Unit 1

Introduction to Wireless Communication Systems

WEEK 1 : Introduction to wireless communication and mobile radio
communication, Classification of wireless communications - simplex, half duplex,
dull duplex, Paging and Cordless systems, Cellular telephone systems, Timing
diagram - landline to mobile and mobile to mobile, Basic antenna parameters, Far
field and near field

WEEK 2 : Frequency reuse, sectored and omni- directional antennas, Channel

assignment strategies, Handoff and its types, Interference and system capacity

WEEK 3 : Trunking and Grade of Service, Cell splitting, Sectoring, Microcell zone
concepts, Umbrella cells, Solving Problems
These slides contains copyrighted materials from - Wireless Communications:
Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, and antenna concepts –
Constantine A Balanis used as instructor resources.

Text books, references:

1. Rappaport T.S, “Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice”, Pearson
education.
2. For antenna concepts - Constantine Balanis. A, “Antenna Theory: Analysis and
Design”, 3rd Edition, John Wiley, 2012.
 WEEK 1 LECTURES
Overview - Evolution of wireless communication,
mobile radio communication antenna basic and
Cellular concepts
Syllabus Coverage :

Introduction to wireless communication and mobile radio communication,

Classification of wireless communications - simplex, half duplex, dull duplex,
Paging and Cordless systems, Cellular telephone systems, Timing diagram -
landline to mobile and mobile to mobile, Basic antenna parameters, Far field
and near field
What is Wireless Communication?
• Transmitting/receiving voice and data using
electromagnetic waves in free space.

➢ The information from sender to receiver is carried over

a well defined frequency band (channel).

➢ Each channel has a fixed frequency bandwidth and

capacity (bit rate).

➢ Different channels can be used to transmit information

in parallel and independently.

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Source : NPTEL Wireless lecture – Dr. Ranjan Bose (slide 28)
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Example
• Assume a spectrum of 120 kHz is allocated
over a base frequency for communication
between stations A and B.
• Each channel occupies 40 kHz.
Channel 1 (b to b+40)

Station A Channel 2 (b+40 to b+80) Station B

Channel 3 (b+80 to b+120)

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• Can we allocate spectrum like that ?
No, its Idealized

• What can we do then?

Guard Bands
A guard band is a narrow frequency range that separates two ranges of wider
frequency. This ensures that simultaneously used communication channels do
not experience interference, which would result in decreased quality for both
transmissions.

• How do you determine the width of the Guard

band?
Depends upon how sharp your receiver filter roll off
factor is !

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 Types of Wireless Communication
• Mobile
Cellular Phones (GSM/ CDMA)
• Portable
IEEE 802.11b (Wi-Fi)
IEEE 802.15.3 (UWB)
• Fixed
IEEE 802.16 (Wireless MAN)

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Typical Frequencies
• FM Radio ~ 88 MHz
• TV Broadcast ~ 200 MHz
• GSM Phones ~ 900 MHz
• GPS ~ 1.2 GHz
• Bluetooth ~ 2.4 GHz
• WiFi ~ 2.4 GHz

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 Why Wireless?
• Benefits
– Mobility: Ability to communicate anywhere!!
– Easier configuration, set up and lower installation cost

• Difficulties
– Communication medium: Free space
• Noisy and unpredictable channel
• Broadcast channel, more user ->less BW per user
– Higher equipment cost
– Usually it is regulated spectrum and limited BW
• Techno-politic
– Need backbone systems in order to function properly

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 Challenges
• Efficient Hardware
– Low power transmitters, receivers
– Low power signal processing tools
• Efficient use of finite radio spectrum
– Cellular frequency reuse, medium access control
protocols
• Integrated Services
– Voice, data, multimedia over the same network
– Service differentiation, priorities, resource sharing

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 Challenges
• Network support for user mobility (mobile
scenarios)
– Location identification, Handoffs,..
• Maintaining quality of service over unreliable
links.
• Connectivity and coverage (internetworking)
• Cost efficiency
• Bandwidth
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 Challenges
• Fading
• Multipath
• Higher probability of data corruption
– Hence, need for stronger channel codes
• Need for stronger security mechanisms
– Privacy, Authentication.

