Conformity, Deviance

and Crime
Dr. Liaqat Ali
Assistant Professor
Correlates of Crime

 Age. Young adults constitute the great majority of those arrested for street
crime, both in country and around the world.

 Sex. Young males are most often arrested for virtually every category of
crime.
 Social class. Poverty and weak access to jobs and education are certainly
related to crime rates.

 Race. In US African-Americans are disproportionately represented in lineups,

in prisons, and on death row.
Situational Crime Prevention

 Clarke 1992 advocates policies and practices which

make it difficult for crime to be committed.
 People will commit offences when the benefits of
offending outweigh the costs.
 Cost should be greater than the benefit
 Newman 1972 introduced the idea of “defensible
space” – the design of streets and houses could make
them safer.
 “Target Hardening” – improving security, CCTV
Strategies for Reducing Crime

1. Reduce social inequality and poverty.

2. Replace low-wage jobs with jobs that pay a living wage.

4. Increase the social and economic stability of communities.

5. Improve education in all communities.
Social Stratification
Social Stratification and Class

6
 Understanding Stratification

 Social inequality: a condition in which members of society have different

amounts of wealth, prestige, or power

 Stratification: structured ranking of entire groups of people that

perpetuates unequal economic rewards and power in a society

 Income: salaries and wages for a particular service & task completion

 Wealth: encompasses all of a person’s material assets

 Or Net value of a person has

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Social stratification
 Social stratification is structured inequality between groups.
 This inequality may be based on economics, gender, race, religion, age,
or other factors
 refers to a system by which a society ranks categories of people in a
hierarchy.
 way of dividing people up into vertical or hierarchical layers, where
those at the top have the most power.
 The hierarchical arrangement of large social groups is based on their
control over basic resources and their access to opportunities or life
chances.
 In the United States, it is perfectly clear that some groups have greater
status, power and wealth than other groups.
 These differences are what led to social stratification.
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 People in the same class have similar levels of access to resources, education,
and power.
For example,
 those in the same social class tend to have the same types of jobs and similar
levels of income.
Characteristics of Stratification:
 Melvin M. Tumin has mentioned the following characteristics of social
stratification:
 1. It is Social:
 Stratification is social in the sense that it does not represent inequality which is
biologically based.
 It is true that factors such as strength, intelligence, age, and sex can often serve
as the basis on which status is distinguished.
 But such differences by themselves are not sufficient to explain why some
statuses receive more power, property, and prestige than others.
 Biological traits do not determine social superiority and inferiority until they
are socially recognized.
 For example, a manager of an industry attains a dominant position not by
physical strength, nor by his age, but by having socially defined traits.
 His education, training skills, experience, personality, character, etc. are found to
be more important than his biological qualities.
2. It is Ancient:
 The stratification system is very old.
 Stratification was present even in the small wandering bands. (H&G etc.)
 Age and sex were the main criteria of stratification.
 The difference between the rich and poor, powerful and humble, freemen
and slaves was there in almost all the ancient civilizations.
 Ever since the time of Plato and Kautilya social philosophers have been
deeply concerned with economic, social, and political inequalities.
3. It is Universal:
 Social stratification is universal.
 The difference between rich and poor, the ‘haves’ or ‘have notes’ is evident
everywhere.
 Even in non-literate societies, stratification is very much present.
4. It is in diverse Forms:
 Social stratification has never been uniform in all societies.
 The Aryan society was divided into four Varna's: the Brahmins, Kshatriyas,
Vaishya and the Sudras,
 the ancient Greek society into freemen and slaves,
 Ancient Roman society was stratified into two strata: the Patricians and the
Plebeians.
 the ancient Chinese society into mandarins, merchants, farmers, and soldiers.
 Class and estate seem to be the general forms of stratification found in the
modern world.
5. It is Consequential / importance:
 The stratification system has its own consequences.
 The most important, most desired, and often the scarcest things in human life
are distributed unequally because of stratification.
 The system leads to two kinds of consequences: (i) Life chances and (ii)
Lifestyle.
 Life chances refer to such things as infant mortality, longevity, physical and
mental illness, marital conflict, separation and divorce.
 Lifestyles include the mode of housing, residential area, education, means of
recreation, the relation between parent and children, modes of conveyance,
and so on.
Three basic models

