrogen Phosphate (NaH2PO4)  primary standard for Karl Fischer Reagent
 aka “Fleet Enema” (Method I - Water Determination)
 Cathartic, Urinary Acidifier 18. Sodium Thiocyanate (NaSCN)  Hypotensive
2. Sodium Bisulfite (NaHSO3)  water soluble Antioxidant agent 19. Sodium Thiosulfate (Na2S2O4)
 aka “Hypochlor”, Photographer’s Hypo”
 Treatment of Cyanide Poisoning w/ Sodium Nitrate 20.
3. Sodium Acetate (NaCH3COO) Disodium Calcium EDTA  stabilizer used for silver protein
 Diuretic, Urinary alkalinizer, Antacid, compounds
 Alkalinizing agent in Benedicts Solution 21. Sodium Metabisulfite  used when Sodium bisulfate
−(test for ketones, aldehydes & is specified.
reducing sugars) ❹ Potassium (K)  aka “Kalium” (latin word)
Cations in Triple Acetates of Sodium are:  most abundant & predominant Intacellular cation
-Co  Deficiency: Hypokalemia (if severe, lead to Muscular
-Zn Paralysis)
-Mg  *Avocado −Highest Potassium Level
4. Sodium Bicarbonate (NaHCO3)  Pharmacologic Action:
Diuretic
  Muscular Contraction
❖Important Compounds of Potassium: Ammonium (NH4)  Hypothetical Alkali Metal
1. Potassium Acetate (KCH3COO)  salts show a striking resemblance to K & Rb
 Diuretic, Urinary alkalinizer, Antacid, salts (Isomorphous)
2. Potassium Arsenite  aka “Fowler’s Solution  Synthesis: Haber’s Process
3. Potassium Aluminum Sulfate (KAl(SO4)2)  Pharmacologic Action:
aka “Potassium Alum “, “Potash Alum”, “Tawas”  Diuretic
 Buffer
4. Potassium Bicarbonate (KHCO3)  Expectorant (like Iodide)
 Systemic Antacid  Anti-cariogenic (like Fluoride)
 Carbonating Agent for effervescent prep. ❖Important Compounds of Ammonium:
 source of Bicarbonate ion
1. Ammonium Bromide (NH4Br) Depressant, Sedative
5. Potassium Bitartrate (KC4H5O6)
2. Ammonium Carbonate [(NH4)2CO3]
 aka “Cream of Tartar”, “Creamor”
aka “Sal Volatile”, “Hart’s horn”, “Preston Salt”,
 Laxative
“Ammonium Sesquicarbonate”
6. Potassium Bromide (KBr) Depressant
used as “smelling salts” when combined w/ Strong
 used for IR Analysis
ammonia solution
7. Potassium Carbonate (K2CO3) Expectorant (am, Respiratory Stimulant, Antacid,
aka “Potash, “Salt of Peter”, “Pearl ash” Ingredient of Aromatic Ammonia Spirit
 Antacid, Carbonating Agent, Carbonate source
3. Ammonium Chloride (NH4Cl)
8. Potassium Chlorate (KClO3)  aka “Muriate of Hartshorn”
Aka “Bertholate Salt”  Expectorant, Diuretic, Urinary Acidifier
 oxidizing agent  when reacted w/ Caustic Pencil,
 Component in Toothpaste, Gargle, Mouthwash White Ppt will be the positive result.
−due to deodorant action 4. Ammonium Iodide (NH4I)  Source of iodide, Expectorant,
9. Potassium Chloride (KCl)  Electrolyte Replenisher Antifungal
−note: SLOW PUSH
5. Ammonium Acetate (NH4CH3COO)
 IV Push: Lethal Injection
 aka “Spiri of Minderesus”
10. Potassium Citrate (K3C6H5O7) Diuretic, Expectorant,  Buffer component
DIaphoretic 6. Aromatic Ammonia Spirit
11. Potassium Hydroxide (KOH)  aka “Spirit of Sal Volatile”, “Spirit of Hart’s Horn”
 aka“Caustic Potash”, “Lye Potash”  Respiratory Stimulant
 Saponifying agent (produces liquid/soft soap) 7. Ammoniated Mercury (HgNH2Cl)  aka “White Precipitate”
12. Potassium Iodide (KI)  Topical Anti-infective
 Expectorant, Iodine Solubilizer, Antifungal 8. Ammonium Hydroxide  used to separate Bismuth frome
13, Potassium Nitrate (KNO3) copper & cadmium
 Ammonium Complexes:
 aka “Salt Peter”, “Salt Prunelle”, “Salitre”
 Meat Preservatives *Copper −Blue
*Cadmium − Colorless
14. Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)
*Bismuth − white hydroxide
 aka “Mineral Chameleon”
 Oxidizing Agent,
GROUP I-B (11): COINAGE ELEMENTS
Antidote for Strychnine Poisoning occur free in the metallic state
 coinage metals
 * Primary Standard for KMnO4 VS: Sodium Oxalate  easy to recover from ores
* Secondary Standard: Oxalic Acid  very malleable
15. Potassium Dihydrogen Phosphate (KH2PO4)  Cathartic  Complexes/ Chelates
16. Potassium Sodium Tartrate (KNa2C4H4O6)  Members: Copper (Cu)
 aka “Rocehlle Salt”, “Sal Signette” Silver (Ag)
 Cathartic, Sequestering Agent Gold (Au)
17. Potassium Thiocyanate (KSCN)  Hypotensive agent 18. Roentgenium (Rg)
Sulfurated Potash[K2SO4/(K2Sx)2]  aka “Liver of Sulfur”  used in
❶Copper (Cu)  aka “Cuprium”
the treatment of
 only reddish metal
Psoriasis
 3rd most malleable metal
16. Potassium tetraiodomercurate(II) (K2HgI4)  3rd best conductor
 aka “Nessler’s Reagent”  component of hemocyanin (respiratory pigment)
 an alkaline solution used to detect Ammonia & cytochrome oxidase
 essential trace element
Reagents that will precipitate Poatssium:  each element of this group has a core w/ an outer
-Sodium Cobaltinitrite shell of 18 electrons together w/ a single valence
-Tetraphenylboron electron in the outermost shell
-Perchloric Acid  *Copper (II)  is an example of acid insoluble
 Cesium (Cs)Catalyst in polymerization of resin forming material  sulfide *Cu2+  blue in solution
first element discovered by means of Spectroscope ❖Important  Pharmacologic Action:
Compound of Cesium: Protein Precipitant
1. Cesium Chloride (CsCl)  used in density gradient Enhances physiological utilization of Iron (Fe)
centrifugation Toxicity: Wilson’s Disease
Antidote: Penicillamine
 ❖Two important Alloys:  general germicide
(a) Brass: Cu + Zn(Zinc)  aka “Metal of Magynoeci”  18-22%
(b) Bronze: Cu + Sn(Tin) 6. Colloidal Silver Chloride  “Lunosol” (prototype)
(c) Devarda’s Alloy: contain Cu + Al + Zn
❖Important Compounds of Copper: Gold (Au)  aka “Aurum’, “Shining dawn”, “King of all Metal”
1. Copper Sulfate (CuSO4)  most malleable & ductile
 aka “Blue Vitriol”, “Blue Stone”  best conductor of electricity
 used in preparation of Benedict’s, Barfoed’s &  also for NONdisseminated Lupus Erythematosus
Fehling’s Solution  Dissolved by: a. Aqua Regia (3parts HCl+1part HNO3) b.
 + Iron: Increase hematinic Activity Selenic Acid  only single acid that can
 Antidote for Phosphorus Poisoning dissolve gold
 Emetic  Antidote: BAL (Dimercaprol)
 component of Bordeux Mixture ❖Important Compounds of Gold:
 an algicide/ fungicide in 1. Aurothioglucose (IM)  treatment of Gout
swimming pools & Rheumatoid Arthritis
2. Copper Acetoasenate [Cu2(AsO3)2Cu(C2H3O202] 2. Gold Sodium Thiomalate (IM)  treatment of Gout &
 aka “Paris Green” Rheumatoid Arthritis
 Insecticide 3. Auronofin (PO)  only Oral Gold Preparation
 treatment of Gout & Rheumatoid Arthritis
3. (Cu)3(C6H5O7)3  also for Glossitis
 Astringent in 8% concentration (inflammation of the tongue)
4. Cupric Hydrogen Arsenite  Scheele’s Green 4. *Colloidal Gold  aka “Purple of Cassius”
5. Blister Copper  obtained from furnace covered w/ black  stannous chloride w/ metallic gold slowly
blisters turns down precipitate in weakly acidc
6. Cuprous Citrate  “Hatchett’s Brown” solution
❷Silver (Ag)  aka “Argentum”, “Shining”, “Bright” GROUP II-A (2): ALKALINE EARTH METALS
 black ppt w/ Marsh’s Test  All Alkaline Earth Metals reduce water w/ the liberation
 2nd most malleable metal of hydrogen & the formation of an alkaline solution
 2nd best conductor of electricity except Beryllium(Be)
 Pharmacologic Action: Members: Beryllium (Be)
Oligodynamic Property (Germicidal Action) Magnesium (Mg)
Bone replacement for temporary braces of Calcium (Ca)
long bones & to close opening of the skull Strontium (Sr)
Styptic (causes constriction of vessels) Barium (Ba)
Toxicity: Argyria Radium (Ra)
Antidote: NSS
or can be removed by Sodium Thiosulfate
Potassium
❶Beryllium (Be)  Most toxic metal
Ferricyanide  can cause lung carcinoma, chronic granuloma.
 Fluorescent Lamp
❖Important Compounds of Silver:
Soluble Compounds ❷Magnesium (Mg) Lightest of all structurally important
metal  2nd most abundant Intracellular
1. Silver Nitrate (AgNO3)
Cation
 aka “Lapiz infernulariz”, “Lunar Caustic”,
 Chlorophyll component (Photosynthesis)
“Indellible Ink”, “Caustic Pencil”
 Compound of Grignard’s Reagent
for removal of Warts
 cofactor of Phosphate transferring enzymes
 once used as eyewash for newly born babies of
 also a constituent of bones & teeth
mothers w/ gonorrhea (gonococcal opthalmitis)
 produces a Violet-red Color w/ Diphenycarbazide
 0.5% Concentration as wet dressing for prsons
 give Yellow ppt w/Oxine (8-hydroxyquinoline)
suffering from third degree burn
 creates Blue ppt (or Corn flower blue)
2. Ammoniated Silver Nitrate [Ag(NH3)2NO3] w/ Quinalizarin Reagent
 aka “Howe’s Solution”  Pharmacologic Action:
 Dental Protective, Ingredient of Tollen’s Reagent, Laxative
Desensitizing Agent Depressant
3. Silver Trinitophenolate Natural Calcium-channel Blocker
 treatment of Trichomonas vaginalis Other Use: Flares
& Monilia albicans  Antidote for Mg Poisoning: Ca Gluconate
 extended use, may result to Argyria & Nephritis  Natural Sources:
Insoluble Compounds: As Silicates: (Talc, Asbestos)
4. Silver Iodide (AgI)  Poisonous As CO3: (Magnesite, Dolomite
 germicide; disinfectant  As So4: (Keiserite)
5. Silver Proteinates/ Silver Proteins  Magneson I (p-nitrobenzene resorsinol)
(a) Mild Silver Protein  aka “Argyrol” dyestuff to detect magnesium
 Antiseptic for the eye ion forming a blue lake
 19-23/25% ❖Important Compounds of Magnesium:
(b) Strong Silver Protein  aka “Protagrol”
1. Magnesium Carbonate (MgCO3)  aka “Magnesia”
 stronger antiseptic/ germicide for
 Antacid, Laxative
ears, nose, & throat
contains 7.5%-8.5% of Ag 2. Magnesium Hydroxide [Mg(OH)2]
(c) Collodal Silver Protein  aka “Collargol”  aka “Milk of Magnesia”, “Magnesia Magma”
 causes Diarrhea ☹ Osteoporosis (bone density)
 Antacid, Laxative ☹ Osteomalacia(adults)
 packed w/ Blue Bottle (for aesthetic purposes) ☹ Ricketts (Infants/ Children)
3. Magnesium Oxide (MgO)  aka “Calcined Magnesia”
☹ Hypocalcemia (tetany -tonic spasm ofmuscles)
 Antacid, Laxative
 component of Universal Antidote ❖Important Compounds of Calcium:

