Theory of Cognitive development

 Studied human cognition how people think and understand

 Swiss psychologist JeanPiaget believed that
 children take an active role in the learning process, acting much like little
scientists as they perform experiments, make observations, and learn
about the world.
 As kids interact with the world around them, they continually add new
knowledge, build upon existing knowledge and adapt previously held ideas
to accommodate new information.
 Posits that humans like all organisms adapt their environment
 Jean Piaget's theory of cognitive development suggests that children move
through four different stages of mental development.
 1. The Sensorimotor Stage

 Ages: Birth to 2 Years

 Stage of Human development in which individual experiences the world only through
their senses
 Infant knows the world through their movements and sensations
 For about the first two years of life the infant knows the world through the five
senses
 Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, looking and
listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen
 They are separate beings from the people and objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around
them
 acquire knowledge through sensory experiences
 Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling and
walking; they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom
they interact.
2. The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years
 The level of human development at which individuals first use language and
other symbols
 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects and imagination.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from
the perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to
think about things in very concrete terms.
 Cannot judge size weight or volume
 They can identify a toy as their favorite but can't explain what type of toys
they like.
 Play different roles while playing The role of teacher or doctor while
playing
3. The Concrete Operational Stage
 Ages: 7 to 11 Years
 Level of human development at which Individual sees a casual connection to their
surrounding
 How and why things happen
 During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how
other people might think and feel
 During this stage, children begin to think logically about concrete events
 begin to understand the concept of conservation;
 for example that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall,
skinny glass, Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using logic or reasoning from specific information to a general
principle
 Children attach more than one symbol at a time
The Formal Operational Stage
 Ages: 12 and Up
 The level of human development in which individuals think abstractly and
critically
 The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic,
 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and
reason about hypothetical problems
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social and
political issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information
 At this point, individuals become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions
to problems and think more scientifically about the world around them
 e,.g. What you like would be when you grow up may call a teacher but most
teenagers can think abstractly and might reply I would like to job help other
 Social Process
 Social process are the fundamental ways in which members interact and
establish relationships in a society.
 At one level, sociology is the study of relationships: how they begin,
function, change and affect both individuals and the community.
 Maciver; ‘’Social process is the manner in which relations of the members
of a group tighter, acquire a distinctive character’’.
 Horton and Hunt; The term social process refers to the ‘’repetitive forms
of behaviour which are commonly found in social life’’
 Social Interaction

 Social interaction is the foundation of society.

 Without interaction there would be no group life.
 Thus it can be said that interaction is the basic social process.
 Social interaction is the reciprocal influence of human being through
contact.
 Eldredge & Merrill: Social interaction is the general process whereby two
or more persons are in meaningful contact as a result of which their
behaviour is modified however slightly.
 Interaction help in social relationship
 Some relationships operate smoothly; others are
overwhelmed by conflict and competition.
 We use the term social processes to describe the types
of interaction that go on in relationships.
 social processes that regularly occur in human
relationships: exchange, cooperation, competition,
and conflict.
 Exchange

 How can we fulfil our needs through exchange ?

 Exchange
 Exchange is voluntary interaction in which the parties trade tangible or
intangible benefits with the expectation that all parties will benefit
 A wide variety of social relationships include elements of exchange.
 In friendships and marriages, exchanges usually include intangibles such as
companionship, moral support, and a willingness to listen to the other’s
problems.
 Exchange is one of the most basic processes of social interaction.
 Almost all voluntary relationships involve the expectation of exchange.
 In marriage, for example, each partner is expected to provide affection and
sexual access to the other.
 An exchange relationship survives only if each party to the interaction
gets something out of it.
 This doesn’t mean that the rewards must be equal.
 Exchange is a trade: I give you something and you give me something else in
return.
Reciprocity

 the practice of exchanging things with others for mutual benefit,

 To maintain a good relation in society member of the society exchange
different things.
 Giving and taking of good and services without use of Money Without any
equal return expectation is called reciprocity
 An old way to maintain peace and friendship
 Or Sooner or later return equal value
 Types of Reciprocity
Types of Reciprocity
1. Generalized reciprocity
 Exercise on the basis of family
 Parents provide/bonds to provide foods and other need of life
 Sometime later return (look after their parent)
 As a result of socialization others are expecting some type
of behavoiur
2. Balance reciprocity:

 Short term in expectation of return

 Immediate or limited time
 Exchange of certain need objects
 Students exchange different things/material of their need
 Material/tools for different research projects, chemicals etc.
 In Agriculture societies people cooperate with neighbour in watering the
crops, plugging the field and harvesting and same thing they are expecting
later.
3. Negative reciprocity