 Class—positions based on economies

 Caste—status for life

 Slavery—ownership of certain people

14
Class systems
 A type of stratification based on the ownership and control of resources and on
the type of work people do
 In modern societies, class systems dominate.
 While class systems do allow for social mobility and allowed to exogamous
(marrying someone outside of their social categories) and endogamous
marriages(marrying someone within social categories), opportunities are not
evenly distributed across social groups.
 Class has a significant impact on many aspects of life, including education,
occupation, place of residence, marriage partner, and more.
 A social class as defined by Maclver and Page, “is any portion of a community
forked off from the rest by social status”.
 Status comes at least partly through achievement rather than entirely by
ascription.
 In open system
 Social Mobility

15
North American Classes:
 Upper Class 1%
 Great wealth and power, usually inherited
 Upper Middle-Class 10%
 Successful business personnel, executives, professionals, high
ranking civil /military officials.
 Middle Class 30%
 Professionals, semi-professionals, small business personnel
 Working Class 40%
 Skilled and unskilled workers have little control
 Lower Class 20%
 The poor, high rates of unemployment, welfare dependency
 The Under-class 1%
 Long-term unemployment, high criminality, poor housing
Caste:
 Social stratification is also based on caste.
 System of social inequality in which people’s status is permanently determined at
birth based on their parents’ ascribed characteristics
 In an open society individuals can move from one class or status level to
another, that is to say, equality of opportunity exists.
 The class structure is ‘closed’ when such an opportunity is virtually absent.
 A ‘caste’ system is one in which an individual’s rank and its accompanying
rights and obligations are ascribed on the basis of birth into a particular group.
 The Indian caste system provides a classic example,
 Hindu society in traditional India was divided into five main strata: four Varnas or
castes and a fifth group, the outcaste, whose members were known as
untouchables.
 The Brahmins or priests, members of the highest caste, personify purity,
sanctity, and holiness. They are the sources of learning, wisdom, and truth.
 The Brahmins were custodians of law and the legal system which they
administered was based largely on their pronouncements.
The caste system

 Inequalities of wealth were usually linked to those of prestige and power.

 System of social inequality in which people’s status is permanently
determined at birth based on their parents’ ascribed characteristics
 A closed system.
 Born into social standing and staying there
 Caste systems grow weaker as societies industrialize/ Modernize.
 caste systems appear to be transitioning into class systems.
 Social stratification may be based on a variety of forms or interpenetrating
principles such as free and unfree, class, caste, estate, occupation, administrative
hierarchy or income level.
Free and unfree:
 The population of a society may be divided into freemen and slaves.
 In certain communities, the slaves do not enjoy rights and privileges.
 The slave is practically at the disposal of his master.
 He is the property of his master.
 The slave can always be brought and sold, though his treatment and the degree of
protection accorded him vary from place to place and from time to time.
 He comes from various sources: war, slave capture, purchase, and birth.
 In the middle ages in Europe, serfs usually possessed some plot of land and they
might cultivate the land for themselves.
 But they were bound to till the fields of their immediate landlord and pay
additional dues under certain circumstances.
 In Europe, society was divided into landlords and serfs. A serf is less unfree than a
slave.
Slavery

 Slavery is a system in which people are bought and sold as property, forced to
work, or held in captivity against their will.
 Slavery is a system under which people are treated as property to be bought and
sold, and are forced to work.
 Slaves can be held against their will from the time of their capture, purchase, or
birth; and can also be deprived of the right to leave, refuse to work, or demand
compensation.
 Historically, slavery was institutionally recognized by many societies.
 In more recent times slavery has been outlawed in most societies but continues
through the practices of debt bondage, serfdom, domestic servants kept in
captivity, certain adoptions in which children are forced to work as slaves, child
soldiers, and forced marriage.
Slavery
cont..

 Slavery predates written records and has existed in many cultures.

 The number of slaves today is higher than at any point in history, remaining
as high as 12 million to 27 million.
 Most are debt slaves, largely in South Asia, who are under debt bondage
incurred by lenders, sometimes even for generations.
 Human trafficking, or the illegal trade of humans, is primarily used for forcing
women and children into sex industries.
Types of Slavery
 Chattel slavery, so named because people are treated as the personal property,
chattels, of an owner and are bought and sold as commodities, is the original form
of slavery.
 When taking these chattels across national borders, it is referred to as human
trafficking, especially when these slaves provide sexual services.