4. Magnesium Trisilicate [2MgO2SiO2nH2O] 1. Calcium Bromide (CaBr2)  Sedative Depressant

 Antacid (Advatage: has prolong effect due to 2. Calcium Carbonate (CaCO3)
gelatinous consistency of preparation)  aka “Precipitated Chalk”, “Prepared Chalk”
 made by the process called Elutriation
5. Magnesium Sulfate (MgSO4)  aka “Epsom Salt”
 Antacid, Carbonating Agent,
 Anticonvulsant (IM)
Ingredient of tootpaste, dentrifices
Cathartic (PO)
 Primary standard for EDTA
Antidote for Barium Toxicity
6. Hydrated Magnesium Silicate 3. Calcium Chloride (CaCl2)
 aka “Talc”, “Soapstone”, French Chalk”  aka “Muriate of Lime”
 Softest mineral  Calcium replenisher (Electrolyte Replenisher)
 Adsorbent, Filtering Aid, 4. Calcium Guconate
Clarifying Agent, Dusting powder  Calcium Supplement & Replenisher
 Antidote for Magnesium Poisoning
7. Magnesium Citrate [Mg3(C6H5O7)2]
 aka “Lemoda Purganti”, “Purgative Lemon” 5. Calcium Hydroxide [Ca(OH)2]
 Cathartic  aka “Slaked Lime”, “Milk of Lime”, “Calcium Hydrate”
8. Magnesium Stearate  Lubricant  Antacid; Saponifying Agent
 used in infant’s milk formula to prevent the curlding
9. Magnesium Nitrate Reagent  solution containing Mg(NO3)2,
of milk to improve the digestibility of it.
NH4Cl,
6. Calcium Lactate [Ca(C3H5O3)2]
& a little ammonia
 Calcium Supplement
10. Magnesia Mixture (MgCl2 + NH4Cl + Ammonia)
 is used to test Arsenic 7. Calcium Phosphate monobasic (CaHPO42H2O)
 *Arsenate will form White Ppt w/ magnesium  source of Ca & PO4
Mixture 8. Dibasic Calcium Phosphate (CaHPO4)
*compared w/ arsenate, arsenite do not form  the recommended calcium salt as electrolyte
white precipitate w/ Magnesia Mixture. Thus, replenisher because it provides an optimum ratio of
this is used as a differentiating test between 1:1 Calcium to Phosphorus.
Arsenate & Arsenite 9. Calcium Phosphate [Ca3(PO4)2]
11. Flash Light Powders  mixtures of Potassium Chlorate or  aka “Bone Ash”, “Phosphate Rock”
Barium Peroxide & Powdered  Antacid
Magnesium 10. Calcium Oxide (CaO)  aka “Lime”, “Quicklime”, “Calx”
 Component of Bordeaux
Calcium (Ca)  2nd most abundant Extracellular Cation  mixture
Vitamin D is needed for its maximum absorption  Insecticide
 cause permanent hardness of water
11. Calcium Hypochlorite [Ca(ClO)2]
 an ion plays a significant role in neurotransmitter
 aka “Chlorinated Lime”, “Chloride of Lime”
release  Pharmacologic Action:
 Bleaching Agent, Disinfectant
Blood Coagulation
Important Muscle Contraction 12. Calcium Sulfate [CaSO4 ½ H2O or 2H2O)
Important Release of Neurotransmitter  aka “Plaster of Paris”, “Gypsum”, Terra Alba”
Cation of Hydroxyapatite (Primary Element of  Rodenticide,
bones & teeth − 98-99%) Preparation of surgical casts & Dental Impression ,
Deficiency State: Dentrifices
❹Strontium (Sr)  aka “Brass Yellow” metal
 can replace Calcium in bone formation
 radioactive used in diagnostic to scan &study
bones  used to hasten bone (mineralization in
diseases
such as Osteoporosis)
 salts are used in Red Pyrotechniques (Flares)
❖Important Compound of Strontium:
1. Strontium Chloride (SrCl2)
 temperature desensitizing agent (Sensodyne®)
2. Strontium Lactate  used in treatment of
osteoporosis Barium (Ba)  aka “Heavy”
 salts are used in Green Pyrotechniques
is an insoluble phosphates
 Toxicity: Baritosis
Antidote: Magnesium Sulfate
(Epsom Salt)
❖Important Compound od Barium:
1. Barium Sulfate (BaSO4)
  radiopaque substances used for GIT imaging
 causes Constipation
2. Barium Hydroxide [Ba(OH)2]  CO2 absorbent

Radium (Ra) most soluble hydroxide salt

 first radionuclide 1901/ radioactive substance
discovered by Marie Curie
 used for:
Cancer Radiotherapy
Diagnostic Purpose
GROUP II-B (12): VOLATILE METALS 3. Cadmium Sulfate (CdSO4)  Ophthalmic Antiseptic
 exhibit Autocomplexation
Members: Zinc (Zn)
Cadmium (Cd)
Mercury (Hg)
Copernicium (Cn)