 One self interest enjoying but No return

 Some friends like to eat different party and receiving gift
 but did not want to arrange party for friends
 and give gift to their friends and there are so many other thing in daily life
 Cooperation
 The form of social interaction wherein two or more persons work together to gain
common ends
 the action or process of working together to the same end.
 Cooperation occurs when people work together to achieve shared goals.
 Exchange is a trade: I give you something and you give me something else in return.
 Cooperation is teamwork: people working together to achieve shared goals.
 Spouses cooperate in raising their children.
 Cooperation also operates at a much broader social level.
 Individuals are most likely to cooperate when faced with a common threat, when
cooperation seems in their economic self-interest, when they share a sense of
community identity, and when they value belonging to a community
 Unity, strength, and hierarchy in organization task achievement
 No society can develop its social organization and social system without
cooperation
 The whole machinery of social life running through cooperation
 In Pakistani societies, rural people cooperate with their neighbours in watering
the crops, plugging the field and harvesting while in urban areas cooperation
between customers and shopkeepers, teachers and students, the owners and
labours etc.
 In order to keep order, unity and cohesion in a social institution, the social
structure of communities cooperation in an utmost necessity
 Types:
 Formal and informal cooperation
 cooperation of teachers and students, Bankers and customers while helping the
aged in crossing the road is informal
 Direct and indirect cooperation
 Help directly in the field and cooperate for a single objective or product.
 E.g cooperation among workers in an industry for a particular products
Competition
 Competition
 In every institution/Organization there is a competition that can be going on whether
we are aware of that or not
 Struggle for limited things/resource between two or more persons
 An Opposition may be defined as a struggle against another or others for a
commodity, goal or value.
 But sometimes people can’t reach their goals through exchange or cooperation.
 Opposition can be divided into Competition and conflict.
 Competition is any struggle over scarce resources that is regulated by shared rules.
 It is less violent form of opposition.
 strive for something
 One positive consequence of competition is that it stimulates achievement and
heightens people’s aspirations.
 often results in personal stress, reduced cooperation, and social
inequalities.
 Competition is particularly problematic in informal groups such as
friendships and marriages.
 Types
 Personal competition refers to the struggle for a scarce thing.
 face to face and know each other (election)
 Interpersonal competition the competitor don’t know each other and
have no interaction (for a position of FPSC)
 Inter and intra-group competition within the group or with another
group. E.g inter-district tournament,
Conflict
 Conflict
 A. W. Green: Conflict is the deliberate attempt to oppose, resist, or
coerce the will of another or others.
 When a struggle over scarce resources is not regulated by shared
rules, conflict occurs.
 In Conflict, the person or group thwarts, injures, or destroys the
opponent in order to secure a goal or reward.
 Conflict creates divisiveness rather than solidarity.
 Conflict with outsiders, however, may enhance the solidarity of the
group.
 Most conflicts occur because of land, money, and women
 Types of Conflicts:
Class conflict Exploitation leads to class conflict
 The upper class exploits the lower
 E.g. conflict school of thought
Racial Conflict between class
 Which is based on races
 E.g. USA, UK and south African conflict among Negros and whites
 Religious conflict.
 Religion based or conflict among people based on different belief
 Caste Conflict, International Conflict, political conflict etc.
Accommodation
 Accommodation
 J. M. Baldwin: Acquired changes in the behaviour of individuals which
help them to adjust to their environment.
 Maciver: Accommodation refers particularly to the process in which man
attains a sense of harmony with his environment.
 The parents accommodate their children even at the cost of sacrificing
their own interest
 A newly wedded bride and bridegroom accommodate each other to have a
comfortable and happy life
 Two partners of a firm to accommodate each other for smooth business
 War is followed by peace.
 According to Park and Burgess accommodation have two type
 1. Adjustment to the new natural environment
 Man Adjust himself to new climatic and geographical conditions where he migrates
 2. Adjustment to new social environment
 Individuals migrate to another culture and adopt the cultural condition of that society
Acculturation
Acculturation

 One culture/ group adopting the practice of another culture is called acculturation
 Cultural modification Because of the cross cultural interaction or its member
 the Transmission of cultural traits from one culture to another
 Birthday parties, candle night (Mehendee), the Marque system, many cultural
traits etc.
 The reciprocal borrowing of cultural traits by two diverse group may take place
(Acculturation) with the achievement of synthesis (assimilation).
 Mehndi from Hindi culture, Birthday celebrations from western culture, etc.
 The first step towards assimilation
Assimilation
 Assimilation
 A process in which cultural differences tend to disappear gradually by the
process of time
 More permanent than accommodation.
 Assimilation is concerned with the absorption and incorporation of one culture
by another.
 One of them losing their group identity.
 Gradual and slow process
 Bogardus: Social process whereby attitudes of many persons are united, and thus
develop into a united group
 Mixing of people together influences both the culture and a stage come when a
nation belonging to one culture either adopts or merges with another culture
 E.g. Afghan refugees, Syrian refugees etc.
Acculturation Assimilation
Microsociology vs Macrosociology
 it involves the study of dynamics of individual interactions
 Microsociology focuses on smaller groups, patterns and trends, typically at the
community level and in the context of the everyday lives and experiences of
people.
 Sociology is the scientific and systematic study of human groups, based on
society, culture and relationships.
 Macrosociology, involves the study of society as a whole,
while, microsociology, involves the study of individual human interactions.
 Macrosociology refers to sociological approaches and methods that examine
large-scale patterns and trends within the overall social structure, system, and
population.
 Macrosociology is the analysis of interactions between society and different
cultures and social institutions.
 Groups, social movement
 Societies pattern behavior of a culture
Dramaturgy (E.Goffman, 1959)

 The study of social interaction in term of theatrical performance.

 A sociological perspective commonly used in micro sociological accounts of social
interaction in everyday life.
 The term was first adapted into sociology from the theatre by Ervin Goffman, who
developed most of the related terminology and ideas in his 1959 book, The
Presentation of Self in Everyday Life.
 Goffman describes that each individual’s “performance” as the presentation of
self which is a person efforts to create a specific impression in the mind of
others.
 Dramaturgical analysis is the study of social interactions by imagining ourselves as
the directors of a drama staged in the theater of everyday life.
 A dramaturgical action is a social action that is designed to be seen by others and
to improve one's public self-image
 People present different faces (give off different impressions) on different
stages (in different situations or different roles) with different others.
 To your mother, you may present yourself as the dutiful, obedient
daughter/son, which may not be how you present yourself to a friend.
 Doctor clinic view, an office view in an organization, Reception of private
schools (kindergarten)