Sociology

The study of the world around us

Dr. Liaqat Ali

Assistant Professor
Department of Sociology ,University of Swabi.
And
Visiting faculty ,
Ghulam Ishaq khan Institute Swabi.
Sociology
 Sociology:

 Derived from two words. Sociology

 The Latin “Socious” mean companionship
 and the Greek “logos” mean study.
 So the term literally means the study of human
companionship or association or society.
 The discipline of society includes the study of
development, structure, and functioning of human
society.
 What is Sociology?
 Sociology is the scientific study of society. (August Comte)
 Sociology is the study of social action. (Mex Weber)
 Sociology is the study of collective behavior. (Park & Burgess )
 Sociology is the study of social facts through social institutions”.(Emile
Durkheim)
 Sociology is the scientific study of social aspects of human life. (Mack
Young)
 Sociology is the study of humans living together.(Tonnies)
 Sociology is the study of social groups on the basis of social interaction”.
(Simmel)
 Conclusion: On the basis of the above definitions, we can conclude that
Sociology is the science of society, human behavior, human interaction and
relationships.
 ORIGIN / HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF SOCIOLOGY:

 Sociologists believe that our social surroundings influence thought and action.
 For example, the rise of the social sciences developed in response to social
changes.
 The systematic study of Sociology started with Greeks. The need of society is
indispensable.
 Plato in his republic and Aristotle in his ethics discussed society
 Thomas more, Frances Bacon, Hobbes, Rousseau, and ibn Khaldun are the
authors of societal contributions.
 Modern Sociology was coined by August Comte a French in 1836.
 That’s why August Comte is known as the father of the modern sociology
 He called it “Social Physics”.
 The others who followed him are Durkheim, Spencer, Karl Marks etc.
 Although Foundation was laid by Allama Ibne Khaldun (Tunis) named
“Illumul-Imran”
 The first European department of sociology was founded in 1895 at the
University of Bordeaux by Émile Durkheim, UK in 1904 and in Germany
1919.
 What is Science

 Science is concerned with knowledge

 Science is the study of organized and verified knowledge
covering both theory and fact.
 Science is “a body of systematically arranged knowledge that
shows the operation of general laws.”
 In simple words the Knowledge which we gain from
experimentation and observations is called science.
 Why Is Sociology a Science

 Sociology is a science like Biology,

Physics or Chemistry.
 Social sciences, like Physical and
Biological Sciences, use a vital
methodology.
 This means that a social scientist clearly
states the problems he or she is
interested in and clearly spells out how
he or she arrives at their conclusions.
 Generally, social scientists follow the
procedure in light of existing literature.
Sociological Perspective
Sociological
perspective
 Perspective is a view/ assumption a particular attitude towards or way of
regarding something
 S Perspective is a broad assumption about society and social behavior/social
situation that provides a point of view for the study of a specific problem/
social situation
 E.G
Imagine there are four people looking at the same busy shopping street a
pickpocket, a police officer, a road sweeper, and a shopkeeper.
 The pickpocket sees wallets sticking out of pocket or bags, an opportunity
to steal,
 The police officer sees crime and disorder
 The road sweeper sees garbage left by everyone else,
 Shopkeeper sees a potential customer
 engineer Perspective vs a common man
T Functionalism he
Structural–Functional
Paradigm
The structural-functional paradigm sees society as a complex
system whose parts work together.
Functionalism has its origins in the work of E. Durkheim, how
social order is possible and how society remains relatively stable.
Functionalism interprets each part of society in terms of how it
contributes to the stability of the whole.

Herbert Spencer Emile Durkheim Robert Merton

T Functionalism

 It asserts that our lives are guided by social structures.

 Focuses on the social order
 Hebert Spence (1820–1903), saw similarities between society and
the human body
 Argued that just as the various organs of the body work together
to keep the body functioning, the various parts of society work
together to keep society functioning
 Changes in one part of the system normally bring about changes
elsewhere in the system.
 Each part of society works together for the benefit of the whole
much like a living organism
 HEC budget will affect higher educational activities.
 Each part of society performs certain functions for
society as a whole, and these parts are interdependent
 Family/Friends
 Government
 Religion
 Education
 Economy
 And so on
 What keeps society functioning
 Conflict Perspective