❶Zinc (Zn)  metal present in Insulin

 as container for batteries & dry cells Mercury (Hg)  aka “ “Messenger of Gods”,
 protective coating of galvanized iron Quicksilver”, “Liquid Silver” by Theophrastus
 forms a White ppt w/ Sulfur-containing reagent  can be removed by Sulfur when it falls into Crack &
 essential component of Carbonic Anhydrase & difficult to clean places
many other enzymes  Pharmacologic Actions:
 w/ Dithizone Test: Red Color Extractable Diuretic
 Pharmacologic Actions: Antiseptic
Astringent Cathartic
Antiseptic Treatment of Syphilis
Antiperspirant Parasiticidal/ Fungicidal
Protectant Industrial Uses:
Defficiency: Parakeratosis ~Manufacture of Thermometers
Antidote for Zinc Poisoning: NaHCO3(Baking Soda) −(have space
containing
❖Important Compounds of Zinc:
Nitrogen)
1. Zinc Chloride (ZnCl2) ~Formation of Amalgams (dental cement)
 aka “Burnette’s Disinfectant Fluid”  Toxicity:”Minimata Disease”
 Antiseptic/ Disinfectant (found in mouthwashes), Antidote:
Topical Protectant, Dentin Desesitizer, Corrosive *EDTA
2. Zinc Oxide (ZnO) *Sodium Formaldehyde Sulfoxylate NF
 aka “Zinc White”, “Lassar’s Paste”, “Chinese White” (best Antidote –particulary the
Mild Antiseptic, Astringent, Topical Protectant bichloride)
*Ladd’s paste  comprises Zinc Oxide, Liquid Petrolatum, *Egg Albumin (used in mergency)
& Aluminum Powder 1/3 by weight -1 egg white for each 250
3. Zinc Peroxide (ZnO2)  Antiseptic Mercuric Chloride, to induce
4. Zinc Sulfate (ZnSO47H2O)  aka “White Vitriol” emesis,
 Emetic, Astringent, ❖Important Compounds of Mercury:
 Ingredient of White Lotion, USP 1. Mercurous Chloride (Hg2Cl2)  aka “Calomel”
w/ Sulfurated potash  Cathartic, Local Antiseptic
5. Zinc Sulfide (ZnS)  aka “White Lotion”, “White Sulfide” 2. Mercuric Chloride (HgCl2)  aka “Corrosive Sublimate”
 active component of White Lotion  also as Mercury
 Parasiticide, Topical Protectant, Bichloride
Antiseptic
 Disinfectant
6. Hydrated Zinc Silicate
3. Mercurous Iodide (HgI)  Anti-syphilis
 aka “Natural Calamine”
 Topical Protectant, Anti-itch 4. Mercury (II) Iodide (HgI2)  stimulant of Indolent
 makes Calamine pink Ulcers 5. Potassium Mercuric Iodide (K2HgI4) 
7. Zinc-eugenol Cement  Dental protective, Dentrifices Antiseptic
 component of Mayer’s
❷Cadmium (Cd)  Pharmacologic Actions/ Uses: Reagent
Astringent 6. Ammoniated Mercury (HgNH2Cl)  aka “White
Treatment of Seborrheic Dermatitis Precipitate”  Topical
Other Use: Manufacture of Stink Bomb Antiseptic/
Toxicity: “Itai-itai Disease”
Anti-infective
Antidote: BAL
7. Mercuric Oxide (HgO)  aka “Yellow Precipitate”
❖Important Compounds of Cadmium:
 Ophthalmic Antiseptic/ Anti-infective
1. Cadmium Chloride (CdCl2)  Emetic, 8. Red Mercuric Iodide  w/ Potassium Iodide produces a
Treatment of Tinea Infection solution known as Valser’s Reagent
2. Cadmium Sulfide (CdS)  aka “Yellow Sulfide” 9. Water-soluble Mercury  solid preparation containing
 Anti-Seborrheic Dermatitis/ Mercury (10-20%), Cetyl Alcohol
Anti-dandruff (70%), Sodium Lauryl Sulfate, Dioctyl
 Sodium Sulfosccunate, Glycerin & 2. Aluminum Hydroxide [Al(OH)3]
Water.  aka Amphogel®, Cremalin Gel®
Differentiation of Hg22+ from Hg2+  Antacid, Protectant
 can interfere w/ phosphate absorption
 DIsadvatage: Constipation
Reagent Hg22+ Hg2+ Phosphate Deficiency
3. Aluminum Phosphate (AlPO4)
NaOH Hg2O (Black ppt) HgO (Yellow ppt)  aka Phosphagel®
 Antacid, Astringent, Demulcent
KI  Advantage: Do not interfere w/ PO4 absorption
Hg2I2(Green ppt) HgI2(Scarlet ppt)
4. Aluminum Carbonate [Al2(CO3)3]
Excess KI causes constipation
Hg (Black ppt) + K2HgI4 K2HgI4(Dissolution)
treatment of Phosphatic Calculi
 Phosphate Fecal Route
NH3 Hg(NH2)Cl + Hg (Black ppt) Hg(NH2)Cl (White
5. Alum [AlNH4(SO4)212H2O] – NH4 salt
ppt)
[AlK(SO4)212H2O] – K salt
 aka “Tawas”
HCl HgCl2(White ppt) HgCl2(Clear  Astringent, Antiperspirant, Deodorant
Solution) 6. Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3)  aka “Alumina”, “Bauxite”
 Treatment of Silicosis
 GEW: MW/6

GROUP III-A (13): BORON GROUP 7. Aluminum Magnesium Silicate (Hydrated Al Mg Si )

 +3 oxidation state  aka “Fuller’s Earth”, “Floretin”, “Floridin”
 *Hydroxides of this group of elements – tend to show  is a low of plasticity, clay-like material, which, when,
heated, exhibits an increase in its adsorptive
amphoteric properties except those at the top & bottom
properties.
elements of this group
8. Aluminum Magnesium Hydroxide Sulfate  aka “Magaldrate”
 Alum = double salts
 Members: Boron (B) 9. Aluminum Acetate (AlCH3COO)
Aluminum (Al) 10. Aluminon Reagent  tri-ammonium aurine-tricarboxylate
Gallium (Ga) 11. Aluminum Silicate
Indium (In) × (a) Kaolin  aka “China Clay”,
Thallium (Tl) × “Native Hydrated Aluminum Silicate”
“White Bole”
❶Boron (B)  bridge element, resemble silicon  Intestinal adsorbent in diarrhea, Demulcent,
 Used in Vulcanizing Rubber Clarifying agent, Excipient for inorganic salts,
❖Important Compounds of Boron: Dusting Powder
(b) Bentonite  aka “Soap Clay”, “Mineral Soap”,
1. Boric Acid (H3BO4)  aka “Sal Sativum”, “Sal Sedativum”
“Swelling Clay”
 burns with a Green bordered Flame
“Native Colloidal Hydrated Silicate”
when mixed with methanol & the mass “Wilhinite”
ignited  Suspending agent
 Buffer component  Bentonite Magma (5% Bentonite)
 Eyewash (2% Boric Acid) (c) Pumice  porous rock of volcanic origin
 Antiseptic  complex of Al, Na, K
 Toxicity: “Lobster Appearance” same w/  dental abrasive
Sodium Borate *Fine Pumice  powder form of pumice
2. Boron Trioxide  produces by heating Boric Acid to (d) Clay  contain impurities of calcium, magnesium, iron
temperature over 160°C oxides, fragment of quartz etc.
3. Sodium Tetraborate (Na2B4O710H2O)
aka “Borax”, “Dobell’s Solution”
Gallium (Ga)aka “eka-aluminum”
 Antiseptic, Eyewash, Wet Dressing for wounds
 substitute for mercury in the manufacture Arc Lamps
 except for Mercury, has the lowest melting point of
❷Aluminum (Al)  most abundant metal
the metals (29.75°C)
 3rd most abundant element
 appears in transferring, an iron transport CHON, &
 is a base-insoluble sulfide
appears to be useful in treating cancer related
 Pharmacologic Actions:
hypercalcemia
Constipation
Astringent  as Diagnostic Aid (67GA)
Antiperspirant ❖Important Compound of Gallium:
Deodorant 1. Gallium Nitrate  for the treatment of cancer-related
Thin Foil is used to treat burns hypercalcemia
 Toxicity: Shaver’s Disease
❖Important Compounds of Aluminum: ❹Indium (In)  as Diagnostic Aid (111In, 113In)
1. Aluminum Chloride (AlCl36H2O)  Astringent,
Antiseptic, ❺Thallium(Tl) aka “Green Twig”
Antiperspirant,  Defacqz Reaction (test)
Deodorant  most toxic, similar to Arsenic (Toxic Effects)
  rodenticides asphyxia/hypoxia then death
 Poisoning causes Green Tongue & Alopecia  toxicity due to interaction w/
 as Diagnostic Aid (201Tl) Hemoglobin (cherry red blood)
 Treatment of Poisoning w/ Thallium: systemic poison
-Trihexyphenidyl  Colorless, odorless, tasteless,painless
-Dimercaprol  major source: Automotive
exhaust(Car)
GROUP III-B (3)  Treatment: (a) 100% O2
 “Rare Earth Elements” (b) Artificial Air
are the first elements that are large enough to permit the (He 80%+O2 20%)
addition of electrons to the d orbitals, beginning w/ the third
(c) Hyperbaric O2
principal quantum number
 Members: Scandium (Sc)  “eka-boron”
Yttrium (Y)
GROUP IV-A (14): CARBON FAMILY
+4 oxidation state
 predominantly exhibit covalent bonding, owing to the small size & high
charge on the tetravalent ions.
 Oxides of Carbon(C) & Silicon(Si) are acidic, those of other elements of the
group are Amphoteric
 Members: Carbon (C)
Silicon (Si)
Tin (Sn)
Lead(Pb)
Germanium (Ge)