 Debt bondage or bonded labor occurs when a person pledges himself or herself
against a loan. The services required to repay the debt and their duration may be
undefined.
 Debt bondage can be passed on from generation to generation, with children
required to pay off their parent’s debt. It is the most widespread form of slavery
today.

 Forced labor is when an individual is forced to work against his or her will, under
threat of violence or other punishment, with restrictions on their freedom.
 It is also used as a general term to describe all types of slavery and may also include
institutions not commonly classified as slavery, such as serfdom and penal labor.
Social Mobility
Social mobility is the movement of individuals between different class
positions as a result of changes in occupation, wealth, or income
Vertical mobility
 Movement when the individual status changes either upward or downward
 E.g Promotion or demotion
Horizontal Mobility
 Is the Movement when individual status doesn’t change while the place of
duty changed
Marx and class conflict
 Karl Marx was very interested in class relations in capitalist
societies.
 The class was determined solely by one’s relation to the means
of production.
 You were either a member of the capitalist class (the bourgeoisie) or you
were a worker (the proletariat).
 Proletariat and bourgeoisie
 Group membership utterly determined life chances.

 For Marx, the class was based entirely on economic indicators,

and he identified two basic trends:
 - He saw a two-tiered society of haves and haves not.
 Ultimately the proletariat would overthrow the bourgeoisie,
ending the reign of capitalism.

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Weber: Class and status

 For Max Weber, position in a stratification system was not based on

economies alone: social status was also significant.
 Weber’s multidimensional approach is attractive to those who believe
that social prestige and power can be independent of economics.
 For Weber, the stratification system was based on wealth and prestige, and while the
two are correlated, they are not always the same.
 Wealth (property)—economic factors; a group with similar life chances; those in the
same class are likely to have similar biographies.
 Prestige—the amount of social prestige, which can be based on family, region,
occupation, race, religion, gender, and similar factors. (e.g. Religious leader, patriarchal
structure, Burhaman, etc.)
 This measure of class is really about social esteem: how do others think of you?

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How do stratification systems
look today?
 In modern, industrialized societies, there is little overt
support for rigid systems of inequality.
 Remaining caste systems appear to be transitioning into
class systems.
 From the time of World War II to the 1970s, class
boundaries appeared to soften, but they have been
hardening since the 1970s.

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Key Ideas of Functionalists: Stratification

Functionalists: Society is made up of smoothly functioning parts that all work

for the common good.
1. Some jobs are important and they require special training.
2. Only a limited number of people have the ability to acquire the skills for
these jobs.
3. Learning these skills takes years of sacrifice.
4. Motivate people to do this by offering them power, prestige and money =
lifestyle
Therefore, social inequality is good for society. It’s Functional. It’s Inevitable.
Poverty
 refers to lacking enough resources to provide the necessities of life—food, clean
water, shelter and clothing.
 But in today's world, that can be extended to include access to health care,
education and even transportation.
 the state of one who lacks a usual or socially acceptable amount of money or
material possessions.
 not having enough money to meet basic needs including food, clothing and
shelter.
 lack of adequate financial resources such that individuals, households, and entire
communities don't have the means to subsist or acquire the basic necessities for a
flourishing life.
 Despite the wealth of resources and opportunities, poverty remains a
significant social problem.
 Sociologists discuss two general types of poverty: absolute poverty and
relative poverty.

35
 Relative poverty: a level of poverty in which a person lacks resources
that other members of his/her society has access to.
 Absolute poverty: less than 1 $ per capita income per day
This is a life-threatening level of poverty, a situation in which a
person faces the prospect of hunger and disease on a daily basis
Poverty in the United States

 In US 11.4 percent of the population in 2020 was in poverty (more than 37.2
million people); this is the highest rate among the major industrialized
nations.
 One-third of these people are working.
 Poverty is calculated using a formula from the 1960s, whereby the poverty
line is based on an income three times the cost of monthly groceries.

 https://www.census.gov/newsroom/press-releases/2021/income-poverty-health-insurance-coverage.html

37
Does inequality affect you?

 The world economy is changing; that means changing jobs, changing

wages, and new competition.
 Inequality has been on the rise for the past three to four decades.
 Minimum wage is coming up a bit, but remains inadequate to support a family.
The majority of families now require two incomes to achieve the standard of
living the previous generation accomplished with one.