 Conflict perspective looks at society as a competition for limited

resources.
 Grounded in the work of German sociologist Karl Marx
 who saw society as being made up of individuals in different social
classes (class system)
 Who saw the struggle between classes as the major fact of history
 who must compete for social, material, and political resources such
as food, housing, employment, education etc.
 Society is understood to be made up of conflicting interest groups
who vie for power and privilege
 This dynamic results in continuous social change which is the
normal state of affairs
 Conflict theory focuses heavily on inequality and differential
distribution of power and wealth
 Conflict Perspective
cont…

 Conflict does not necessarily imply outright violence, it includes

tension, hostility, severe competition, and disagreement over goals
and values.
 German sociologist Max Weber agreed with Marx but also believed that,
in addition to economic inequalities, inequalities of political power
and social structure cause conflict.
 The social-conflict paradigm sees society as an arena of inequality that
generates conflict and change.
 Assumes that the social order is imposed by the powerful on the weak.
 E.g conflict b/w poor & rich, upper & lower cast
Symbolic interactionism

 Focus on social interaction

 The symbolic-interaction paradigm sees society as the product of
the everyday interactions of individuals.
 Symbolic interactionism focuses on the relationships among
individuals within a society.
 Communication the exchange of meaning through language and
symbols is believed to be the way in which people make sense of
their social worlds.
 George Herbert Mead (1863–1931) is considered a founder of
symbolic interactionism
 It focuses on social behavior in everyday life.
 Humans interact with things based on meanings ascribed to those
things; the ascribed meaning of things comes from our interactions
with others and society.
 For example,
 while a conflict theorist studying a political protest might focus
on class differences,
 a symbolic interactionist would be more interested in how
individuals in the protesting group interact, as well as the signs
and symbols protesters use to communicate their message
 Different messages (nonverbal communication) on play cards,
Signs of victory, No parking, etc.
Feminism
Feminism is a range of social, and political movements and ideologies
that share a common goal: to define, establish, and achieve the
political, economic, personal, and social equality of the sexes.

Simone de Beauvoir wrote that "the first time we see a woman take up
her pen in defense of her sex" was Christine de Pizan who wrote Epitre
au Dieu d'Amour (Epistle to the God of Love) in the 15th century.
 Comparing Theoretical Perspectives
Perspective Point of View Focus of Analysis

Structural- 1. Various parts of society are Functional and

Functionalism interdependent dysfunctional aspects of
2. Social systems are highly stable society
3. Social life governed by consensus &
cooperation

Conflict Theory 1. Society accommodates between 1. How social inequalities

competing interest groups produce conflict
2. Society unstable and prone to change 2. Who benefits from social
3. Social life conflict-laden arrangements

Interactionist 1. Actions have symbolic meanings How people make sense of

2. Meanings can vary their world
Auguste Comte (1798-1857)

 Responsible for coining the term “sociology”

 Set out to develop the “science of man” that
would be based on empirical observation
 Focused on two aspects of society:
• Social Statics—forces that produce order and
stability
• Social Dynamics—forces that contribute to social
change
Karl Marx (1818-1883)

 Marx is the father of the conflict school of

thought
 Saw human history in a continual state of
conflict between two major classes:
• Bourgeoisie—owners of the means of
production (capitalists)
• Proletariat—the workers
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917)

 Durkheim moved sociology fully into the

realm of an empirical science
 Most well-known empirical study is called
Suicide, where he looks at the social
causes of suicide
 Generally regarded as the founder of the
functionalist theory

Emile Durkheim
 Sociological Imagination

 C. Wright Mills coined the term “sociological imagination”

 Refer to “...the vivid awareness of the relationship
between private experience and the wider society.”
• Personal issues are seen in a social context
• See How Social Structures affect our individual lives

C. Wright Mills
Sociological imagination
•

 E.g. unemployment.
 An individual facing unemployment might feel defeated,
depleted, and discouraged.
 That person is likely to look in the mirror and say, "You didn't
work hard enough. You didn't try hard enough…" You, you,
you.
 According to Wright Mills "Not you. The world around you.“
 He encouraged people to stop focusing on themselves alone
and to look at the wider landscape of society.
 What is Society

 Individual is the basic component of society.