❶Carbon (C)  non metal

 can form multiple bonds w/ itself (Catenation)
 Properties: Catenation –ability to bond w/ another
carbon froming chains
Hybridization
Isomerism
Stability
 produces in various forms, such as Coke, Lampblack, or Charcoal
*Coke  an impure form of carbon when coal is
heated strongly in the absence of air 4. Carbonates/ Bicarbonates  Antacid, Carbonating agent (a) Sodium
 Manifestation: (a) Crystalline – graphite, diamond Bicarbonate (NaHCO3) aka “Baking Soda”  gastric antacid
(b) Amorphous – coal, anthracite
(b) Potassium Bicarbonate (KHCO3)
*Soft Coal (Bituminous)  70% of carbon
 source of K ion in electrolyte replenisher
*Hard Coal (Anthracite)  90% carbon &
6% volatile matter (c) Ammonium Carbonate [(NH4)2CO3]
❖Important Compounds of Carbon:  effective reflex stimulant & expectorant
1. Activated Charcoal (d) Sodium Carbonate Dehydrate  aka “Soda Crystals” (e) Anhydrous
Adsorbent, Component of universal antidote Sodium Carbonate  aka “Soda Ash” * Soluble Carbonate group:
 are prepared from ligneous material by -K
carbonization in the absence of air, followed by heat -Na
&/or chemical treatment to increase surface area & -NH4+
porosity * Bicarbonate − cause temporary hardness of water 5. Diamond  purest native
 residue from a destructive distillation of various form of uncombined carbon
organic materials treated to increase it adsorptive ❷Silicon (Si)  2nd most abundant element
power. ❖Important Compounds of Silicon:
 Two forms:
1. Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)  aka “Sand”, “Flint”, “Silica”
Finely Powdered – use in liquid media
 Adsorbent, Clarifying Agnet,
− official use in USP is
Filtering Agent, Insulator
treatment of Diarrhea
Toxicity: Silicosis (along condition
Coarse, Hard, Porous Particles − gas absorption
resembling chronic
2. Carbon Dioxide (CO2)  aka “Carbonic Acid, “Dry Ice”  most potent tuberculosis, develops
respiratory stimulant after long exposure
(Best Respiratory Stimulant) (7years or more) to
 treatment of persistent Hiccups respirable air)
 Dry Ice: Treatment of Acne, Corns, Antidote: Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3)
Calluses, Moles, Warts, -forms coat on silica
Eczema particles
 toxicity dur to suffocation (a) Silica Fume  prepared by condensation of silica
 Absorbers: Soda Lime & from its vapor phase
Barium Hydroxides  Colloidal Silicon Dioxide NF
3. Carbon Monoxide (CO) toxic Gas (b) Silica Gel  prepared by hydrolysis of inorganic or
 210x greater affinity to hemoglobin organic orthosilicates
than oxygen leading to  Silicon Dioxide NF
 2. Purified Siliceous Earth NF b. Pewter Metal  80% Tin + 20% Lead
 aka “Diatomaceous Earth” “Fuller’s Earth”, c. Gun Metal  10% Tin + 90% Copper
“Kieselgurh”, “Celite”
d. Rose Metal  25% Tin + 25% Lead + 50% Bismuth
 act as excellent inert, non-adsorbent filter aids.
❖Important Compounds of Tin:
 used as Mild Abrasive
3. Simethicone  aka “Polymeric Dimethyl Siloxane”, 1, Stannous Fluoride (SnF2) Anticariogenic (8% solution) 2.
“Dimetylpolysiloxane”, Stannic Oxide (SnO2)  Germicide against Staphylococcal inf.
” Activated Dimethicaone”, “Dimethicone”
 Antifoaming agent, ❹Lead (Pb)  aka “Plumbum” (latin word)
Antiflatulent in gastric bloating &  most metallic alement of Group IVA
postoperative gaseous  is added to Phosphorus to render it black
distention in Gastrointestinal  forms a Black ppt w/ Sulfur-containing reagent
tract.  Pb2+ (Plumbous)
4. Attapulgite [Mg5(Si8O20)(OH)28H2O] Pb4+ (Plumbic)
 aka Polymagma®, Diatabs®, Quintess®  Pharmacologic Action:
 adsorbent Astringent
 for diarrhea Protein Precipitant
5. Talc [Mg3(OH)2Si4O10]  Hydrated Magnesium Silicate  Cumulative Poisoning: Plumbism
 softest mineral known *Effect: Lead Encephalopathy
 formerly used as dusting powders -Irritability
& lubricant fro surgical gloves -Memory Loss
 filtering aid -Projectile Vomiting
*Purified Talc  has been freed of iton & other Lead Palsy
impurities -degenerative changes in motor
made by boiling very finely neurons
powdered talc w/ water containing -Wrist drop/ foot drop
2% of Hydrochloric Acid Antidote: EDTA; Ca Versenate
Sources of Poisoning: Lead Pipes
*Most Frequent Impurities of Talc:
Paints
-Aluminum Oxide
Crayons
-Calcium Oxide
Batteries
-Ferric Oxide
Automobile exhausts (Car)
6. Potassium Aluminum Silicate(KAlSi3O8)
❖Important Compounds of Lead:
aka “Feldspar”
 most common rock 1. Lead Acetate [Pb(CH3COO)2]  aka “Sugar Lead”,
7. Glass  generic term used to identify vitrous silicate material “Burrow’s Solution”
prepared by fusing a base, such as Na2CO3 &CaCO3,  Astringent, Antiseptic
w/ pure silica 2. Basic Lead Acetate  aka “White Lead”
appearance and characteristics of glasses can be 3. Lead Subacetate [Pb(CH3COO)  aka “Goulard’s Extract
modified by the addition of:  Astringent, Antiseptic
(a) Manganese Dioxide (MnO2)  mask the blue green *Goulard’s Cerate  Lead Subacetate + Ointment base
color of iron, usually 4. Lead Oxide (PbO)  Letharge® (Lead monoxide)
present in silica  used in cementing pipes & ingredient in
(b) Boron (as Borate)  decrease the coefficient of Lead Subacetate Solutions
expansion of the glass 5. Plumber’s Solders  67% Pb, 33% Sn
 to render Heat Resistant  low melting point
properties & used in soldering joints
(c)Potassium  to render light resistance property &
makes the glass amber (brown color). ❺Germanium (Ge)  aka “eka-silicon” by Mendeleev  is purported to
(d) Lead  to increase the refractive index of a glass have immune system-enhancing
8. Silanes (SiH4)  covalent SI-Si bonds & antitumor effects
Tin (Sn) aka “Stannum”  found in bis-β-carboxyethyl germanium
 used in manufacture of tin cans, household utensils sesquioxide
 Alloys: *Germanium Dioxide  has been used to increase the formation
a. Solder Metal  50% Tin + 50% Lead of RBC & for treatment of anemia
Group IV-B (4)
All members of the group possess amphoteric properties, &
their cations readily form complexes.
Members: Titanium (Ti)
Zirconium (Zr)
Hafnium (Hf)
Rutherfordium (Rf)

❶Titanium (Ti)  aka “Titans” (Sons of the Earth)

 powerful reducing agent
❖Important Compound of Titanium:
1. Titanium Dioxide (TiO2)  solar ray protectant
(sun block preparation)
 *TiO2: reflect UV rays
*PABA: absorbs UV rays
 Opacifying agent
 has high refracrtive index that
contributes to its opacity

❷Zirconium (Zr)  same with Aluminum but banned due to

Granuloma formation (skin cancer)
 Former Official Compounds:
*Oxide
*CO3
-both are used as Antiperspirant
& for Athlete’s Foot

Hafnium (Hf)  occurs in small quantities in Zirconium ores

GROUP V-A (15): NITROGEN FAMILY 6. Nitric Acid, NF 30  is an aqueous solution containing not
 Members: Nitrogen (N) less than 69% & not more than 71% by
Phosphorus (P) weight of HNO3
Arsenic (As)
Antimony (Sb)
Bismuth (Bi)
*Oxides of Nitrogen(N) & Phosphorus(P): Acidic
Arsenic(As) & Antimony(Sb): Amphoteric
Bismuth(Bi): Basic

❶Nitrogen (N) aka “Mephitic Air”, “Azote”, “Without Life”