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 Evolution of Mobile Radio
Communications
Major Mobile Radio Systems
1934 - Police Radio uses conventional AM mobile communication system.
1935 - Edwin Armstrong demonstrate FM
1946 - First public mobile telephone service - push-to-talk
1960 - Improved Mobile Telephone Service, IMTS - full duplex
1960 - Bell Lab introduce the concept of Cellular mobile system
1968 - AT&T propose the concept of Cellular mobile system to FCC.
1976 - Bell Mobile Phone service, poor service due to call blocking
1983 - Advanced Mobile Phone System (AMPS), FDMA, FM
1991 - Global System for Mobile (GSM), TDMA, GMSK
1991 - U.S. Digital Cellular (USDC) IS-54, TDMA, DQPSK
1993 - IS-95, CDMA, QPSK, BPSK
 Example of Mobile Radio
Systems
• Examples
– Cordless phone
– Remote controller
– Hand-held walkie-talkies
– Pagers
– Cellular telephone
– Wireless LAN
• Mobile - any radio terminal that could be moves during operation
• Portable - hand-held and used at walking speed
• Subscriber - mobile or portable user

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Total Access Communication System

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 1G
• Frequency: 150MHz / • From 1980 to 1990
900MHz • Bad voice quality
• Bandwidth: Analog • Poor battery, cellphones
telecommunication • Big cellphones
(30KHz)
• Characteristic: First • Better than nothing, at
wireless communication least its wireless and
• Technology: Analog mobile
cellular
• Capacity (data rate):
2kbps
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 2G
• Frequency: 1.8GHz • From 1991 to 2000
(900MHz), digital • Allows txt msg service
telecommunication • Signal must be strong or
• Bandwidth: 900MHz else weak digital signal
(25MHz)
• Characteristic: Digital • 2.5G
• Technology: Digital – 2G cellular technology with
cellular, GSM GPRS
• Capacity (data rate): – E-Mails
64kbps – Web browsing
– Camera phones
• Why better than 1G?
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 3G
• Frequency: 1.6 – 2.0 • From 2000 to 2010
GHz • Called smartphones
• Bandwidth: 100MHz • Video calls
• Characteristic: Digital • Fast communication
broadband, increased • Mobil TV
speed • 3G phones rather
• Technology: CDMA, expensive
UMTS, EDGE
• Capacity (data rate):
144kbps – 2Mbps

• Why better than 2G?

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 4G
• Frequency: 2 – 8 GHz • From 2010 to today
(2020?)
• Bandwidth: 100MHz
• MAGIC
• Characteristic: High
– Mobile multimedia
speed, all IP
– Anytime, anywhere
• Technology: LTE, WiFi – Global mobile support
• Capacity (data rate): – Integrated wireless
100Mbps – 1Gbps solutions
– Customized personal
service
• Why better than 3G?
• Good QoS + high security
• Bigger battery usage

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 5G
https://5g.co.uk/guides/5g-frequencies-in-the- uk-what-
you-need-to- know/

• Capacity (data rate): • From X (2020?) to Y

1Gbps – ULIMITED? (2030?)
• High speed and capacity
• Why better than 4G? • Faster data trasmission
than 4G
• Supports
– Interactive multimedia
– Voice streaming
– Buckle up.. Internett
• More efficient
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Comparison -1G, 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G
1G 2G 3G 4G 5G
Period 1980 – 1990 1990 – 2000 2000 – 2010 2010 – (2020) (2020 - 2030)

Bandwidth 150/900MHz 900MHz 100MHz 100MHz 1000x BW pr

unit area
Frequency Analog signal 1.8GHz 1.6 – 2.0 GHz 2 – 8 GHz 3 – 300 GHz
(30 KHz) (digital)
Data rate 2kbps 64kbps 144kbps – 100Mbps – 1Gbps <
2Mbps 1Gbps
Characteristic First wireless Digital Digital High speed, all
communication broadband, IP
increased
speed
Technology Analog cellular Digital CDMA, UMTS, LTE, WiFi WWWW
cellular EDGE Wireless World
(GSM) Wide Web

https://www.lin kedin.com/pulse/evolution- mobile-communication-from-1g-4g-5g- 6g-7g-pmp-cfps 21

• Classification of mobile radio transmission system
– Simplex: communication in only one direction
– Half-duplex: same radio channel for both transmission and reception (push-to-
talk)
– Full-duplex: simultaneous radio transmission and reception (FDD, TDD)

• Frequency division duplexing uses two radio channel

– Forward channel: base station to mobile user
– Reverse channel: mobile user to base station

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• Time division duplexing shares a single radio channel in time.
 Paging Systems
• Conventional paging system send brief messages to a
subscriber. It is a form of simplex communication (only one way
communication)
• Modern paging system: news headline, stock quotations, faxes,
etc.
• Simultaneously broadcast paging message from each base
station (simulcasting)
• Large transmission power to cover wide area.