38
people are more likely to break the law while driving and cheat in a game of chance.
 HOW CAN POVERTY BE EXPLAINED?

1) Technology: most poor nations are still agricultural; they don’t have
much industry
Population growth: the poorest nations have the highest population
growth rates
But what’s the correlation between poverty and high birth rates?
3) Cultural patterns: Some poor nations are more “traditional”.
4) Social stratification: income distribution in poor countries is very
uneven..
5) Gender inequality: women are more subordinated in some poor
countries than in rich ones.
 THE GLOBAL INEQUALITY
Some facts:
World population is about 8 billion
 According to the World Bank, about 9.2% of the world population live in extreme
poverty, on less than $2.15 a day1

 almost half the world’s population 3.4 billion people still struggle to meet basic
needs, 2

** richest 20 percent of the World population receives 80 percent of World’s income

** poorest 20 percent of World population receives 1 percent of global income!!!

1. https://www.worldvision.org/sponsorship-news-stories/global-poverty-facts

2. https://www.worldbank.org/en/news/press-release/2018/10/17/nearly-half-the-world-lives-on-less-than-550-a-day
Global Inequality
GLOBAL INEQUALITY DATA – 2020 UPDATE
Causes of Global Inequality

 lack of access to education, education empowers women to deal with

adversity in life, and can improve health and economic well-being in
families and local communities;
 inequality has risen with the financial sector, over-expansion (population),
weak social policies and without the skills to remain useful people are
deprived of opportunities.
 Growth in technology widens the income gap
 Growth in technology arguably renders joblessness at all skill levels. In many
jobs, such as packaging and manufacturing, machinery works even more
effectively and efficiently.
Causes of Global Inequality

 Conflict
 Conflict can cause poverty in several ways. Large scale, protracted violence
that we see in places like Syria and Afghanistan can grind society to a halt,
destroy infrastructure, and cause people to flee, forcing families to sell or
leave behind all their assets
 Low wages. Across the world, women are in the lowest-paid work.
 No access to livelihoods or jobs
 This might seem a bit like a “no-brainer.” Without a job or a way to make
money, people will face poverty.
 historical processes such as wars, industrialization, and colonization,
as well as current trade arrangements, financial systems and global politics,
impact inequality between nations, individuals and groups within countries.
 THE EXTENT OF POVERTY GLOBALLY

 Poverty exists in all countries of the world; but it is most severe in

low and middle income countries
 Poverty rates are highest in countries that have weak economies,
weak industrialization and high rates of population growth
Some Statistics
The world according to incomes
Countries by total wealth (billions USD
Percentage of population suffering from
hunger, (World Food Program, 2013)
Life expectancy
Learning and Behaviour
Learning objectives

 A Learning objective is the instructor’s purpose for creating and teaching

their course.
 These are the specific questions that the instructor wants their course to
raise.
 Learning objectives are usually viewed from the instructor’s perspective
(what does the instructor want to accomplish?)
learning outcomes

 Learning outcomes are the answers to those questions.

 They are the specific, measurable knowledge and skills that the learner will gain
by taking the course.
 learning outcomes are seen more from the learner’s perspective (what will the
course teach me, as a learner?).
 The two are closely related, because a trainer’s objectives will ultimately be
translated into the learner’s outcomes, as long as the course successfully serves
its purpose.
 Bloom's taxonomy
 Bloom's taxonomy was developed to provide a common language for teachers
to discuss and exchange learning and assessment methods.
 Specific learning outcomes can be derived from the taxonomy, though it is
most commonly used to assess learning on a variety of cognitive levels.
 The models were named after Benjamin Samuel Bloom devised the
taxonomy
 Benjamin Samuel Bloom was an American educational psychologist who
made contributions to the classification of educational objectives and to
the theory of learning.
 Bloom's taxonomy is a set of three hierarchical models used to classify
educational learning objectives into levels of complexity and specificity.
 The three lists cover the learning objectives in cognitive, affective and
sensory domains.
Understanding Bloom’s Taxonomy

a hierarchy is a sequential organization

 it progresses upward from simple to complex

 each level builds upon the preceding level(s)

 an appropriate concept map of Bloom’s Taxonomy is pyramidal in shape,

beginning at the base with knowledge and progressing upward

Ex.: What is your opinion of ...?