 occurs free in atmosphere
 Most Abundant gas in Air (71% N2; 29% O2)
 prepared primarily by the fractional distillation of ❷Phosphorus (P)  aka “Light Carrier”, “St. elmo’s
liquid air Fire”  Two Forms:
 cause fatal bend in deep sea divers due to (a) Red Phosphorus  non-poisonous & non
accumulation in the blood flammable in air, except at high
 provide an atmosphere to retard oxidation of cod temperature.
liver oil, olive oil & multiple vitamin preparation. (b) Yellow Phosphorys (White Phosphorus)
 most stable diatomic molecule  has a distinctive, disagreeable,
❖Important Compounds of Nitrogen: ozone-like odor.
1, N2  very stable because of 3 covalent bonds  ignites spontaneously when expose
✧Since Stable –used as Inert Atmosphere for readily to air or when heated at about
oxidizable substance 50°C.
 insoluble in water,
✧Liquid N2 –used as Refrigerant
soluble in chloroform, benzene, or
✧Container: Black
carbon disulfide
2. Nitrous Oxide (N2O)  aka “Laughing Gas”  Allotropic Modifications:
 inhalational anesthetic (a) Scarlet P (PbBr w/ Hg @240°C)
 SE: Diffusion Hypoxia (b) Violet P (white w/ Na @ 200°C)
 Container: Blue (c) Black/Metallic (P w/ Pb @ 530°C)
3. Nitric Oxide (NO)  causes Vasodilation
 an important neurotransmitter produced ❖Important Compound of Phosphorus:
by neurons & other cells,
 associated w/ the Mechanism of Action 1. Phosphate (PO4)  Antacids; Cathartics
of Drugs like Sildenafil & Nitroglycerin  *Insoluble Phosphates: -Mg
-Sr
4. Nitrite (NO2)  Vasodilator; For Cyanide Poisoning
-Ba
 *all nitrite are soluble in water,
-Ca
except for Silver Nitrite (sparing soluble) 2. Phosphoric Acid NF  used to form soluble salts of
 forms red color w/ Giess-Ilosvay Test
insoluble medicinal base.
(sulpahnilic acid- 1
 GEW: MW/3
naphthylamine reagent)
3. Hypophosphorous Acid  used as an antioxidant in
5. Nitrate (NO3)  preservative Hydriodic Acid Syrup & Ferrous
 ion when warmed with concentrated sulfuric Iodide Syrup
acid & metallic Cu, evolved brown gas; (=)  powerful reducing agent
result w/ Brown ring test; & no visible
4. Diphosphate Trisulfate (P2S3)
reaction w/ diluted sulfuric acid.
gives white crystalline precipitate w/ the
Arsenic (As)  aka “Lewisite Metal”
presence of Nitron Reagent ( diphenyl-endo
 component of Salvarsan (Antisyphilis)/
anilo-dihydrotriazole)
Asphenamine  binds to –SH (Keratin −nails& hair)
 *Lunge test – most sensitive test for nitrate
 Identification Test: Gutzeit’s Test
*Pentaerythritol Tetranitrate − longest acting
is the modified version of
nitrate
 Marsh Test  lower oxi state –basic
 Poisoning: Arsenic Poisoning (Mee’s Lines)  higher oxi state –acidic
 Antidote: BAL  *The relationship between the oxidation number & acidity of
 elements that resembled arsenic in action: the oxyacids of a given element in the case of the elements in
-Selenium Group VI is Directly Proportional
-Tellurium Members: Oxygen (O)
❖Important Compounds of Arsenic: Sulfur (S)
1. Arsenic Trioxide  Insecticide; Antileukemic Selenium (Se)
 Pimary standard for I & Ce(SO4)2 Polonium (Po)
2. Potassium Arsenita Solution  aka “Fowler’s
Solution”  antileukemic ❶Oxygen (O)  aka “Acid Former”, “Yne” ,
3. CopperAceto Arsenate  aka “Paris Green” “Empyreal Air” by Priestly,
 insecticide “Dphlogisticated Air” by Schelle,
4. AsI2  aka “Donovan’s Solution”  most abundant element (then Si & Al)
 red solution  > 1/5 of Air
 primary standard in the preparation of cerric sulfate  Treatment of Hypoxia / Asphyxia
❹Antimony (Sb)  aka “Stybium”  Container: Green
 in the presence of Rhodamine B w/ HCl The Three Allotropes:
forms Violet Precipitate (a) Nascent Oxygen
 Principal Source: Antimony Glance (Stibnite) (b) Atmosphere/ Molecular Oxygen
 Pharmacologic Action: (c) Ozone  allotropic form of oxygen/ poisonous gas
Expectorant *Ozonides  is formed when ozone dissolves & unites
Emetic w/ the double bonds of substances such as
Anti-helminthic oil of turpentine, oil of cinnamon & olive
 *Amorphous form of Antimony – explosive form oil.
antimony *Ozonized Gas  result when oxygen covert to ozone
❖Important Compund of Antimony:  used in various disinfecting &
bleaching operations
1. Antimony Potassium Tartrate (SbKOC4H4O6)
Conditions based on Oxygen Requirement:
 aka “Tartar Emetic”, “Brown Mixture”
(a) Anoxic – inadequate oxygen
Emetic, Expectorant, (b) Anemic – red blood/ hemoglobin shortage
Treatment of Schistosomiasis (Liver Fluke) (c) Stagnant
 no longer use as emetic because it is Toxic (d) Histotoxic – poisonous to tissue
2. Antimony Black  a black metallic antimony, obtained by the ❖Important Compound/s of Oxygen:
action of zinc upon solutions of antimony
1. Hydrogen Peroxide (Thenard’s “Oxygenated Acid”)
trichloride
−stability increase in Acid Medium
3. Alloys:
✧ 3% H2O2  10 volumes (powerful oxidant)
a. Babbit Metal  is 80% tin & 20% antimony
✧ 6% H2O2  20 volumes (common bleach for air)- USP
b. Antifriction Metal  is 75% tin, 12.5% antimony,
12.5% copper
❷Sulfur (S)  aka “Brimstone”, “Shulbari”, “Enemy of Copper”
 * α-silfur  most stable allotropic form of
❺Bismuth (Bi)  aka “Beautiful Meadow”
sulfur
 will not react with acids to produce Hydrogen
 obtained by Frasch Process (Sulfur Mining)
 Pharmacologic Actions:
Pharmacologic Use/s:
Astringent
In preparation of Scabicidal & Keratolyic ointment
Antiseptic
Stimulant Cathartic
Internal Protective for Ulcer
Depilatory Agent
*Insoluble Bismuth  30% concentration as
Fumigant
Ointment
Anti-dandruff
 Causes: Dark Stool
Forms of Sulfur:
Blue-black gums
(1) Precipitated Sulfur Lac  Sulfur; Milk Sulfur
 Antidote: BAL/ DImercaprol
 Scabicide
❖Important Compounds of Bismuth:
fine particles
1. Bismuth Subcarbonate  Antacid, Astringent, Antiseptic
(2) Sublimed Sulfur  Cathartic
2. Bismuth Subgallate  same
 coarse particles
3, Bismuth Subnitrate  same
 used in the preparation of
4. Milk of Bismuth  aka “Bismuth Cream” Vleminckz’s Solution
 component: Bi Subnitrate + Bi Hydroxide w/ Calcium Oxide (Lime) by boiling
 Primary Use: Antacid, (3) Elemental Sulfur  Fungicide
Internal protective especially (4) Plastic Sulfur  resembles rubber & is insoluble
for gastric patient, in Carbon
Inhibit growth for H. pylori Disulfide
5. Colloidal Bismuth Subcitrate  Tx of Peptic Ulcer (5) Liquid Sulfur  is obtained by heating sulfur at a
GROUP V-B (5) temperature of 160°C until about 180°C,
❶ Tantalum (Ta)  for implants then the product become dark brown &
 used in recent years in the surgical repair of has reach the maximum viscosity
large abdominal hernias Calcarone  a crude furnace where Sulfur can be
 unaffected by body fluids, used in sheet form obtained/ recovered
for surgical repair of bones, nerves, & tissues. in Sicily
GROUP VI-A (16): CHALCOGENS (OXYGEN FAMILY) Sulfides:
 -Black Sulfide: CuS turns filter paper moistened w/
HgS acidified Potassium Dichromate gree.
FeS 7. Sulfur Ointment  has 10% Sulfur
-Pink Sulfide: MnS 8. Sulfuric Acid (H2SO4) most common dehydrating agent used
-Orange Sulfide: Antimony Sulfide (Sb2S3) in chemical reactions
-Yellow Sulfide: Cadmium Sulfide
-White Sulfide: Zinc Sulfide Selenium (Se)  aka “Selena”, “Moon”
 essential trace element
❖Important Compounds of Sulfur:  promotes absorption of Vitamin E
1. Vlemickx’s Solution  is a mixture prepared by boiling lime (Synergistic of Vit E)
& sublimed sulfur. used in making “red glass” & in rubber industry
2. Norhausen Acid  Fuming Sulfuric Acid  Pharmacologic Use: Antioxidant
3. Sulfurated Potash[K2SO4/(K2Sx)2]  aka “Liver of Sulfur” ❖Important Compound of Selenium:
 used in treatment of 1. Selenium Sulfide (SeS2)  aka “Selsun Blue”
Psoriasis  2.5 % suspension in topical
4. Lithopone  70% Zinc Sulfie & 30% Barium Sulfide treatment of Seborrheic Dermatitis
5. Thiosulfates  decolorizes potassium permanganate  Antidandruff/ Antiseborrheic Agent
&iodine solutions 2. Selenic Acid  only single acid to dissolve Gold
6. Sulfur Dioxide (SO2) has a suffocating odor Polnium (Po)  first radioactive element dixcovered by Curie
 antioxidant
GROUP VI-B (6)
 Members: Chromium (Cr)
Molybdenum (Mo)
Uranium (U)
Tungsten (W)
❶Chromiun (Cr) Essental trace element
Glucose tolerance factor
 Deficiency: Hyperglycemic
❖Important Compound of Chromium:
1. Potassium Dichromate (K2Cr2O7)  powerful oxidizing
agent 2. Chromate  yellow in solution
*Chromate ion− yellow
*Dichromate ion− orange
❷Molybdenum (Mo)  essential trace element
 cofactor of flavin dependent enzymes
 important constituent of xanthine oxidase &
aldehyde oxydase
 involved in bacterial fixing of atmospheric
nitrogen
❖Important Compound of Molybdenum:
1. Molybdenum Oxide  + FeSO4 (use: Hematinic
Brand name: Mol-Iron®
Uranium (U)  discovered by Becquerel
 radioactive element used for manufacture of atomic
bombs
 No pharmaceutical use
Tungsten(W)  aka “Wolfram” because it is found in nature
as Wolframite or as Wolfram Ocher
 is most desirable in making filaments in lectric
bulbs  imparts great hardness to steel
GROUP VII-A (17): HALOGENS Abnormal Bone Growth
 Salt-forming elements  * Fluoride  anticariogenic Agent
 Electronegativity: F > O> N ≈ Cl  is one of the metabolites of Methoxy
 Decreasing Acidity: HI > HBr> HCl >HF flurane responsible for the
Members: Fluorine (F) Nephrotoxicity associated w/ thic
Chlorine (Cl) inhaltional anethetic
Bromine (Br) ❖Important Compounds of Fluorine:
Iodine (I) 1. Sodium Fluoride (NaF)  Anticariogenic(prevent dental
Astatine (At) caries) at 2% solution.
2. Stannous Fluoride (SnF2) Anticariogenic (8%
❶Fluorine (F)  aka “Superhalogen” solution) 3. Sodium Fluoride Phosphate (Na2FPO3) also
 strongest oxidizing agent cariogenic 4. Dichlorodifluoromethane (CCl2F2)  aka
 most electronegative element “Freon”
 except Glod(Au) & Platinum(Pt), it attack all metals  Refrigerant;
at ordinary temp. Aerosol Propellant
 Poisoning: Fluorosis
Principal Manifestation: Mottled Enamel
❷Chlorine (Cl)  aka “Dephlogisticated Muriatic Acid” by
 Scheele  most abundant Extracellular Anion combat many common bacteria in distilled water
 used as Water Disifectant  *its Oxosalts (are very stable)
 is added into a solution of an Iodine which liberates  Antidote for Iodine Poisoning: Cornstarch &
color Brown Sodium Thiosulfate
 “Greenish Yellow” Halogen (Chloros) ❖Important Preparations of Elemental Iodine:
❖Important Compound of Chlorine: 1. Stong Iodine Solution  aka “Lugol’s Solution”
1. Hypochlorite (Na, K)  Bleaching Agent 2. Iodine Tincture  Disinfectant
2. Chloride (Na, K, Ca)  electrolyte replenisher 3. Povidone-Iodine  Betadine® (10% Iodine)
 cause perment hardness of water 4. Iodophor  complex of Iodine
3. Potassium Chlorate  antiseptic 5. Boulton’s Solution  Phenolated Iodine Solution
 present in mouthwashes, vaginal 6. HI  most acidic among the acid of halogen
douche, & othe local cleansing prep.
4. Chlorine Dioxide (ClO2)  will form an acid when reacted ❺Astatine (At) synthetic radioactive element(only synthetic
w/ water halogen)  resembles Iodine, but more metallic
5. Hydrochloric Acid toilet bowl cleaner.  has no pharmaceutical applications
neutalizing, stabilizing, / solubilizing
agent
* Diluted HCl – treatment of Achlordria Pseudohalogen (Halogenoids −resemble halide
− expressed in %w/v anions) -CN
* Concentrated HCl − expressed in %w/w -CNS
 is used to differentiate Group I cations GROUP VIIB (7)
6. Hypochlorous Acid (HClO) are colored
are metallic in character
7. Chlorous Acid (HClO2)
Members: Manganese (Mn)
8. Chloric Acid (HClO3) Technetium (Tc)
9. Perchloric Acid (HClO4) Rhenium (Re)