 The interaction of individuals is the basic components of
society.
 The interaction of individuals with each other gives birth
to group.
 The social groups interact with each other and develop
relationships with each other, leads to a society
 Grouping on the basis of likeness and difference
 Within the society there are pattern and grouping based
on likeness and differences
 Likenesses create a chain of relationship among
individuals having similarities in one or more conditions
 Like profession, same residence, same cast, family,
kinship, age, sex etc.
 The consciousness of kind developed based on similarities,
interest from the group, categories. E.g. Chemical, Civil,
computer science engineering, doctor, teacher etc.
 These differences lead to a variety of human behavior and
social division of labor (specialization)
 Man is dependent on society for basic needs i.e food,
clothes, and shelter.
 Meaning of society

 This term has been derived from a Latin word 'socious' that
means
 “association or companionship”.
 Thus society means 'A larger group of individuals, who are
associative with each other'.
 Definition of Society

 Prof Wright: It is a system of relationships that exists

among the individuals of the groups.
 Maclver: It is a web of social relationship, which is
always changing.
 A.W. Green: It is the largest group in which individual
have relationships
 Conclusion: a large group of individuals who are living
together, having a common social system, common
interests and common needs of life.
 Characteristics of Society

 Society is a largest human group.

 It satisfies the needs of its members.
 Having Sense of belonging and cooperation.
 It is abstract (Because social relationships can be felt and imagined and
cannot be seen).
 Everyone in society is dependent upon every other member.
 It should be organized i.e. will be having division of labour.
 It will be having likeness and differences.
 Due to these differences, variety in human behaviours and division of
labour and specialization of roles is there.
 It is always changing.
 It is a self-sufficient social system.
 It will form a social structure through social institutions i.e.
family, education economic, political and religious institutions.
These basic five institutions are found in all societies of the
world.
 One of the characteristic of society has its own culture
 Cooperation and Conflict are also found in society
Types of societies

 Thousand of societies
 Classification on some basis (Taxonomy)
 Societies are categorized based On
1. Based on purpose of Society
2. Based on subsequent strategies/ technology/ evolution
(pre & postindustrial)
Hunting and Gathering
societies

 Family was the society's primary institutions.

 Family used to determine food and to socialize children.
 They were nomadic.
 Societies used to be small in size (40-50 members).
 Members of them were mutually dependent upon each other.
 Male is supposed to be hunters and female gathers as there was a division of
labor on the basis of sex.
 No desire to acquire wealth.
 Two reasons 1. no wealth to be acquired 2. sharing are norms
 It is expected to share food resources
 Sharing of food is insurance for those who have not collected foods
 Family and Kinship is the only institution
 Family is everything
 Based on kinship
 Absence of political institution
 Leading only based on hunting skill
 No difference b/w leaders and followers
 No division of labor except age and sex
Pastoral/Herding society

 Relies on the domestication of animal

 The major mean of survival
 Many people are living in deserts so they start domestication of
animals
 And only have to move when the land in which the animals graze is
no longer usable.
 Pastoral societies also allow for job specialization, since not
everyone is needed to gather or hunt for food.
 For example, while some people breed animals, others are able to
produce tools or clothing, which allows for specialization in these
areas.
 Such society exists even today in the Middle East, Africa, Tibet, Middle
Asia, and the Northern part of Nepal.
Characteristics of Pastoral Societies

 Large in size as compared to H&G societies 100-even thousand

 Technological innovations is the domestication of animal for food
 Provide surplus food
 Beginning of inequality
 Accumulation of surplus resources
 Society was divided between people having more animals and
fewer animals.
 Some which have better access to resources become more
powerful than others.
 Patterns of chiefdom began as powerful and wealthy secure
positions.
 Nomadism coupled with trading
 Development of religious belief
 Disputes over grazing start
 The slavery system start for own work by conquerors
 In Pastoral society, the system of job specification
started. For example, some people bred animals, some
produce tools or clothing, etc.
 Political and economic institution become appear
Horticulture Society

 A social system based on horticulture

 These societies rely on the cultivation of fruits, vegetables, and plants in
order to survive.
 Mode of production is digging stick or used to cultivation small garden through
hand made tools.
 Horticultural societies formed in areas where rainfall and other conditions
allowed them to grow stable crops.
 Some were in existence in the middle east and subsequently spread to China and
Europe. While still existing in Africa
 The technological advances led to an increase in food supplies, an increase in
population, and the development of trade centres.
 This created more stability and more material goods and became the basis for
the first revolution in human survival.
Characteristics of Horticulture Societies

 The invention of the Hoe allows for the cultivation of land.