What conclusions can you draw from ...?
How would you rate the movie . . .?

66
A HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF THE LEVELS OF THINKING

examining, taking apart, breaking down

paraphrasing, interpreting

naming, recognizing, identifying, reciting,

Knowledge

 Knowledge involves recognizing or remembering facts, terms, basic concepts,

or answers without necessarily understanding what they mean. Its
characteristics may include:
 Knowledge of specifics—terminology, specific facts
 Knowledge of ways and means of dealing with specifics—conventions, trends
and sequences, classifications and categories, criteria, methodology
 Knowledge of the universals and abstractions in a field—principles and
generalizations, theories and structures
 Example:
 Name three common varieties of apple
 What are the health benefits of eating apples?
 Laptop intro, vehicle parts, Basic about your proposed project
Comprehension

 Comprehension involves demonstrating an understanding of facts and ideas

 by organizing, comparing, translating, interpreting, giving descriptions, and
stating the main ideas.

 Example:
 Compare the identifying characteristics of a Golden Delicious apple with a
Granny Smith apple.
 Compare the health benefits of eating apples vs. oranges.
 Laptop, vehicle parts understanding, to know about the basic knowledge of
the project
Application

 The application involves using acquired knowledge—solving problems in new

situations by applying acquired knowledge, facts, techniques and rules.
 Learners should be able to use prior knowledge to solve problems, identify
connections and relationships and how to apply them in new situations.
 Example: Would apples prevent scurvy, (a disease caused by a deficiency in
vitamin C?)
 Which kinds of apples are best for baking a pie, and why?
 Use of laptop for different purposes based on prior knowledge,
 Driving vehicle, practical work or implementation of the project
Analysis
 Analysis involves examining and breaking information into component
parts, determining how the parts relate to one another, identifying motives
or causes, making inferences, and finding evidence to support
generalizations.
Its characteristics include:
 Analysis of elements
 Analysis of relationships
 Analysis of organization
 Example:
 List four ways of serving foods made with apples and explain which ones have
the highest health benefits.
 Provide references to support your statements.
 Different parts of laptop and vehicles and how it work
 Analysis of the earlier project
Synthesis

 Synthesis involves building a structure or pattern from diverse elements;

 it also refers to the act of putting parts together to form a whole.
Its characteristics include:
 Production of a unique communication/product
 Production of a plan, or proposed set of operations
 Derivation of a set of abstract relations
Example:
 Convert an "unhealthy" recipe for apple pie to a "healthy" recipe by replacing your
choice of ingredients.
 Explain the health benefits of using the ingredients you chose vs. the original
ones.
 Laptop upgradation, vehicle upgradation, making new projects based on earlier
Evaluation

 Evaluation involves presenting and defending opinions by making judgments

about information, the validity of ideas, or the quality of work based on a set
of criteria.
Its characteristics include:
 Judgments in terms of internal evidence
 Judgments in terms of external criteria
 Example: Which kinds of apples are best for baking a pie, and why?
 Making differentiation from the previous one (laptop, mobile, vehicle, rating
movie, etc.) presenting and defending your project
Checkpoint
Which level of Bloom’s Taxonomy are you thinking on when you . . .

1. Paraphrase information you just read in your history textbook?

2. Summarize a case study presented in clinical psychology ?

3. Write a movie review for English class?

4. Prepare a book review?

5. Recite the Gettysburg Address?

6. Work some problems in math?

7. Make a timeline for the historical period referred to as “The Stormy Sixties”?

8. Use a microscope to see what kinds of markings an onion skin has.

9. Identify a fellow student by name?

10. Translate a story from Polish to English?

75
Checkpoint Answers
1. Comprehension. Paraphrasing is a simple rewording of information. Rephrase
the information for clarification or improved understanding.
2. Synthesis. Summarizing requires weeding out of non-essential information
then putting the remaining information together sequentially.
3. Evaluation. Requires opinion. Reading and reacting to the “facts” presented.
4. Evaluation. Calls for one’s personal response to ideas presented, style of
presentation, etc.
5. Knowledge. Rote memory requires little if any “thinking”. It is simply recall of
sequential presentation of information.
6. Application. Paraphrasing in graphic format—a step above comprehension.
7. Synthesis. Requires weeding out and organizing in order to chronologically
arrange events.
8. Analysis. Examination—exactly what analysis is!
9. Knowledge. Putting name and face together—low-level skill.
10. Comprehension. Being able to translate indicates understanding (of language
and material!)
76
Importance