❶Manganese (Mn)  essential trace element

 necessary for activation of a variety of enzymes
such as Pyruvate Carboxylase
 forms a Pink ppt w/ Sulfur-containing reagent
 Cofactor involved in:
-Protein Synthesis
-Phosphorylation
-Fatty Acid & Cholestrerol Synthesis
Poisoning: Parkinson-like
Bromine (Br)  Dark reddish brown fuming liquid with a suffocating ❖Important Compound of Manganese:
odor 1. Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4)
 powerful caustic & germicide  aka “Mineral Chameleon”
 if in contact w/ skin wash immediately w/ a  Oxidizing Agent, Antiseptic
solution of NaHCO3 & treated w/ glycerin
 0.02% Strength as Antimicrobial
or Ammonia Water
 Three Bromide Elixirs: Na, K, & Ammonium
 added to Quinalizarin Reagent to differentiate
❷Technetium (Tc)  aka “Technetos”, “eka-Manganese”
 first element produced artificially
magnesium & berylium
 Pharmacologic Action:  used in Preparation of Radiopharmaceuticals
Sedative (99Tc)
Depressant
 Poisoning: Bromism (Antidote: NaCl & NH4Cl) Rhenium (Re)  very rare element
Principal Manifestation: Skin Eruption  catalyst for dehydrogenation
Psychosis GROUP VIIIA / O (18): NOBLE GASES/ INERT GASES All
Weajness Group 0 elements except radon occur in the atmosphere 
Headache are all monatomic & unreactive
Members: Helium (He)
Neon (Ne)
❖Important Compound of Bromine: Argon (Ar)
1. Kopperchaar’s Solution  Bromine, Tenth Normal Solution Krypton (Kr)
 solution of K Bromate & K Xenon (Xe)
Bromide Radon (Rn)
 0.10N Bromine Solution ❶Helium (He)  2nd lightest gas/ air
 Used in the assay of Phenol  Container: Brown
Inhalation of pure Helium produces a
“Donald Duck-like Sound” or “Chipmunk-like Sound”
Pharmacologic Uses:
❹Iodine (I)  most metallic of all halogen (except  Used to prepare synthetic airs
Astatine)  present in thyroid gland (20% O2 + 80% He)
a radioactive isotopes which ha a wide use in diagnosis Carrier/ Diluent of Medically important gases
& therapy. ❷Neon (Ne)  for advertising purposes
*1:5000 (0.02%) –iodine concentration effective to Argon (Ar)  most abundant noble gas
  substitute to nitrogen as an inert atmosphere for less gastric irritating
pharmaceutics 6. Ferrous Fumarate  TOLERON® (hematinic
by-product of the fractionalization for possible use as agent)-1957  more stable than
anesthetics ferrous sulfate
❹Krypton (Kr)  least abundant noble gas  most tolerable form of iron
anesthetic(investigated for possible use as anesthetic)  less irritating to the GI tract than any
 *Ramsay & Travers (isolated Krypton from Argon) other iron preparations
❺Xenon (Xe)  is a virtually ideal anesthetic inert gas sufficiently 7. Ferrous Carbonate (FeCO3)  aka “Chalybeate Pills”,
potent to provide rapid induction of & emergence “Ferrunginous Pills”,
from surgical anesthesia “Blaud’s Pills”
❻Radon (Rn)  aka “Niton” by Ramsay  Hematinic Agent
 synthetic & radioactive noble gas 8. Ferric Chloride (FeCl3)  astringent, styptic,
 treatment of cancer (Cervical Cancer)
detection(test) of tannins & phenols
 Recognize by Dorn
 will react with:
 *Rutherford & Soddy (succeeded in liquefying the
-Morphine (blue)
emanation of Radon) -Benzoic Acid (flesh)
*Ramsay & Collie (demonstrated the characteristic -Resorcinol (violet)
spectrum of Radon) 9. Iron + Ammonium Acetate  aka “Basham’s
GROUP VIIIB Mixture”  Astringent,
consists of e elements (TRIADS) Styptic
First Triad: Second Triad: Third Triad: 10. Iron Dextran Injection  IM only
Iron (Fe) Ruthenium (Ru) Osmium (Os) 11. Iron Oxide  use as pigment
Cobalt (Co) Rhodium (Rh) Iridium (Ir) 12. Iron Pyrite  aka “Fool’s Gold”
Nickel (Ni) Palladium (Pd) Platinum (Pt)
13. Ferri Ferrocyanide, Fe4[Fe(CN)6]2  aka “Prussian
Blue”  blue print
❶Iron (Fe) essential trace element dye
 present in Tyrosine Hydroxylase which catalyzes the rate
limiting step in catecholamines 14. Ferro Ferricyanide, Fe3[Fe(CN)6]2  aka “Turnbull’s
 Present in: Hemoglobin Blue”  blue print dye
Transferrin 15. Cast Iron/ Pig Iron  is the crude metal obtained from
Ferritin blast furnace contains 92 to 94% iron
Cytochrome Oxidase Enzyme 16. White Cast Iron (Cementine)  is a solid solution of hard
 Enhance Absorption of: Vitamin C brittle iron carbide formed
Copper when molten iron ir rapidly
most important element in engineering cooled.
 Alloy: Steel (Iron + 35 Carbon) 17. Gray Cast Iron (Graphite Scales)  are formed when liquid
 *Mucosal Block postulation by Hahn iron is run into sand molds &
− best known of the three hypotheses on iron allowed to cool
absorption 18. Wrought Iron  is obtained from removing most of the
−suggests that dieatary or administered iron is impurities from cast iron.
reduced to the ferrous form which diffuses into  contains from 99.8% to 99.9% of pure iron.
the mucosal cell where it is reoxidized & combined  very malleable & ductile, very tough &
w/ apoferritin to form stable ferritin possesses a high tensile strength
 *Misch Metal − is 70% Cerium & 30% Iron 19. Reduced Iron  is made from ferric oxide w/ the addition
− pyrophoric alloys of Hydrogen
− alloy of copper-nickel resulted from
removing sulfur from malte ❷Cobalt (Co)  essential in development of erythrocyte &
*Fe2+  green in solution hemoglobin  used in manufacture of beer
 Use: Hematinic  pink in appearance
 Toxicity: GIT Distress  Component of Vitamin B12 (Cyanocobalamin)
Cardiac Collapse  * Vogel’s Reaction(test for Cobaltous ions w/
Antidote: Deferoxamine ammonium thiocyanate
❖Important Compounds of Iron: produce Beautiful blue)
 Deficiency: Megaloblastic Anemia
1. Ferrous Sulfate (FeSO4)  aka “Green Vitriol” ❖Important Compounds of Cobalt:
 Hematinic Agent
1. Cobalt Chloride (CoCl2)  “Cobaltous Chloride”
 most economical & most
 aka “Lover’s Ink”,
satisfactory form of iron
preparation in the market “Sympathetic Ink”
 SE: Constipation  indicator in silica gel beads
2. Ferrous Subsulfate Solution  aka “Monsel’s (dessicator)
2. Cobalt Zincate  aka “Rinmann’s Green”
Solution” 3. Ferrous Ammonium Sulfate  aka “Mohr’s
3. Cobalt meta-aluminate  aka “Thenard Blue”
Salt”
4. Cobaltous  used as indicator in silica gel beads & other
 most important double salt of
dehydrating
ferrous sulfate w/ alkali sulfate
agents
4. Ferric Ammonium Sulfate [FeNH4(SO4)2] Nickel (Ni)  aka “Old Nick’s Copper”
 aka “Ferric Alum”  found in fossil fuel combustion
 indicator used in precipitation method of analysis  metal in Fancy Jewelries
5. Ferrous Gluconate  FERGON® (Hematinic Agent)  specified by Dimethylglyoxime Reagent, form Red
 ppt. *Ni2+  green in solution Emits Radiation
Low proton-neutron ration
*Nickel Pectinate  Tomectin
 is utilized for the treatment of diarrhea
*Raney Nickel  alloy of nickel & aluminum Softening − is the method used to render hard water into a more
purified form by removal of dissolved salts by precipitation as either
*Nickel Hydroxide  Green
carbonates or hydroxides
*German Silver  Nickel + Zinc + Copper
Geiger Counter − used to detect & measure
*Constantan  alloy of Copper & Nickel
radioactivity Rem − unit of radiation damage used in
* Dimethylglyoxime Reagent  precipitating agent of Nickel medicine
Rad & Gray − commonly used to measure the amount of exposure to
❹Osmium (Os)  heaviest & densest metal radiation
❖Important Compounds of Osmium: Radiation: 1. Alpha − least penetrating
1. Osmic Acid − weighs almost the same as a helium atom
2. Osmium Tetroxide 2. Beta
*Both used in staining microorganism for microscopic study 3. Gamma − have been speed of light
especially electron microscopy
Particle Accelerators − “Atom Smashers”, “Cyclotron”, “Synchroton”
❺Palladium (Pd)  catalyst in finely divided steel − are used to accelerate charge particles using
❻Platinum (Pt)  catalyst in finely divided steel strong magnetic & electrostatic fields
 called as “Noble Metals” because
it shows low oxidation potential
& low reactivity Ionic Hydrides − are formed by alkali metals & by the heavier alkaline
earths
✧Cisplatin  treatment of Prostate Cancer
 aka Platinol Molecular Hydrides − are formed by nonmetals & semi-metals
 a platinum complex Metallic Hydrides − are formed when hydrogen reacts w/ transition
 antineoplastic agent prepared by treating metals
potassium chloroplatinate w/ ammonia
◆Artificial Atmosphere: Universal Antidote (Component):
-Five Gases are Official: -Magnesium Oxide (Calcined Magnesia)
Nitrogen -Activated Charcoal
Oxygen -Tannic Acid
Helium Hydroxyurea − is antineoplastic drug active against rapidly proliferating
Carbon Dioxide cells in the synthesis phase.
Nitrous Oxide Pipobroman − used primarily for treating Polycethemia vera −
antineoplastic agent prepared from
◆Barium, Strontium, Nickel Piperazine & 3-Bromopropioniyl bromide
placed higher than hydrogen in the electromotive series *Polycythemia Vera − aka Erythremia
− is a bone marrow disease that leads to an
abonormal increase in the number of
Activity Series − list od metals arranged in order of decreasing ease of blood cells
oxidation Testolactone, USP − D-homo-17α-oxaandrosta-1,4-diene-3,17-dione −
Active Sites − are places in the reacting molecules where they can be prepared by microbial transformation of
absorb progesterone
Reaction Mechanism − information on how reaction occurs in step by step Interferons − are secreted by cells in response to viral infections or
process. other chemical or biologic inducers
Coordination Number of the Metal Ion − is the number of donor atoms to − Major Classes: Alpha - α
which is boded. Beta - β
* Metal-ion Indicators: Lambda - λ
- Murexide Interferon alfa-2a − othernames: RIFN, IFLrA, Roferon-A − a highly
- Calmagite
protein containing 165 amino acid
- Pyrocathecol Violet
amufactured from a strain of E.coli bearing a
Nuclide − is the nucleus of a specific isotope of an
genetically engineered plasmid containing an
element Nucleon − particle found im the nucleus of an interferon alfa-2a gene from human leukocytes
atom Tertiary Amino Alkyl Ether − Drowsiness (most common) Viomycin −
Node − a locus of points in an atom in which the electron density is zero. causes toxic effect that are primarily associated w/ damage to the eight
Limiting Reactant − reagent that leads to the smallest amount of cranial nerve & to the kidney
product Ewens-Bassett system − is an element nomenclature that − exerts bacteriostatic action against the tubercle bacillus by a
gives/sites the charge of the complex ion rather than the mechanism that has not been determined
oxidation state of the central unit
− is less potent than streptomycin, & its toxicity is greater
Emetine (antiprotozoan) − Indications:
Monel Metal − used for wire, screen, sheet metal -Balantadial Dysentery
Thorium Oxide − obtained from Monazite contains Cerium -Fascioliasis
-Paragonimiasis
Metals are: Pentamidine − principal indication: Pneumocystis carinii (Pneumonia)
- ductile Suramin − high molecular weight bisurea derivatives containing six
- lustrous sulfonic acid groups as their sodium salt
- malleable Glycobiarsol − available in the form of vaginal suppositories for the
- some are liquid (Gallium & Mercury) treatment of trichomonal & monilial vaginitis
− also been used orally for the treatment of intestinal
Radiactive Substances: Unstable Nucleus amebiasis
Stibogluconate − pentavalent antimonial drugs intended primarily for effect on Antipsychotic Activity
the treatment of various froms of leishmaniasis *Thioridazine − has an alkyl piperidyl side chain at the N-10 position of the
− has low therapeutic index phenotiazine structure.
− px should be monitored for sighs of heavy metal *Thioxanthene − resemble the ring structure (ring analogues) of the
poisoning Phenothizines only that
Diethylcarbamazepine − a higly water-soluble compound that is the N-10 position of the Phenothiazine is
effective against various forms of filariasis, replaced by a carbon.
including Bancroft’s onchocerciasis & laviasis
Iopanoic Acid, USP − designed for the visualization of gallbladder
Monmorillonite − Smectite Amphetamine
Selenomethionine Se 75 Injection, USP − used in the diagnosis of *Methamphetamine
Pancreatic tumors & growths − differs in the presence of
White Lotion, USP − Sulfurated Potash + Zinc Sulfate N-methyl substituent
Alkaline Water − usually contain appreciably quantities of sodium & − (+)-N, alpha-dimethyl
Magnesium Sulfates together w/ some Sodium phenthylamine
bicarbonates
Glycerin − sequestering agent of Haine’s Reagent for Copper salts
Citrate − sequestering agent for Benedicts Solution
− acts as a blood coagulant in vivo & an anticoagulant in vitro
Polydentate Ligands − used for improving solubility &/or to stabilize a Phenytoin− anticonvulsant
metal ion by chelation − contains the structure -NH in the R’’
−sequestering agent position of the structure
Catecholamines − are phenylethylamine w/ orthodihydroxy
substitutions in the phenyl ring.
Two Carbons − can separate the amino from the phenyl ring that will
produce maximal sympathomimetic activity
Beta-1 receptor agonist selectivity − is conferred in beta
phenylethylamine structure.
Metthylphenidate − useful for ADHD commercially available as the
threo-racemate from, which is about 400 times
more potent than its erythro-racemate form