 The primary source of food and income is fruit production.
 Such society is often forced to relocate when the resources of the
land or water supplies decrease
 Herding is common in poor soil while horticulture is common
in fertile soil
 Use of Slash and burn technic and use the soil for 2-3 years until
the soil exhausted
 Food security
 Surplus food
 Settle people for a long time
 The complex division of labor (some people no longer
work for food production)
 Specialized roles and statuses appear
Shamans (religious leaders), traders, craft worker
 The emergence of political institution
 Agriculture societies

 The invention of the plough lead to the beginning

 Cultivation of large field
 An agricultural society is where people survive by carrying out
agricultural activities.
 The main source of production is agriculture and cultivation
 Animals are used to pull ploughs for cultivation.
 which enables a person to achieve greater productivity One
person with an animal-drawn plough could do the work of many
workers with a stick and hoe
 larger populations than in earlier communities.
 New tools for digging and harvesting were made of metal, making
them more effective and longer-lasting.
 Human settlements grew into towns and cities and particularly
bountiful regions became centres of trade and commerce.
 Agriculture societies
 Irrigation started, which made it possible to cultivate on
previously useless lands for food.
 Increase the size of society
 The appearance of cities: the full-time specialist engaged in
non-agriculture activities is found to concentrate on compact
places that lead to cities and towns.
 With the emergence of classes due to unequal production,
minorities enjoy a surplus produced by the working majority.
 So for the first time, two distinct classes emerged “those who
have own land and those who worked on other lands”
 This sort of society is categorized into landlord and farmer
classes.
 it emerges political institution
 Power is concentrated with single hands
Industrial Society

 A society where the mode of production focuses primarily on

manufacturing goods with the help of machinery for survival.
 people are involved in producing different sorts of products,
either for survival or business, called industrial society.
 The term industrial societies originate from Saint Saimon who
choose it to reflect the emerging role of the manufacturing
industry in the 18th century in Europe.
 Industrialization brought about changes in almost every aspect
of society.
 Characteristics of Industrial society
 The primary focus is given to industrial development and the use of
machines for manufacturing goods.
 Industrial society linked with the industrial revolution
 Technology initiating vast and rapid social change (high technological
innovation)
e.g. Steam engines, Electric power, Atomic energy, trains, etc.
 In the previous societies, there wasn't much gap between rich and poor
but there lies a huge gap between wealthy and poor now.
 High productivity of industrial society stimulates the population
 The majority population prefers to live in urban areas where more
jobs are located
 Population growth rate increases sharply
 New medical technology expend life expectancy but can control due
drop-down policy in the birth rate
 The birth rate in China,
 Characteristics of Industrial society

 Specialization leads to a highly complex division of labor

(Specialization in every field).
 Industrial society generates thousands of new jobs
 Family lose importance, families lose their basic responsibilities
i.e. education and socialization, care centre
 Religion losing its hold over the people
 Religion not playing important role in controlling the behavior of
the individuals
 New values and beliefs merged in societies
 Technological and scientific inventions lose religious importance and
hold on people
 Positivism
 Characteristics of Industrial
society
 Increase the importance of science and education
 Science first time emerge a new and important institution
 All things based on scientific knowledge
 Widening gap b/w rich and poor
Karl max refers to it as Capitalist and exploiting class
 Spread Heterogeneous culture
 New lifestyles and values create heterogeneity
 Give rise to secondary group corporations, political parties,
business houses Govt bureaucracies, associations,
Post-industrial Society
 Information societies, sometimes known as post-industrial or
digital societies, are recently developed societies.
 Unlike industrial societies that are rooted in the production of
material goods, information societies are based on the
production of information and services.
 Name referred by Daniel Bell in 1937 post-industrialism
 Relies on computers and other electronic devices that create,
process, store, and apply information
 Since the economy of information societies is driven by knowledge
and not material goods,
 The power lies with those in charge of storing and distributing
information.
 Post-industrial Society
 Members of the post-industrial society are likely to be employed
as sellers of services, software, programmers, or business
consultants,
 for example instead of producers of goods. Individuals prefer
online shopping, Uber service, net banking, Online Jobs
 Social classes are divided by access to education since without
technical skills people in an information society lack the means
for success.