 Bloom's taxonomy is significant because it lays out a framework for

understanding the different levels of learning.
 Bloom tells us that students must master lower levels of learning before they
can attempt more complicated tasks.
 Through initial assessment to see where students fall on this taxonomy
(depends on skill/ability level)
 The Taxonomy of Bloom is a classification of the different objectives that
educators set for students knowledge and skills
Social Learning Theory
 Social Learning Theory, theorized by Albert Bandura 1977, posits that
people learn from one another, via observation, imitation, and modeling.
 Emphasizes that people learn by observing other persons (models) whom
they believe are credible and knowledgeable.
 Recognizes that behavior that is reinforced or rewarded tends to be
repeated.
 The model’s behavior or skill that is rewarded is adopted by the observer.
 Learning new skills or behavior comes from directly experiencing the
consequences of using behavior or skills, or the process of observing
others and seeing the consequences of their behavior
 Learning is also influenced by a person’s self-efficacy.
 Self-efficacy is a person’s judgment about whether he/she can successfully
learn knowledge.
 Self-efficacy refers to an individual's belief in his or her capacity to execute
behaviors necessary to produce specific performance attainments (Bandura,
1977, 1986, 1997) and skills.
 Imitating what a child sees and hears and acquiring the manner of
speaking and doing similar acts observed from the model.
 this is also known as OBSERVATIONAL LEARNING
 The social learning theory of Bandura focuses on the learning that occurs
within a social context.
 It considers that people learn from one another, including such concepts as
observational learning, imitation, and modeling.
 learning theory emphasizes the importance of
observing and modeling the behaviors, attitudes,
and emotional reactions of others.
 General principles of social
learning follows:
Bobo doll experiment

 People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the

outcomes of those behaviors.
 In his famous "Bobo doll" studies, Bandura demonstrated that
children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in
other people.
 The children in Bandura's studies observed an adult acting
violently toward a Bobo doll.
 When the children were later allowed to play in a room with
the doll, they began to imitate the aggressive actions they
had previously observed.
Theory of Moral development/ Kohlberg’s Moral
development theory
Three levels and Each level has two sub-stages

Pre-Conventional Moral Development

 Stage 1
 Stage 2
Conventional Moral Development
 Stage 3
 Stage 4
Post-Conventional Moral Development
 Stage 5
 Stage 6
Kohlberg’s theory of Moral development
 One of the best-known of Kohlberg’s (1958) stories concerns a man called Heinz
who lived in Europe.
 Heinz’s wife was dying from a particular type of cancer.
 Doctors said a new drug might save her.
 The drug had been discovered by a local chemist and the Heinz tried desperately
to buy some, but the chemist was charging ten times the money it cost to make
the drug, and this was much more than the Heinz could afford.
 Heinz could only raise half the money, even after help from family and friends.
 He explained to the chemist that his wife was dying and asked if he could have
the drug cheaper or pay the rest of the money later.
 The chemist refused, saying that he had discovered the drug and was going to
make money from it.
 The husband was desperate to save his wife, so later that night he broke into
the chemist’s and stole the drug.
 Which makes a base for the theory
Level 1: Preconvention