Amiodarone
PABA (Para-aminobenzoic Acid)
− used as Ultraviolet sunscreen
− enhancer of Serum Salicylate
− should not be taken concurrently w/ sulfonamides because it
interferes w/ the Antimicrobial Activity of the latter
Sulfonamides − are assayed by using NaNO2 & KI

Vitamin B17 (Amygadalin)  convert to Cyanide w/ Enzyme Emulsin

Aspirin
Bordeaux Mixture − CuSO4 + CaO
− algicide in swimming pools
3-ethyl-4-hydrocypentanal Functional
White Lotion − ZnSO4 + Sulfurated Potash Group: Carbon 2
− active ing: ZnS
Barbiturates (Intravenous Anesthetics)
*Phenobarbital − most water soluble among
Barbiturates

Penicillin

Phenothiazine − for seizure disorder

*C2 position − is the position in the structure when substituted, will bring
about the greatest
Atomic number Atomic Mass Name chemical element Symbol
 59 71 83 94 108 277

72 96 109 268
60 84
73 97 110
61 85
98 111 272
62 74 86
99 112
63 75 87
100 113
64 76 88
101
65 77 89 114
102
78 91 115
66 104
79 116
67 90 103
117
80 105
68 93
118
81 106
69 92
107
82
70 95
1 1.0079 HydrogenH
2 4.0026 Helium He

3 6.941 Lithium Li

4 9.0122 Beryllium Be

5 10.811 Boron B

6 12.0107 Carbon C

7 14.0067 Nitrogen N

8 15.9994 Oxygen O

9 18.9984 Fluorine F

10 20.179 Neon Ne
7

11 22.989 Sodium Na
7

12 24.305 Magnesium Mg

13 26.981 Aluminum Al
5

14 28.085 Silicon Si
5

15 30.973 Phosphorus P
8
16 32.065 Sulfur S

17 35.453 Chlorine Cl

19 39.098 Potassium K
3

18 39.948 Argon Ar

20 40.078 Calcium Ca

21 44.955 Scandium Sc
9

22 47.867 Titanium Ti

23 50.941 Vanadium V
5

24 51.996 Chromium Cr
1

25 54.938 Manganese Mn

26 55.845 Iron Fe

28 58.693 Nickel Ni
4

27 58.933 Cobalt Co
2

29 63.546 Copper Cu

30 65.39 Zinc Zn

31 69.723 Gallium Ga

32 72.64 Germanium Ge

33 74.921 Arsenic As
6

34 78.96 Selenium Se

35 79.904 Bromine Br

36 83.8 Krypton Kr

37 85.467 Rubidium Rb
8

38 87.62 Strontium Sr

39 88.905 Yttrium Y
9

40 91.224 Zirconium Zr

41 92.906 Niobium Nb
4

42 95.94 Molybdenum Mo
 43 98 Technetium Tc

44 101.07 Ruthenium Ru

45 102.905 Rhodium Rh
5

46 106.42 Palladium Pd

47 107.868 Silver Ag
2

48 112.411 Cadmium Cd

49 114.818 Indium In

50 118.71 Tin Sn

51 121.76 Antimony Sb

53 126.904 Iodine I
5

52 127.6 Tellurium Te

54 131.293 Xenon Xe

55 132.905 Cesium Cs
5

56 137.327 Barium Ba

57 138.905 Lanthanum La
5

58 140.116 Cerium Ce

Name Molecular Ammonium fluoride NH4F

formula
Ammonium iodide NH4I
Aluminum Al
Aluminum bromide AlBr3 Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3

Aluminum chloride anhydrous AlCl3 tri-Ammonium orthophosphate (NH4)3PO4

Aluminum oxide Ammonium perchlorate NH4ClO4

Al2O3

Aluminum powder Al Ammonium phosphate dibasic (NH4)2HPO4

Ammonum aluminum sulfate Ammonium phosphate monobasic NH4H2PO4

NH4Al(SO4)2

Ammonium bromide Ammonium sodium hydrogen NaNH4HPO4

NH4Br
orthophosphate
Ammonium chloride NH4Cl
Ammonium sulfate (NH4)2SO4
Ammonium ferric sulfate NH4Fe(SO4)2
Ammonium thiocyanate NH4SCN
Ammonium ferric sulfate NH4Fe(SO4)2
Antimony oxide Sb2O3
Ammonium ferrous sulfate FeSO4(NH4)2SO4
Antimony pentoxide Sb2O5 Calcium orthophosphate Ca3(PO4)2