A Caller with the aid of PSTN (Public

Switched Telephone Network) sends a
message, paging control center directs
the messages with the establishment of
communication to the desired paging
terminal or all the paging terminals (in
case of broadcast) through landline or
satellite link
Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport,
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pp12.
 Cordless Telephone System
• Cordless telephone systems are full duplex communication systems.
• First generation cordless phone
– in-home use
– communication to dedicated base unit
– few tens of meters
• Second generation cordless phone
– outdoor
– combine with paging system
– few hundred meters per station

Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp13.

• Uses radio to connect a portable hand set to a dedicated fixed base

station
• The base station is then connected to a dedicated telephone line with a
specific telephone number on the PSTN
• When a call is dialed or received, both fixed port and portable handset
(depending upon the power backup) will be connected to the PSTN.
• Limited range and mobility 24
 Cellular Telephone Systems
• Provide connection to the PSTN for any user location within the radio
range of the system.
• Characteristic
– Large number of users
– Large Geographic area
– Limited frequency spectrum
– Reuse of the radio frequency by the concept of “cell’’.
• Basic cellular system: mobile stations, base stations, and mobile
switching center.

mobile switching center (MSC) ,

also called as mobile telephone
switching office (MTSO)

Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp14. 25

• Communication between the base station and mobiles is
defined by the standard common air interface (CAI)

– forward voice channel (FVC): voice transmission from base

station to mobile
– reverse voice channel (RVC): voice transmission from
mobile to base station
– forward control channels (FCC): initiating mobile call from
base station to mobile
– reverse control channel (RCC): initiating mobile call from
mobile to base station

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 Cellular Technology: Evolution
➢First generation:
➢Based on analog technology, uses a single base station to
communicate with a single portable terminal.(e.g., Advance Mobile
Phone Services - AMPS)
➢Second generation:
➢Based on digital modulation and advanced call processing
capabilities . (e.g., Global System for Mobile - GSM , IS-95 and
Cordless Telephone - CT2).
➢Third generation:
➢To provide a single set of standards that can meet a wide range of
wireless applications (Multimedia) and provide universal access
throughout the world.(e.g., WCDMA, CDMA-2000, etc.)
➢Fourth generation:
➢To enable usage over IP platform – packet switching based (e.g.,
Long Term Evolution-Advanced (LTE-A), Mobile WiMAX)

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• mobile identification
number (MIN)
• electronic serial
number (ESN)
• station class mark (SCM)
• mobile switching center
(MSC) ,also called as mobile
telephone switching
office (MTSO)

Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport,

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pp10.
 How a cellular telephone call is made
When a cellular phone is turned ON, but not yet engaged in a call, it first scans the group of
forward control channels to determine the one with the strongest signal, and then monitors
that control channel until the signal level drops below a usable level.
Call initiation by a landline (PSTN) subscriber to mobile user:
• The mobile switching centre (MSC) dispatches the request to all base station in a cellular
system.
• The Mobile Identification Number (MIN) which is subscriber telephone number is then
broadcast as a paging message over all of the forward control channels throughout the
cellular system.
• The mobile receives the paging message sent by BS which monitors, and responds by
identifying itself over the RCC.
• The BS relays the acknowledgement sent by the mobile and informs the MSC of handshake.
• The MSC instructs the BS to move the call to an unused voice channel pair within the cell.
• The BS signals the mobile to change frequencies to an unused forward and reverse voice
channel pair.
• Another data message is transmitted on forward channel to instruct the mobile telephone
to ring and mobile user to answer the phone.