 0 to age 9
 Throughout the preconvention level, a child’s sense of morality is externally
controlled.
 Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and
teachers.
 A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized society’s
conventions regarding what is right or wrong but instead focuses largely on external
consequences that certain actions may bring.
 Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation
 Focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished.
 For example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is
punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is
perceived to be.
 I would not steal the drug because I don’t want to go to jail.
 Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation (individualism and exchange)
 Expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined by
whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest.
 Shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point where it might
further the individual’s own interests.
 As a result, concern for others is not based on loyalty or respect but rather an
exchange mentality.
 An example would be when a child is asked by his elder to do some task.
 The child asks “What’s in it for me?” and the elder offers the child an incentive by
giving him an allowance.
 I will let you copy mine if you will do my homework
 I will steal the drug because if I steal and save wife life I will be considered a
hero.
Level 2: Conventional
 Early adolescence to adulthood
 Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal
and societal relationships.
 Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this is now due to
their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal
order.
 Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a
rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.
 Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation (good interpersonal relationship)
 Children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
 Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.
At this stage, the individual:
 Finds peer approval very important(child become socialize) (dramaturgy)
 Makes moral decisions on the basis of what will please a limited group and
make the person feel included
 Thus models behavior on that of the “majority” which is the behavior of the “in
crowd” or peer group
 A good person cant steal while a good husband steals for wife’s life.
 Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation (maintaining the social order)
 The child blindly accepts rules and conventions because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society.
 Rules are seen as being the same for everyone and obeying rules by doing what
one is “supposed” to do is seen as valuable and important.
 Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for individual approval exhibited
in stage three.
 If one person violates a law, perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation
and a duty to uphold laws and rules.
 Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality is still
predominantly dictated by an outside force.
 E.g. I will not steal because it’s against the law
 Most honest people will steal to save their wife’s life
Level 3: Post conventional

 Some adults; rare

 Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation
 In stage 5, the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values.
 Such perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or
community.
 Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts.
 Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when necessary
to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people.
 This is achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise.
 Democratic government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.
 E.g I will not steal because respect of ownership is important for order and law
 I would steal because law can’t justify losing human life
 Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation
 In stage 6, moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical
principles.
 Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete and focus on ideas
such as equality, dignity, or respect.
 Laws are valid only insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to
justice carries with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws.
 People choose the ethical principles they want to follow, and if they violate those
principles, they feel guilty.
 In this way, the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not
because he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is
expected, it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon.
 Although Kohlberg insisted that stage six exists, he found it difficult to identify
individuals who consistently operated at that level.
 E.g Saving the most amount of lives possible is always the right decision
Critical thinking

 Critical thinking is the analysis of facts to form a judgment.

 The subject is complex and several different definitions exist, which generally
include the rational, skeptical, unbiased analysis, or evaluation of factual
evidence.
 Critical thinking is the intellectually disciplined process of actively and
skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or
evaluating information gathered from, or generated by, observation,
experience, reflection, reasoning, or communication, as a guide to belief
and action.
 Critical thinking begins when you question beyond
what is given.

 You want to know more:

• how something happens,
• why it happens, and further
• what will happen if something changes.
 Critical thinking therefore requires a conscious level of processing, analysis,
creation and evaluation of possible outcomes, and reflection.
Critical Thinking
def:
Critical thinking is . . .

 Thinking “outside” the box

 Divergent thinking

 Forming logical inferences

 Limitless thinking

 Higher level thinking involving.

..
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If you’re a critical thinker, you think.

….No surprise….
 willing to examine your beliefs, assumptions, opinions and weigh them
against facts.

 willing to evaluate the generalizations and stereotypes you have created and
are open to change, if necessary.

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Critical thinkers listen carefully.

 If you’re a critical thinker, you listen carefully to what others are

saying and are able to give feedback.

 You are able to suspend judgment until all the facts have been
gathered and considered.

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Critical thinkers look for evidence….

 critical thinker look for evidence to support

assumptions and beliefs.

 examine problems closely and are able to reject

information that is incorrect or irrelevant.

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Critical thinkers are curious.

 They are interested in knowing all there is about a topic.

 They look for new and better ways to do everything.
 They are not the person who will settle for “…because that is
the way we have always done it.”

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Therefore…through experience, as a
critical thinker, you will:

 identify information that is being put forth as an argument and break it

down to its basic components for evaluation.
 construct alternative interpretations
 be willing to explore diverse perspectives
 be willing to change personal assumptions when presented with valid
information
 be willing to ask difficult questions and the ability to receptive to
opposing viewpoints.

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Critical Thinking
def:
Critical thinking is . . .

 Thinking “outside” the box

 Divergent thinking

 Forming logical inferences

 Limitless thinking

 Higher level thinking involving.

..
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Why Is Critical Thinking Important?

It . . .
• . . . underlies reading, writing, listening and speaking—basic elements of
communication
• . . . plays an important part in social change
• . . .institutions in any society—courts, governments, schools, businesses
are the products of critical thinking
• . . . plays a major role in technological advances
• . . . blazes a path to freedom from half-truths and deceptions

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