Antimony tribromide SbBr3 Calcium oxide CaO

Antimony(lumps) Sb Calcium pentahydroxide triphosphate Ca5(PO4)3OH

Arsenic As Calcium peroxide CaO2

Barium nitrate Ba(NO3)2 Calcium phosphate dibasic CaHPO4

Barium carbonate BaCO3 Calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2

Barium chlorate monohydrate Ba(ClO3)2.H2O Calcium phosphate monobasic Ca(H2PO4)2

Barium chloride BaCl2 Cerium sulfate anhydrous Ce2(SO4)3

Barium fluoride BaF2 Cesium chloride CsCl

Barium hydroxide Ba(OH)2

Barium oxide BaO

Chromium(III)chloride CrCl3
Barium perchlorate Ba(ClO4)2
Chromium potassium sulfate CrK(SO4)2
Barium permanganate Ba(MnO4)2
Chromium trioxide Cr2O3
Barium peroxide BaO2
Chromium(III)nitrate Cr(NO3)3
Barium sulfate BaSO4
Cobalt carbonate CoCO3
Bismuth metal Bi
Cobalt metall powder Co
Bismuth nitrate Bi(NO3)3
Cobalt sulfate CoSO4
Bismuth subnitrate BiNO3
Cobalt(II)sulfate CoSO4.7H2O
Bismuth trioxide Bi2O3
Cobaltic oxide Co2O3
Borax crystals Na2B4O7
Cobaltous Co
Boric acid H3BO3
Cobaltous bromide CoBr2
Cadmium carbonate CdCO3
Cobaltous chloride CoCl2
Cadmium chloride CdCl2
Cobaltous chloride CoCl2
Cadmium fluoride CdF2
Copper metal Cu
Cadmium granule. Cd
Copper oxide CuO
Cadmium metal, mossy Cd
Copper(I)iodide CuI
Cadmium nitrate CdNO3.4H2O
Copper(I)bromide CuBr
Cadmium selenide CdSe
Copper(I)chloride CuCl
Cadmium sulfate CdSO4
Copper(II)chloride CuCl2.2H2O
Calcium Ca
Copper(II)hydroxide carbonate CuCO3.Cu(OH)2
Calcium fluoride CaF2
Copper(II)sulfate anhydrous CuSO4
Calcium hypochlorite(~35%Cl) CaCl2O2
Cupric bromide CuBr2
Cupric dichromate CuCr2O4.4H2O Lithium nitrate LiNO3

Cupric oxide CuO Magnesium bromide MgBr2

Cuprous cyanide CuCN Magnesium carbonate MgCO3

Ferric oxide red powder Fe2O3 Magnesium chloride MgCl2

Ferric sulfate Fe2(SO4)3.nH2O Magnesium chloride anhydrous MgCl2

Ferrous bromide FeBr2 Magnesium ferrocyanide Mg2Fe(CN)6

Ferrous chloride FeCl2 Magnesium fluoride MgF2

Ferrous orthophosphate Fe3(PO4)2 Magnesium oxide MgO

Ferrous sulfate FeSO4 Magnesium perchlorate Mg(ClO4)2

Ferrous sulfide FeS Magnesium silicate MgO,SiO2,Na2SiO4

Fluoboric acid (50% in water) HF Magnesium sulfate MgSO4.H2O

Germanium(IV)chloride GeCl4 Manganese dioxide MnO2

Iodic acid HIO3 Manganese hydroxide Mn(OH)2

Iodine I2

Iodine pentoxide I2O5

Manganese metal Mn
Iron Fe
Manganous chloride MnCl2
Lanthanium oxide La2O3
Mecurous chloride HgCl2
Lead bromide PbBr2
Mercuric iodide HgI2
Lead carbonate PbCO3
Mercuric nitrate HgNO3
Lead chloride PbCl2
Mercuric thiocyanate Hg(CSN)2
Lead chromate PbCrO4
Mercurous fluorude Hg2F2
Lead dioxide PbO2
Mercurous iodide Hg2I2
Lead fluoride PbF2
Mercurous nitrate HgNO3.H2O
Lead iodide PbI2
Mercury(II)chloride HgCl2
Lead metal Pb
Mercury(II)iodide HgI2
Lead oxide yellow PbO
Mercury(II)nitrate Hg(NO3)2
Lead sulfide PbS
Molybdenium trioxide MoO3
Lithium carbonate Li2CO3
Nickel carbonate NiCO3
Lithium chloride LiCl
Nickel chloride NiCl2.6H2O
Lithium fluoride LiF
Nickel fluoride NiF2
Lithium hydroxide LiOH
Nickel oxide green NiO
Lithium iodide LiI
Nickel sulfamate Ni(SO3NH2)2.4H2O
Nickel sulfate NiSO4.6H2O Sodium bromide NaBr

Perchloric acid HClO4 Sodium chlorate NaClO3

Phosphormolybdic acid H3[P(MoO3O10)4]aq Sodium cobaltinitrile CoN6Na3O12

Phosphorus in water P Sodium dithionite Na2O4S2

Phosphorus pentasulfide P2S5

Phosphorus wite P
Sodium fluoride NaF
Potassium antimonate(pyro) KSb(OH)6
Sodium hydrogen phosphate Na2HPO4
Potassium biiodate KH(IO3)2
Sodium hydrogen sulfate NaHSO4
Potassium bisulfate KHSO4
Sodium hydrogen sulfite NaHSO3
Potassium bisulfite KHSO3
di-Sodium hydrogenphosphate Na2HPO4.2H2O
Potassium bromate KBrO3
Sodium iodate NaIO3
Potassium bromide KBr
Sodium iodide NaI
Potassium chlorate KClO3
Sodium meta-periodate NaIO4
Potassium cyanate KCN
Sodium methaborate NaBO2.2H2O
Potassium dihydrogen phosphate KH2PO4
Sodium perchlorate NaCl3O4
Potassium disulfate(pyrosulfate) K2S2O7
Sodium peroxide Na2O2
Potassium ferro(III)cyanide K4Fe(CN)6
Sodium persulfate Na2S2O8
Potassium metabisulfite K2S2O5
Sodium polyphosphate (NaPO3)12-13.Na2O
Potassium nitrate KNO3
Sodium pyrophosphate Na4P2O7
Potassium nitrite KNO2
Sodium silicate Na2Si3O7
Potassium perchlorate KClO4
Sodium sulfate Na2SO4.10H2O
Potassium persulfate K2S2O8
Sodium sulfite Na2SO3
Potassium phosphate monobasic KH2PO4
di-Sodium tetraborate Na2B4O7
Potassium pyrophosphate K4P2O7
Sodium tungstate Na2WO4.2H20
Potassium selenocyanate KSeCN
Stannic chloride SnCl4
Potassium thiocyanate KSCN
Stannous chloride SnCl2
Selenium metall Se
Stannous chloride SnCl2.2H2O
Silicic acid SiO2.aq
Stannous fluoride SnF2
Silver nitrate AgNO3
Stannous oxide SnO
Silver sulfate Ag2SO4
Strontium carbonate SrCO3
Silver sulfate Ag2SO4
Thallium wire Tl
Sodium bismuthate NaBiO3
Thallous nitrate TlNO3
 Tin Sn Zinc carbonate ZnCO3

Tin gran. Sn Zinc chloride ZnCl2

Titanium carbide TiC Zinc nitrate Zn(NO3)2

Titanium hydride TiH2 Zinc selenide ZnSe

Vanadium boride VB2 Zinc sulfate ZnSO4.7H2O

Vanadium carbide VC Zirconium boride ZrBo

Vanadium oxide V2O4 Zirconium hydride ZrH2

Yttrium nitrate Y(NO3)3 Zirconium(IV)oxide ZrO2

Yttrium oxide Y2O3

Zinc Zn

VALENCES OF COMMON ELEMENTS & RADICALS

I.Elements of Fixed Positive Valence III.Elements of Variable Valence

+1 +2 +3 +4 ous ic
H Ba Al C ANTIMONY Sb +3 +5 ARSENIC As +3 +5
Li Ca B Si BISMUTH Bi +3 +5 CHROMIUM Cr +2 +3
K Bd Fe COBALT Co +2 +3 COPPER Cu +1 +2 GOLD Au
Na Mg Cr +1 +3 IRON Fe +2 +3 LEAD Pb +2 +4
Ag Ra Ni MANGANESE Mn +2 +4 MERCURY Hg +1 +2
Cu Sr Co NICKEL Ni +2 +3 NITROGEN N +3 +5
Zn Bi PHOSPHORUS P +3 + 5
Cu As PLATINUM Pt +2 + 4 TIN Sn +2 + 4
Fe Sb
Pb
Hg
Ni
Co
Cd
Mn
Sn

II.Elements of Fixed Negative Valence

-1 -2 -3 -4
Br O As C
Cl S N Si
FP
H
I

IV.Common Radicals
-1 BROMIDE Br CHLORATE ClO3 CHLORIDE IODATE IO3 IODIDE I METABORATE BO2
ACETATE C2H3O2 ALUMINATE Al(OH)4 Cl CYANATE CNO FLOURIDE F MEATAPHOSPHATE PO3 NITRATE NO3
BICARBONATE HCO3 BROMATE BrO3 HYDROXIDE OH HYPOCHLORITE ClO NITRITE NO2 PERCHLORATE ClO4
PERMANGANATE MnO4 THIOCYANATE
SCN
-2
CARBONATE CO3 CHROMATE CrO4
DICHROMATE Cr2O7 MANGANATE
MnO4 MOLYBDATE MoO4 OXALATE
C2O4 OXIDE O PEROXIDE O2
HYDROPHOSPHATE HPO3 SILICATE SiO3
SULFATE SO4 SULFIDE S SULFITE SO2
STANATE SnO3 TARTRATE C4H4O6
TETABORATE Br4O7 THIOSULFATE S2O3
ZINCATE ZnO7
-3
ARSENATE AsO4
ARSENITE AsO3
BORATE BO3
CITRATE C6H5O2
FERICYANIDE Fe(Cn)6
PHOSPHATE PO4
PHOSPHITE PO3

PY
PY
OR

AM
CO
M