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Transmission of SCM and ESN
• All mobile stations will receive this page and each mobile matches
its MIN with the received MIN. The MS whose MIN matches with
the received MIN then acknowledges its receipt and sends its
Electronic serial number (ESN) number and Station Class Mark
Number (SCM) on its Reverse Channel.
• SCM is a 4 digit number corresponding to the power levels.
• ESN is a unique number 32 bit number assigned to every mobile
station.
Verification and Authentication by MSC
• The Base Station then relays the acknowledgement sent by the
mobile and informs the MSC about the target mobile.
• The MSC verifies that that the mobile has a valid MIN-ESN pair and
authenticates the mobile. It instructs the BS to allot an unused
voice channel pair.

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Timing diagram illustrating how a call to a mobile user initiated by a landline subscriber is
established.
Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp16.

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Timing diagram illustrating how a call initiated by a mobile is established
Source : Wireless Communications: Principles and Practice, Theodore S. Rappaport, pp17.

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 Largest
dimension of
the antenna

Pattern is
well formed
with dominant
Main lobe

Patten is flat (no

main lobes are Main lobe
formed) begins to
develop 38
Reactive near-field region
• It's a region immediately surrounding the antenna where the
reactive field predominates. The electric and magnetic fields are
not necessarily in phase to each other, and the angular field
distribution is highly dependent upon the distance and direction
from the antenna.

Radiating near-field (Fresnel) region

• It's a region surrounding the reactive near-field region and the far-
field region wherein the radiation fields predominates, the electric
and magnetic fields are in phase, but the angular field distribution is
still dependent upon the distance from the antenna.

Far-field (Fraunhofer) region

• ‘that region of the field of an antenna the angular field distribution
is essentially independent of the distance from the antenna and can
be approximated with spherical wave-fronts. Since it is very far from
the antenna, its size and shape are not important anymore and we
can approximate it as a point source.

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42
The beamwidth of a pattern is defined as the angular separation between two
identical points on opposite side of the pattern maximum.
Half-Power Beamwidth (HPBW ) is defined as: “In a plane containing the direction
of the maximum of a beam, the angle between the two directions in which the
radiation intensity is one-half value of the beam.”
The angular separation between the first nulls of the pattern is referred to as the
First-Null Beamwidth (FNBW )
Radiation intensity (W/unit solid angle) in a given direction is defined as “the power
radiated from an antenna per unit solid angle.” Obtained by multiplying radiation
density (in W/m2) with square of distance r.
Directivity of an antenna defined as “the ratio of the radiation intensity in a given
direction from the antenna to the radiation intensity averaged over all directions.

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The total antenna efficiency e0 is used to take into account losses at the input
terminals and within the structure of the antenna.
1. reflections because of the mismatch between the transmission line and the
antenna (reflection) – results in reflection coefficient
2. I 2R losses (conduction and dielectric – ic and id)

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• Gain of the antenna is closely related to the
directivity, it is a measure that takes into account
the efficiency of the antenna as well as its
directional capabilities.
• Directivity is a measure that describes only the
directional properties of the antenna, and it is
therefore controlled only by the pattern.

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Polarization How the direction of the electric field vector changes with
time at a fixed point in space.

Linear Circular

If the locus of the tip of the E-field is a straight line → linear polarization.
Circular locus → Circular polarization.
Elliptical locus → Elliptical polarization.

The polarization is called right-handed, if the fingers of the right hand follow the
direction of rotation of the E-vector while the thumb points in the direction of
propagation. Otherwise, left-handed.

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➢The dipole and monopole are two of the most widely used
antennas for wireless mobile communication systems

➢An array of dipole elements is extensively used as an antenna at

the base station

➢The monopole, because of its broadband characteristics and

simple construction, is perhaps to most common antenna element
for portable equipment, such as cellular telephones, cordless
telephones, automobiles, trains, etc.

➢An alternative to the monopole for the handheld unit is the loop.
Other elements include the inverted F, planar inverted F antenna
(PIFA), microstrip (patch), spiral

In cell phone devices – PIFA antennas are used in recent days and before 2G and
LTE systems, Monopole antennas were used
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Examples of stationary, retractable/telescopic and embedded/hidden antennas
used in commercial cellular and cordless telephones, walkie-talkies, and CB 51
radios.
Triangular array of dipoles used as a sectoral base-station
antenna for mobile Communication.
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